Category: Mobile Technology

Introduction

We are beginning to see the revolutionary trend of education and in schools. Technology is now having an impact on teaching and learning. Mobile learning, or m-learning, which is conducted with the use of mobile phones or handheld computers like Personal Digital Assistants or PDAs, is gaining ground. This is interesting to many educators because of the way it is being imparted to the learners: education with no situated classroom, ignoring distance and time. The learners can now have access to education and to a vast amount of knowledge without much time and effort on both educators and learners.

Moreover, educators say that there is still not enough evidence from empirical studies as to the effects of mobile learning as compared to situated learning; meaning there is still much to be proven whether m-learning is that beneficial to education. Results of research and studies may prove otherwise.

It is a fact that things have become easy with the use of technology such as the Internet or the Worldwide Web and other Information Technology features, for example, software that make it easy for imparting education and knowledge to learners.

The term mobile is becoming so popular with the emergence of multiple hand-held technologies. Mobile seems a necessity in commerce and business. Mobile Internet service is popular throughout the world with internet connection.

Anyone can download from a wide selection of music melodies his/her favorite for a fee to get it to ring when the mobile phone receives a call or message (Barnes and Scornavacca, 2006, p. 1). This is very popular in Japan but is emerging to be popular worldwide.

On the other hand, in traditional education, knowledge, and information are transmitted from teacher to learner, and this is done using lectures, books, or handouts. In technology-supported learning, education is imparted using web pages, computer-assisted learning packages, or virtual learning environments.

First, there is eLearning, but now with mobile learning, we are beginning to see major changes. eLearning becomes mobile, which can be attained while a student is anywhere.

Literature Review

Some definitions of terms and phrases have to be initially discussed to make this paper more understandable.

PDA

A PDA is a computer-based handheld device that incorporates personal organizer tools. It also can exchange information easily with a desktop PC. PDAs were originally designed to act as electronic equivalents of diaries and personal organizers, but most can now perform a variety of additional functions. (Trinder, 2005, p. 8)

A PDA is designed to perform a specific activity, such as music, photography, or writing. It can share information with other computers or databases. (Norman 1998: 53, cited in Trinder, 2005, p. 9)

Some features of a PDA: Viewing through the LCD, one can write notes, do word searches, record ones voice, or listen to recordings, browse pictures and video clips. In short, a PDA is a handheld computer; at its early stage it had limited memory in its operating system, but with the introduction of more innovations on nanotechnology, PDAs have higher memory now.

Most PDAs do not have a physical keyboard and instead use some form of handwriting recognition. Handwriting recognition can be broadly divided into those that recognize cursive handwriting, and those notational systems that require each letter to be input in isolation.

Notational systems require the user to learn special strokes to represent each character. The most widely used is the Graffiti system found on PalmOS PDAs. PDAs using Graffiti have a special screen area for entering the strokes, divided into two input areas: one for entering a number, the other for entering letters and punctuation. Graffiti is quite easy to learn, as most of the shapes are very similar to the character they represent. (Trinder 2005, p. 12)

PDA Features for users with visual disabilities

PDAs use the speech recognition technique. Speech recognition converts speech into text allowing information to be spoken into a PDA. Such speech functionality can make PDAs more accessible to users with visual disabilities. There are also special Braille PDAs. (Trinder, 2005, p. 13)

Test-to-speech conversion enables a device to speak the contents of the display screen or file, e.g. a PDA could read an ebook. Many entry-level PDAs can be used as simple voice recorders or Dictaphones but do not have adequate processing power to provide speech recognition. (Trinder, 2005, p. 7)

Other uses of PDAs include:

a.) facilitate quick feedback of reinforcement and deliver interactive demonstrations and quizzes;

b.) provide immersive experiences (for example, foreign languages);

c.) enrich learning outside the classroom (for example, data collection in the field); and

d.) share information (Davis, 2009, p. 298).

Present PDAs can mimic PC-based technologies, the features include:

• Notes and presentations, delivered with a PDA-enhanced or PDA-specific document reader such as Adobe Reader for Palm including Flash animations and sound files, or indeed just a PDA-based word-processor;
• eBooks, such as the Mobipocket library, including textbooks and reference books; and
• Websites and Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) customized for PDA presentation, such as AvantGo, Blackboard-To-Go, or FirstClass (Kukulska-Hulme and John Traxler, 2005, p. 33).

Mobile Learning

Learning is mobile in terms of space, i.e., it happens at the workplace, at home, and places of leisure; it is mobile between different areas of life, i.e., it may relate to work demands, self-improvement, or leisure; and it is mobile with respect to time, i.e., it happens at different times during the day, on working days or on weekends (p. 152, Vavoula & Sharples, 2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009, p. 3).

The meaning of m-learning is broad. As stated in the preceding paragraph, it becomes mobile in different of life  space, time, or attitude.

The concept of mobile learning promises users new and/or advanced user experiences, which are quite often markedly different from those afforded by conventional desktop computer-based learning systems (e-learning) (Ryu and Parsons, 2002, p. 3).

This means being mobile as one learns or studies. It is also revolutionary in the sense that learning is not the ordinary teacher-student interaction in a traditional classroom, but the students are away doing their other jobs or chores at home, or whatever, but still learning through a connection with the Internet.

Mobile learning uses mobile phones, smartphones, palmtops and handheld computers (PDAs), tablet PCs, laptop computers, and personal media players.

A mobile learning educational process can be considered as any learning and teaching activity that is possible through mobile tools, or in settings where mobile equipment is available (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

It is considered as the future of learning or as an integral part of any other form of educational process in the future (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 90).

In the educational setting, there are lots of studies and research on m-learning purposely to know which learning models can help obtain better learning processes when communication is mediated by mobile devices, and how student mobility affects the learning process.

Vavoula and Sharples (2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009) state that Mobile learning should be viewed in particular settings, and integrated into our lives, which implicitly represents a seamless flow of learning experiences (p. 3).

Perceived benefits or advantages of Mobile Learning

• Using laptops, students or those involved in continuing education can access the vast knowledge and information through databases and web libraries from a given website;
• Students can also conduct online searches using the resources of the library or a scholarly Web site;
• Work through problems using spreadsheet software.
• Others can take online quizzes.
• Conduct experiments in virtual science labs.
• View online images and video clips.

An example of mobile learning is when train commuters, using third-generation (3G) mobile handsets, can access a multimedia-based English language learning tool supported by location software services.

This attractive pilot service, done by Koreans involved in lifelong learning, holds out the promise of unlimited access to educational resources beyond the traditional institutional boundaries, amalgamating currently separated learning activities into one with an integrated technology platform (Ryu and Parsons, 2008, p. 2).

eLearning

This is any form of electronically delivered learning material with an emphasis on Internet-based technologies (Brown, 2005, cited in Metcalf and De Marco, 2006, p. 2).

The difference between eLearning and mobile learning is that eLearning may or may not be mobile, but both use the tools of the Web and Information Technology in the conduct of learning and education.

Mobile learning, through the use of mobile technology, can allow access to learning materials and information from anywhere and at any time. Learners will not have to wait for a certain time to learn or go to a certain place to learn. With mobile learning, learners will be empowered since they can learn whenever and wherever they want (Ally, 2009, p. 1).

Mobile learning is concerned with learner mobility, in the sense that learners should be able to engage in educational activities without the constraints of having to do so in a tightly delimited physical location. However, the concept of mobile education or mobile learning is still emerging and still unclear. How it is eventually conceptualized will determine perceptions and expectations, and will determine its evolution and future.

The case for mobile learning is driven by the imperative that it must deliver local efficiency gains and cost savings in short timescales. There is a powerful business case for looking at how mobile technologies can improve both business processes and corporate training (Pasanen 2003 cite in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40) if examined and developed in an integrated fashion.

The use of technology, especially networked computers used by distance learning students, has provided increasing support and richness for the discursive element of learning. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34)

The strategies to support and enhance online educational conferences and meetings are now relatively stable and established (Salmon 2000, cited in Kukulska Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34 ) and depend crucially on the idea of an e-moderator.

The idea of e-moderating naturally leads us to examine the idea of m-moderating, i.e. the idea of moderating for mobile learning. The goals and objectives are comparable but the different technologies may transform the nature of the interactions.

Some mobile technologies, mobile phones, and most PDAs support peer-to-peer communications that are analogous to e-mail and not necessarily visible to any moderator. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34-35).

Studies on m-Learning

One example study of mobile learning was a three-year European project using smartphones to desktop PCs with an integrated and specially developed software system. It began in October 2001 and finished in September 2004 and is said to be successful, the impact of the project on its target group was positive and rewarding. (Attewell and Savill-Smith, 2004, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 35-36).

The project was funded by the European Commission under the Education Area of the Information Society Technologies (IST) Programme and was led by the UKs Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA).

The project addressed three social/educational issues relating to many young adults aged 16-24 in the EU, which are:

• Poor literacy/numeracy
• Non-participation in conventional education
• Lack of access creating ICT haves/have-nots

The study proved beneficial in that it further pointed to the importance of mobile learning, especially to the chosen demographic.

There are also currently various software applications that have specific academic or pedagogic uses. Several of the bibliographic database market leaders (for example EndNote and Biblioscape) have versions for handheld computers or PDAs, and the same is true for the graphical tools that support mind-mapping or cognitive mapping. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

At the Pennsylvania State University at Delaware County Geoscience students now use PalmOne PDAs to enter field data straight into a spreadsheet for analysis rather than using paper. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

This is one of the important developments of technology use in m-learning and e-learning. The virtual paper replaces the real paper. But as to how this changes education and the concept of people to technology has still to be seen. More and more empirical studies have to be conducted.

In specific forms of guidance, for example, careers guidance, mobile technologies can take their place in the blend of learning technologies used to deliver content and support discussion on careers topics.

Some work for careers guidance with the aid of m-learning such as:

• Group career education assignments as fieldwork, supported by e-mail or voice phone.
• Individual assignments investigate specific occupations, using videophone or telephone to interview occupational experts.
• Creating a vocational portfolio using picture messaging and text messaging.
• Job search skills practice using videoconferencing. (Vuorinen and Sampson 2003, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

On the other hand, universities and colleges now accredit students experiential and professional experience, and work-based learning is a growing component of many courses (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

Research on m-Learning

One major high-technology corporate using mobile devices to support training is CISCO. The company initially introduced PDAs widely for training but this has changed over time. This was because the company felt that several issues stood in the way of wider deployment of PDAs: buying PDAs was an additional cost when employees already had laptops.

PDAs are now seen as being good for knowledge management, i.e. as repositories of reference materials such as glossaries, maps, or diagrams and for quick access. They are no longer considered good for what is seen as learning. Some materials are still provided for optional download to individuals PDAs. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40)

The future of PDAs in the application of education is bright and promising. They are an aid/tool to enhance learning for all kinds of individuals, especially the disabled.

In their article Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings, Andronico et al (2004) commented on their study which aimed to investigate the use of mobile computing technologies to support the learning process in a University context (p. 90).

The study had three main areas, namely: first was concerned with finding effective models for mobile learning; the second was on the evaluation of learning processes in mobile learning environments; and the third focused on the technological aspects of mobile learning, and their integration with e-Learning systems, and more generally, with the information systems of the academic institutions (Andronico et al, p. 90).

The researchers took into consideration that the m-learning term is quite new or it appeared for the first time, hence they had to investigate the cognitive and pedagogical aspects of it. They investigated how useful mobile computing devices could be for reading or for workplace activities based on studying activity theory; directions to application designers for the areas where the mobile devices should be most useful; the theories analyzed by other researchers on adult informal learning. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

The objectives of the study were:

• adoption of a well-tested e-learning platform adapted to the usage of mobile devices
• Implementation of mobile computing services in a University setting
• Study of learning models linked to mobile technologies
• Study of learning evaluation models based in an m-learning environment.

The research also investigated the context of lifelong learning. The stress was on communication and human-centered systems design. Similar in some concepts to HandLeR is the project undertaken at the Tampere University of Technology where PDAs are used for mathematical education of children (Andronico, 2004, p. 93).

Lifelong learning is continuing education, a process of individual learning and development that is ongoing from across ones lifespan. It is broad and encompasses such areas as education policy, learning theory, human resource management, information technology, etc. Since most of the learners of lifelong education are mobile, many of them are employed who need further knowledge and training in their job.

In the research, the electronic device was used to measure the knowledge level of the students and find and adapt the learners speed in learning.

The study showed positive results on learning. It also found out that introducing new forms of teaching such as using a standard tool for drawing on PDA, make students spend more time working on that subject, compared to the other subjects; the researchers thought that PDAs and other mobile devices should be seen more like an extension rather than replace existing learning tools; and that not all kinds of learning content and/or learning activities are appropriate for mobile devices. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91)

Accessibility and m-Learning

The importance of mobile learning to accessibility cannot be underestimated. It is a significant factor in the provision of learning and training and is the key to strategies to support inclusion, participation, and diversity within education and training (Phipps et al. 2002, cited in Rainger, 2005, p. 57). This factor is significant in helping disabled people through inclusive product design, and as part of social responsibility.

Conclusion

There are positive results in the application of technology in education, particularly mobile education.

PDAs and m-learning have a bright future in e-learning. It is a must for students involved in m-learning to have PDAs, and the features of PDAs have enabled easy access to the Internet. The Internet on one hand is a necessity of m-learning. PDAs cannot be so useful without the Web. In other words, what goes together must be provided: the Internet, Information Technology, or the software necessary for imparting education and learning, and the PDAs should go together. They are a students need in the present high-tech world.

The new application in education can be beneficial to many sectors, particularly to anyone involved in the so-called continuing education, and to the sector requiring accessibility, or the disabled.

This revolutionary trend in education should be encouraged. M-learning, which is conducted with the use of handheld computers such as PDAs can be beneficial to both learners and educators, and also to commerce. The way education and learning are imparted allows speed and accessibility to anyone. It ignores distance and time.

References

1. Ally, M., 2009, ed. Mobile Learning. Canada: Athabasca University Press. ISBN 1897425430, 9781897425435
2. Andronico, A., Carbonaro, A., Colazzo, L., and Molinari, A., Ronchetti, M., and Trifonova, A., 2004. Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings. In Crestani, F., Dunlop, M., and Mizzaro, S. Eds. Mobile and Ubiquitous Information Access. Berlin Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-21003-2, p. 90-91
3. Barnes, S. and Scornavacca, E., 2006. Unwired Business: Cases in Mobile Business. United Kingdom: IRM Press.
4. Davis, B. G., 2009. Tools for Teaching, Second Ed. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Kukulsca-Hulme, A., 2005. Introduction. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.
6. Metcalf II, D. and De Marco, J., 2006. mLearning: Mobile Learning and Performance in the Palm of Your Hand. Amherst, MA: HRD Press, Inc.
7. Rainger, P., 2005. Accessibility and Mobile Learning. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge. p. 57
8. Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.
9. Ryu, H. and Parsons, D., 2008. Innovative Mobile Learning: Techniques and Technologies. United Kingdom: Information Science Reference, ISBN 1605660620, 9781605660622
10. Traxler, J., 2009. Current State of Mobile Learning. In Ally, M., 2009, ed. Mobile Learning. Canada: Athabasca University Press. ISBN 1897425430, 9781897425435, p.
11. Trinder, J., 2005. Mobile Technologies and Systems. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge. p. 7
12. Trinder, J., Magill, J., and Roy, S., 2005. Expect the Unexpected: Practicalities and Problems of a PDA Project. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.

Introduction

We are beginning to see the revolutionary trend of education and in schools. Technology is now having an impact on teaching and learning. Mobile learning, or m-learning, which is conducted with the use of mobile phones or handheld computers like Personal Digital Assistants or PDAs, is gaining ground. This is interesting to many educators because of the way it is being imparted to the learners: education with no situated classroom, ignoring distance and time. The learners can now have access to education and to a vast amount of knowledge without much time and effort on both educators and learners.

Moreover, educators say that there is still not enough evidence from empirical studies as to the effects of mobile learning as compared to situated learning; meaning there is still much to be proven whether m-learning is that beneficial to education. Results of research and studies may prove otherwise.

It is a fact that things have become easy with the use of technology such as the Internet or the Worldwide Web and other Information Technology features, for example, software that make it easy for imparting education and knowledge to learners.

The term mobile is becoming so popular with the emergence of multiple hand-held technologies. Mobile seems a necessity in commerce and business. Mobile Internet service is popular throughout the world with internet connection.

Anyone can download from a wide selection of music melodies his/her favorite for a fee to get it to ring when the mobile phone receives a call or message (Barnes and Scornavacca, 2006, p. 1). This is very popular in Japan but is emerging to be popular worldwide.

On the other hand, in traditional education, knowledge, and information are transmitted from teacher to learner, and this is done using lectures, books, or handouts. In technology-supported learning, education is imparted using web pages, computer-assisted learning packages, or virtual learning environments.

First, there is eLearning, but now with mobile learning, we are beginning to see major changes. eLearning becomes mobile, which can be attained while a student is anywhere.

Literature Review

Some definitions of terms and phrases have to be initially discussed to make this paper more understandable.

PDA

A PDA is a computer-based handheld device that incorporates personal organizer tools. It also can exchange information easily with a desktop PC. PDAs were originally designed to act as electronic equivalents of diaries and personal organizers, but most can now perform a variety of additional functions. (Trinder, 2005, p. 8)

A PDA is designed to perform a specific activity, such as music, photography, or writing. It can share information with other computers or databases. (Norman 1998: 53, cited in Trinder, 2005, p. 9)

Some features of a PDA: Viewing through the LCD, one can write notes, do word searches, record ones voice, or listen to recordings, browse pictures and video clips. In short, a PDA is a handheld computer; at its early stage it had limited memory in its operating system, but with the introduction of more innovations on nanotechnology, PDAs have higher memory now.

Most PDAs do not have a physical keyboard and instead use some form of handwriting recognition. Handwriting recognition can be broadly divided into those that recognize cursive handwriting, and those notational systems that require each letter to be input in isolation.

Notational systems require the user to learn special strokes to represent each character. The most widely used is the Graffiti system found on PalmOS PDAs. PDAs using Graffiti have a special screen area for entering the strokes, divided into two input areas: one for entering a number, the other for entering letters and punctuation. Graffiti is quite easy to learn, as most of the shapes are very similar to the character they represent. (Trinder 2005, p. 12)

PDA Features for users with visual disabilities

PDAs use the speech recognition technique. Speech recognition converts speech into text allowing information to be spoken into a PDA. Such speech functionality can make PDAs more accessible to users with visual disabilities. There are also special Braille PDAs. (Trinder, 2005, p. 13)

Test-to-speech conversion enables a device to speak the contents of the display screen or file, e.g. a PDA could read an ebook. Many entry-level PDAs can be used as simple voice recorders or Dictaphones but do not have adequate processing power to provide speech recognition. (Trinder, 2005, p. 7)

Other uses of PDAs include:

a.) facilitate quick feedback of reinforcement and deliver interactive demonstrations and quizzes;

b.) provide immersive experiences (for example, foreign languages);

c.) enrich learning outside the classroom (for example, data collection in the field); and

d.) share information (Davis, 2009, p. 298).

Present PDAs can mimic PC-based technologies, the features include:

• Notes and presentations, delivered with a PDA-enhanced or PDA-specific document reader such as Adobe Reader for Palm including Flash animations and sound files, or indeed just a PDA-based word-processor;
• eBooks, such as the Mobipocket library, including textbooks and reference books; and
• Websites and Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) customized for PDA presentation, such as AvantGo, Blackboard-To-Go, or FirstClass (Kukulska-Hulme and John Traxler, 2005, p. 33).

Mobile Learning

Learning is mobile in terms of space, i.e., it happens at the workplace, at home, and places of leisure; it is mobile between different areas of life, i.e., it may relate to work demands, self-improvement, or leisure; and it is mobile with respect to time, i.e., it happens at different times during the day, on working days or on weekends (p. 152, Vavoula & Sharples, 2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009, p. 3).

The meaning of m-learning is broad. As stated in the preceding paragraph, it becomes mobile in different of life  space, time, or attitude.

The concept of mobile learning promises users new and/or advanced user experiences, which are quite often markedly different from those afforded by conventional desktop computer-based learning systems (e-learning) (Ryu and Parsons, 2002, p. 3).

This means being mobile as one learns or studies. It is also revolutionary in the sense that learning is not the ordinary teacher-student interaction in a traditional classroom, but the students are away doing their other jobs or chores at home, or whatever, but still learning through a connection with the Internet.

Mobile learning uses mobile phones, smartphones, palmtops and handheld computers (PDAs), tablet PCs, laptop computers, and personal media players.

A mobile learning educational process can be considered as any learning and teaching activity that is possible through mobile tools, or in settings where mobile equipment is available (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

It is considered as the future of learning or as an integral part of any other form of educational process in the future (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 90).

In the educational setting, there are lots of studies and research on m-learning purposely to know which learning models can help obtain better learning processes when communication is mediated by mobile devices, and how student mobility affects the learning process.

Vavoula and Sharples (2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009) state that Mobile learning should be viewed in particular settings, and integrated into our lives, which implicitly represents a seamless flow of learning experiences (p. 3).

Perceived benefits or advantages of Mobile Learning

• Using laptops, students or those involved in continuing education can access the vast knowledge and information through databases and web libraries from a given website;
• Students can also conduct online searches using the resources of the library or a scholarly Web site;
• Work through problems using spreadsheet software.
• Others can take online quizzes.
• Conduct experiments in virtual science labs.
• View online images and video clips.

An example of mobile learning is when train commuters, using third-generation (3G) mobile handsets, can access a multimedia-based English language learning tool supported by location software services.

This attractive pilot service, done by Koreans involved in lifelong learning, holds out the promise of unlimited access to educational resources beyond the traditional institutional boundaries, amalgamating currently separated learning activities into one with an integrated technology platform (Ryu and Parsons, 2008, p. 2).

eLearning

This is any form of electronically delivered learning material with an emphasis on Internet-based technologies (Brown, 2005, cited in Metcalf and De Marco, 2006, p. 2).

The difference between eLearning and mobile learning is that eLearning may or may not be mobile, but both use the tools of the Web and Information Technology in the conduct of learning and education.

Mobile learning, through the use of mobile technology, can allow access to learning materials and information from anywhere and at any time. Learners will not have to wait for a certain time to learn or go to a certain place to learn. With mobile learning, learners will be empowered since they can learn whenever and wherever they want (Ally, 2009, p. 1).

Mobile learning is concerned with learner mobility, in the sense that learners should be able to engage in educational activities without the constraints of having to do so in a tightly delimited physical location. However, the concept of mobile education or mobile learning is still emerging and still unclear. How it is eventually conceptualized will determine perceptions and expectations, and will determine its evolution and future.

The case for mobile learning is driven by the imperative that it must deliver local efficiency gains and cost savings in short timescales. There is a powerful business case for looking at how mobile technologies can improve both business processes and corporate training (Pasanen 2003 cite in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40) if examined and developed in an integrated fashion.

The use of technology, especially networked computers used by distance learning students, has provided increasing support and richness for the discursive element of learning. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34)

The strategies to support and enhance online educational conferences and meetings are now relatively stable and established (Salmon 2000, cited in Kukulska Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34 ) and depend crucially on the idea of an e-moderator.

The idea of e-moderating naturally leads us to examine the idea of m-moderating, i.e. the idea of moderating for mobile learning. The goals and objectives are comparable but the different technologies may transform the nature of the interactions.

Some mobile technologies, mobile phones, and most PDAs support peer-to-peer communications that are analogous to e-mail and not necessarily visible to any moderator. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34-35).

Studies on m-Learning

One example study of mobile learning was a three-year European project using smartphones to desktop PCs with an integrated and specially developed software system. It began in October 2001 and finished in September 2004 and is said to be successful, the impact of the project on its target group was positive and rewarding. (Attewell and Savill-Smith, 2004, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 35-36).

The project was funded by the European Commission under the Education Area of the Information Society Technologies (IST) Programme and was led by the UKs Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA).

The project addressed three social/educational issues relating to many young adults aged 16-24 in the EU, which are:

• Poor literacy/numeracy
• Non-participation in conventional education
• Lack of access creating ICT haves/have-nots

The study proved beneficial in that it further pointed to the importance of mobile learning, especially to the chosen demographic.

There are also currently various software applications that have specific academic or pedagogic uses. Several of the bibliographic database market leaders (for example EndNote and Biblioscape) have versions for handheld computers or PDAs, and the same is true for the graphical tools that support mind-mapping or cognitive mapping. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

At the Pennsylvania State University at Delaware County Geoscience students now use PalmOne PDAs to enter field data straight into a spreadsheet for analysis rather than using paper. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

This is one of the important developments of technology use in m-learning and e-learning. The virtual paper replaces the real paper. But as to how this changes education and the concept of people to technology has still to be seen. More and more empirical studies have to be conducted.

In specific forms of guidance, for example, careers guidance, mobile technologies can take their place in the blend of learning technologies used to deliver content and support discussion on careers topics.

Some work for careers guidance with the aid of m-learning such as:

• Group career education assignments as fieldwork, supported by e-mail or voice phone.
• Individual assignments investigate specific occupations, using videophone or telephone to interview occupational experts.
• Creating a vocational portfolio using picture messaging and text messaging.
• Job search skills practice using videoconferencing. (Vuorinen and Sampson 2003, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

On the other hand, universities and colleges now accredit students experiential and professional experience, and work-based learning is a growing component of many courses (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

Research on m-Learning

One major high-technology corporate using mobile devices to support training is CISCO. The company initially introduced PDAs widely for training but this has changed over time. This was because the company felt that several issues stood in the way of wider deployment of PDAs: buying PDAs was an additional cost when employees already had laptops.

PDAs are now seen as being good for knowledge management, i.e. as repositories of reference materials such as glossaries, maps, or diagrams and for quick access. They are no longer considered good for what is seen as learning. Some materials are still provided for optional download to individuals PDAs. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40)

The future of PDAs in the application of education is bright and promising. They are an aid/tool to enhance learning for all kinds of individuals, especially the disabled.

In their article Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings, Andronico et al (2004) commented on their study which aimed to investigate the use of mobile computing technologies to support the learning process in a University context (p. 90).

The study had three main areas, namely: first was concerned with finding effective models for mobile learning; the second was on the evaluation of learning processes in mobile learning environments; and the third focused on the technological aspects of mobile learning, and their integration with e-Learning systems, and more generally, with the information systems of the academic institutions (Andronico et al, p. 90).

The researchers took into consideration that the m-learning term is quite new or it appeared for the first time, hence they had to investigate the cognitive and pedagogical aspects of it. They investigated how useful mobile computing devices could be for reading or for workplace activities based on studying activity theory; directions to application designers for the areas where the mobile devices should be most useful; the theories analyzed by other researchers on adult informal learning. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

The objectives of the study were:

• adoption of a well-tested e-learning platform adapted to the usage of mobile devices
• Implementation of mobile computing services in a University setting
• Study of learning models linked to mobile technologies
• Study of learning evaluation models based in an m-learning environment.

The research also investigated the context of lifelong learning. The stress was on communication and human-centered systems design. Similar in some concepts to HandLeR is the project undertaken at the Tampere University of Technology where PDAs are used for mathematical education of children (Andronico, 2004, p. 93).

Lifelong learning is continuing education, a process of individual learning and development that is ongoing from across ones lifespan. It is broad and encompasses such areas as education policy, learning theory, human resource management, information technology, etc. Since most of the learners of lifelong education are mobile, many of them are employed who need further knowledge and training in their job.

In the research, the electronic device was used to measure the knowledge level of the students and find and adapt the learners speed in learning.

The study showed positive results on learning. It also found out that introducing new forms of teaching such as using a standard tool for drawing on PDA, make students spend more time working on that subject, compared to the other subjects; the researchers thought that PDAs and other mobile devices should be seen more like an extension rather than replace existing learning tools; and that not all kinds of learning content and/or learning activities are appropriate for mobile devices. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91)

Accessibility and m-Learning

The importance of mobile learning to accessibility cannot be underestimated. It is a significant factor in the provision of learning and training and is the key to strategies to support inclusion, participation, and diversity within education and training (Phipps et al. 2002, cited in Rainger, 2005, p. 57). This factor is significant in helping disabled people through inclusive product design, and as part of social responsibility.

Conclusion

There are positive results in the application of technology in education, particularly mobile education.

PDAs and m-learning have a bright future in e-learning. It is a must for students involved in m-learning to have PDAs, and the features of PDAs have enabled easy access to the Internet. The Internet on one hand is a necessity of m-learning. PDAs cannot be so useful without the Web. In other words, what goes together must be provided: the Internet, Information Technology, or the software necessary for imparting education and learning, and the PDAs should go together. They are a students need in the present high-tech world.

The new application in education can be beneficial to many sectors, particularly to anyone involved in the so-called continuing education, and to the sector requiring accessibility, or the disabled.

This revolutionary trend in education should be encouraged. M-learning, which is conducted with the use of handheld computers such as PDAs can be beneficial to both learners and educators, and also to commerce. The way education and learning are imparted allows speed and accessibility to anyone. It ignores distance and time.

References

1. Ally, M., 2009, ed. Mobile Learning. Canada: Athabasca University Press. ISBN 1897425430, 9781897425435
2. Andronico, A., Carbonaro, A., Colazzo, L., and Molinari, A., Ronchetti, M., and Trifonova, A., 2004. Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings. In Crestani, F., Dunlop, M., and Mizzaro, S. Eds. Mobile and Ubiquitous Information Access. Berlin Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-21003-2, p. 90-91
3. Barnes, S. and Scornavacca, E., 2006. Unwired Business: Cases in Mobile Business. United Kingdom: IRM Press.
4. Davis, B. G., 2009. Tools for Teaching, Second Ed. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Kukulsca-Hulme, A., 2005. Introduction. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.
6. Metcalf II, D. and De Marco, J., 2006. mLearning: Mobile Learning and Performance in the Palm of Your Hand. Amherst, MA: HRD Press, Inc.
7. Rainger, P., 2005. Accessibility and Mobile Learning. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge. p. 57
8. Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.
9. Ryu, H. and Parsons, D., 2008. Innovative Mobile Learning: Techniques and Technologies. United Kingdom: Information Science Reference, ISBN 1605660620, 9781605660622
10. Traxler, J., 2009. Current State of Mobile Learning. In Ally, M., 2009, ed. Mobile Learning. Canada: Athabasca University Press. ISBN 1897425430, 9781897425435, p.
11. Trinder, J., 2005. Mobile Technologies and Systems. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge. p. 7
12. Trinder, J., Magill, J., and Roy, S., 2005. Expect the Unexpected: Practicalities and Problems of a PDA Project. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.

Fifth-generation mobile networks, also commonly referred to as 5G, are the next generation of telecommunication standards intended for data transfer in cellular networks. The technology is aimed at providing higher transfer capacity than currently used 3G and LTE networks and allowing simultaneous use by multiple devices without a decline in performance. The following paper analyzes the proposed candidates for a 5G network system to identify its chief differences from existing technology and determine areas of potential improvement.

Hardware and Software

It is important to understand that as of now, the term 5G does not refer to a single technological solution. Essentially, it encompasses a generation of technology – a concept that allows for a significant improvement in key parameters through a fundamental change of approach. Thus, 5G can be viewed as an umbrella term for several directions in research of mobile networks.

Currently, several companies have come forward with pilot projects that can be viewed as candidates for a 5G standard. However, neither of these has been approved for industrial adoption because they are in the early stage of development. In the absence of a single standard, the 5G is currently viewed as a technological solution that would meet several loosely defined criteria. The said criteria include data rates (100 Mbps for metropolitan areas and at least 12 Mbps per user in areas with tens of thousands of connections), at least 1 Gbps connection for multiple corporate users, the ability to sustain hundreds of thousands of simultaneous wireless connections, a significantly improved spectral efficiency compared to LTE networks, increased coverage, enhanced signaling efficiency, and a major decrease of latency compared to the fourth generation of technology (Vu, Liu, Debbah, Latva-aho, & Hong, 2017). Thus, to specify the probable parameters of the system, it would be reasonable to outline several features that will likely be used as a basis for the final product.

The most promising direction in a new generation of mobile networking is the use of millimeter-wave band transmission, which has the potential to fulfill some of the criteria specified above. Mobile communication utilizes radio waves to transmit data. The wavelength of a signal is determined by its frequency, with higher frequencies corresponding to shorter waves. The millimeter-wave transmission uses waves of frequencies between 30 and 300 GHz, in which the length of waves is measured in millimeters. According to the FCC (2016), several spectrum ranges have been allocated for the 5G technology: 28 GHz, 37 GHz, and 39 GHz bands for licensed use, 64-71 GHz band for unlicensed use, and 37-37.6 GHz band for shared access.

It should be noted that the allocated frequencies are much broader than the ranges allocated for previous generations, which ensures consistency of block sizes at 200 MHz and significantly increases total availability for flexible use (3.85 GHz range for licensed spectrum and a combined 14 GHz band for unlicensed spectrum, respectively). The chief advantage of millimeter-wave technology is the increase in data density. In comparison, the latest iteration of mobile networks, commonly referred to as 4G, uses the range of 700 MHz to 2.1 GHz, allowing for relatively high volumes of data encoded in a single transmission.

At the same time, the existing commercial iterations of millimeter wave technology operate at frequencies of up to 770,000 GHz, providing greater speed and higher bandwidth capacity. Also, the minimal size of antennas required for sending and receiving millimeter-wave signals are significantly smaller than those used for networks of previous generations. For hardware manufacturers, this advantage means that several antennas can be installed in a single device without compromising its ergonomics and aesthetic appeal. Such an approach would allow for the reception of signals at different wavebands, providing higher transmission speeds, more reliable connection, and higher connection capacity for multiple users (Roh et al., 2014).

At this point, it should be mentioned that millimeter-wave technology has several disadvantages. First, higher frequencies are more difficult to propagate at high distances, which means that the denser distribution of transmitters is required. Second, short waves suffer from greater distortion resulting from environmental interference, which is observable even during the interaction with relatively small objects such as raindrops (Mohapatra, Swain, Pati, & Pradhan, 2014). While both issues can be solved by the installation of a larger number of smaller antenna towers, it is currently unclear whether this approach would provide a cost-effective solution and allow utilizing the benefits of the technology.

Operation Principles

As was mentioned above, no single currently proposed technology exists that could be referred to as 5G. However, several attempts have been made by major players in the field, including Intel, Verizon, Qualcomm, and AT&T to develop possible solutions. Thus, it would be reasonable to analyze one of the candidates to determine the principles of 5G operation. In this regard, a cloud-native 5G architecture proposed by Huawei Technologies can be considered a suitable option due to its encompassing nature. The architecture in question is expected to consist of multiple cloud engines that would coordinate the use of services with different standards and ensure on-demand network deployment via multi-connectivity (Huawei Technologies, 2016). The necessary degree of flexibility is achieved by the introduction of three frequency layers.

The main layer used to ensure coverage and high capacity are placed in the range of 2 to 6 GHz, which is expected to provide an effective combination of coverage and capacity and is likely to be implemented as a band for commercial 5G use (Huawei Technologies, 2016). The second layer includes the frequencies below 2 GHz and provides wider coverage suitable for indoor use. Finally, the third level, allocated above 6 GHz, is reserved for scenarios where high data density is necessary and data transmission rates are more important. The diversification of requirements in different industries and areas of implementation is addressed by the creation of several network topologies, with each segment using its unique combination of function sets through network function virtualization. The network function sets also referred to as network slices, are designed and implemented using a unified network infrastructure, which greatly reduces subsequent implementation costs.

The network slices are arranged as a set of distinct structures, which provides opportunities to customize each service by industry requirements. Such differentiation also allows for the implementation of new technologies. For instance, the ultra-reliable and low-latency communication (uRLLC) category has strict latency requirements, which makes it suitable for application in remote management, including assisted driving, as well as vehicles controlled by artificial intelligence. Massive machine-type communications, on the other hand, requires a relatively small amount of network interaction, which can be achieved through a lower frequency range. Another fundamental shift proposed by Huawei is multi-connectivity, which is expected to reduce latency and increase connection speed.

As was already mentioned, a single frequency band does not allow for a connection that is both rapid and reliable, requiring the introduction of heterogeneous networks described above. Such an approach enables providing the end-users with a seamless experience that combines high speed with reliability and mobility of high and low-frequency ranges, respectively. The effect is achieved by establishing multiple concurrent connections to different layers of the network. The cloud radio access network (RAN) architecture relies on the integration of non-real-time function modules of different modes into a mobile cloud engine, creating an anchor for connection (Huawei Technologies, 2016). In comparison to the traditional approach, where several layers are aggregated into a non-real-time module and sent to access points, the new RAN is estimated to improve latency by approximately 10 milliseconds and reduces transmission investment by 15% (Huawei Technologies, 2016).

Areas of Implementation

The main areas of implementation of the new technology are the consumer and business segments, where it enables significant improvements in the quality of services. While it does not offer revolutionary changes for end-user experience, 5G may play an important role in the field of education due to the greater operability of multimedia information sources, improved opportunities for independent research, and greater interactivity of educational services. It is also important to mention that on a global scale, 5G technology has the potential to increase the accessibility of information, thus improving the learning capacity of a population in developed countries. Finally, it is necessary to acknowledge the effect of long-term cost reduction on the adoption of the technology on a global scale, which is expected to promote its use in the non-profit sector.

Conclusion

Currently, 5G technology is in the early stage of development. Nevertheless, the existing candidates show tremendous potential, both in terms of improving existing communication characteristics and implementation in new areas. It is thus possible to conclude that its eventual adoption will assist the development of new technologies, including AI-operated vehicles and the Internet of Things, and provide significant improvements in traditional areas, including education.

References

FCC. (2016). Fact sheet: Spectrum frontiers proposal to identify, open up vast amounts of new high-band spectrum for next generation (5G) wireless broadband. Web.

Huawei Technologies. (2016). 5G network architecture A high-level perspective. Web.

Mohapatra, S. K., Swain, B. R., Pati, N., & Pradhan, A. (2014). Road towards millimeter wave communication for 5G network: A technological overview. Transactions on Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence, 2(3), 48-60.

Roh, W., Seol, J. Y., Park, J., Lee, B., Lee, J., Kim, Y.,… Aryanfar, F. (2014). Millimeter-wave beamforming as an enabling technology for 5G cellular communications: Theoretical feasibility and prototype results. IEEE Communications Magazine, 52(2), 106-113.

Vu, T. K., Liu, C. F., Debbah, M., Latva-aho, M., & Hong, C. S. (2017). Ultra-reliable and low latency communication in mmWave-enabled massive MIMO networks. IEEE Communications Letters, 21(9), 2041-2044.

Mobile learning, or mLearning, denotes a novel, personalized and flexible educational approach where students can use their Internet-enabled mobile hand-held devices not only to review course content but also to communicate with their peers and instructors at any time or place without the usual limitations of fixed-location computer technology (Crow, Santos, LeBrown, McFadden, & Osborne, 2010). The integration of mobile technologies into the curriculum provides enhanced flexibility to learners to suit their lifestyles in accessing learning content and information resources (Haag, 2011), hence transforming how teaching is done in traditional classrooms.

The mLearning application proposed uses computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools (e.g., wikis, forums and text messaging) not only to facilitate collaborative problem-solving in secondary school science instruction, but also to avail the opportunity for interaction among students who employ the language of science in learning environments (Dewitt, Alias, & Siraj, 2014). The prototype of this application will be based on Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction (problem-solving and collaboration) to achieve the objectives of learning. In CMC tools, the interactions on wikis will facilitate the transformation of knowledge, while online discussion forums will encourage higher level interactions for development of knowledge and acquisition of critical thinking skills (DeWitt et al., 2014). For instructions in my project, the prototype will use the text messaging facility to facilitate ubiquitous learning and enhance collaboration through the synchronous interactions.

It is evident that the use of mLearning will increase in the future due to the flexibility and personalization offered by mobile devices, along with their ubiquitous nature and ease of use. Additionally, it is believed that emerging technologies in handheld devices will continue to leverage more opportunities for students and the learning process (Crow et al., 2010). MLearning will also be instrumental in placing learning in a specific context and contributing to shared learning resources (Haag, 2011). However, caution needs to be taken to avoid entrenched digital divides, digital destructions, and threats and exposing learners to poor quality online content.

References

Crow, R., Santos, I.M., LeBrown, J., McFadden, A.T., & Osborne, C.F. (2010). Switching gears: Moving from e-Learning to m-Learning. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 268-278.

DeWitt, D., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (2014). The design and development of a collaborative mLearning prototype for Malaysian secondary school science. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(4), 461-480.

Haag, J. (2011). From eLearning to mLearning: The effectiveness of mobile course delivery. Web.

Introduction

We are beginning to see the revolutionary trend of education and in schools. Technology is now having an impact on teaching and learning. Mobile learning, or m-learning, which is conducted with the use of mobile phones or handheld computers like Personal Digital Assistants or PDAs, is gaining ground. This is interesting to many educators because of the way it is being imparted to the learners: education with no situated classroom, ignoring distance and time. The learners can now have access to education and to a vast amount of knowledge without much time and effort on both educators and learners.

Moreover, educators say that there is still not enough evidence from empirical studies as to the effects of mobile learning as compared to situated learning; meaning there is still much to be proven whether m-learning is that beneficial to education. Results of research and studies may prove otherwise.

It is a fact that things have become easy with the use of technology such as the Internet or the Worldwide Web and other Information Technology features, for example, software that make it easy for imparting education and knowledge to learners.

The term ‘mobile’ is becoming so popular with the emergence of multiple hand-held technologies. Mobile seems a necessity in commerce and business. Mobile Internet service is popular throughout the world with internet connection.

Anyone can download from a wide selection of music melodies his/her favorite for a fee to get it to ring when the mobile phone receives a call or message” (Barnes and Scornavacca, 2006, p. 1). This is very popular in Japan but is emerging to be popular worldwide.

On the other hand, in traditional education, knowledge, and information are transmitted from teacher to learner, and this is done using lectures, books, or handouts. In technology-supported learning, education is imparted using web pages, computer-assisted learning packages, or virtual learning environments.

First, there is eLearning, but now with mobile learning, we are beginning to see major changes. eLearning becomes mobile, which can be attained while a student is anywhere.

Literature Review

Some definitions of terms and phrases have to be initially discussed to make this paper more understandable.

PDA

A PDA is a computer-based handheld device that incorporates personal organizer tools. It also can exchange information easily with a desktop PC. PDAs were originally designed to act as electronic equivalents of diaries and personal organizers, but most can now perform a variety of additional functions. (Trinder, 2005, p. 8)

A PDA is designed to perform a specific activity, such as music, photography, or writing. It can share information with other computers or databases. (Norman 1998: 53, cited in Trinder, 2005, p. 9)

Some features of a PDA: Viewing through the LCD, one can write notes, do word searches, record one’s voice, or listen to recordings, browse pictures and video clips. In short, a PDA is a handheld computer; at its early stage it had limited memory in its operating system, but with the introduction of more innovations on nanotechnology, PDAs have higher memory now.

Most PDAs do not have a physical keyboard and instead use some form of handwriting recognition. Handwriting recognition can be broadly divided into those that recognize cursive handwriting, and those notational systems that require each letter to be input in isolation.

Notational systems require the user to learn special strokes to represent each character. The most widely used is the Graffiti system found on PalmOS PDAs. PDAs using Graffiti have a special screen area for entering the strokes, divided into two input areas: one for entering a number, the other for entering letters and punctuation. Graffiti is quite easy to learn, as most of the shapes are very similar to the character they represent. (Trinder 2005, p. 12)

PDA Features for users with visual disabilities

PDAs use the speech recognition technique. Speech recognition converts speech into text allowing information to be spoken into a PDA. Such speech functionality can make PDAs more accessible to users with visual disabilities. There are also special Braille PDAs. (Trinder, 2005, p. 13)

Test-to-speech conversion enables a device to speak the contents of the display screen or file, e.g. a PDA could read an ebook. Many entry-level PDAs can be used as simple voice recorders or Dictaphones but do not have adequate processing power to provide speech recognition. (Trinder, 2005, p. 7)

Other uses of PDAs include:

a.) facilitate quick feedback of reinforcement and deliver interactive demonstrations and quizzes;

b.) provide immersive experiences (for example, foreign languages);

c.) enrich learning outside the classroom (for example, data collection in the field); and

d.) share information (Davis, 2009, p. 298).

Present PDAs can mimic PC-based technologies, the features include:

• Notes and presentations, delivered with a PDA-enhanced or PDA-specific document reader such as Adobe Reader for Palm including Flash animations and sound files, or indeed just a PDA-based word-processor;
• eBooks, such as the Mobipocket library, including textbooks and reference books; and
• Websites and Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) customized for PDA presentation, such as AvantGo, Blackboard-To-Go, or FirstClass (Kukulska-Hulme and John Traxler, 2005, p. 33).

Mobile Learning

“Learning is mobile in terms of space, i.e., it happens at the workplace, at home, and places of leisure; it is mobile between different areas of life, i.e., it may relate to work demands, self-improvement, or leisure; and it is mobile with respect to time, i.e., it happens at different times during the day, on working days or on weekends” (p. 152, Vavoula & Sharples, 2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009, p. 3).

The meaning of m-learning is broad. As stated in the preceding paragraph, it becomes mobile in different of life – space, time, or attitude.

The concept of mobile learning promises users new and/or advanced user experiences, which are quite often markedly different from those afforded by conventional desktop computer-based learning systems (e-learning) (Ryu and Parsons, 2002, p. 3).

This means being mobile as one learns or studies. It is also revolutionary in the sense that learning is not the ordinary teacher-student interaction in a traditional classroom, but the students are away doing their other jobs or chores at home, or whatever, but still learning through a connection with the Internet.

Mobile learning uses mobile phones, smartphones, palmtops and handheld computers (PDAs), tablet PCs, laptop computers, and personal media players.

A mobile learning educational process can be considered as any learning and teaching activity that is possible through mobile tools, or in settings where mobile equipment is available (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

It is considered as the future of learning or as an integral part of any other form of educational process in the future (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 90).

In the educational setting, there are lots of studies and research on m-learning purposely to know which learning models can help obtain better learning processes when communication is mediated by mobile devices, and how student mobility affects the learning process.

Vavoula and Sharples (2002, cited in Ryu and Parsons, 2009) state that ‘Mobile learning should be viewed in particular settings, and integrated into our lives, which implicitly represents a seamless flow of learning experiences’ (p. 3).

Perceived benefits or advantages of Mobile Learning

• Using laptops, students or those involved in continuing education can access the vast knowledge and information through databases and web libraries from a given website;
• Students can also conduct online searches using the resources of the library or a scholarly Web site;
• Work through problems using spreadsheet software.
• Others can take online quizzes.
• Conduct experiments in virtual science labs.
• View online images and video clips.

An example of mobile learning is when train commuters, using third-generation (3G) mobile handsets, can access a multimedia-based English language learning tool supported by location software services.

This attractive pilot service, done by Koreans involved in lifelong learning, “holds out the promise of unlimited access to educational resources beyond the traditional institutional boundaries, amalgamating currently separated learning activities into one with an integrated technology platform” (Ryu and Parsons, 2008, p. 2).

eLearning

This is “any form of electronically delivered learning material with an emphasis on Internet-based technologies” (Brown, 2005, cited in Metcalf and De Marco, 2006, p. 2).

The difference between eLearning and mobile learning is that eLearning may or may not be mobile, but both use the tools of the Web and Information Technology in the conduct of learning and education.

Mobile learning, through the use of mobile technology, can allow access to “learning materials and information from anywhere and at any time. Learners will not have to wait for a certain time to learn or go to a certain place to learn. With mobile learning, learners will be empowered since they can learn whenever and wherever they want” (Ally, 2009, p. 1).

Mobile learning is concerned with learner mobility, in the sense that learners should be able to engage in educational activities without the constraints of having to do so in a tightly delimited physical location. However, the concept of mobile education or mobile learning is still emerging and still unclear. How it is eventually conceptualized will determine perceptions and expectations, and will determine its evolution and future.

The case for mobile learning is driven by the imperative that it must deliver local efficiency gains and cost savings in short timescales. There is a powerful business case for looking at how mobile technologies can improve both business processes and corporate training (Pasanen 2003 cite in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40) if examined and developed in an integrated fashion.

The use of technology, especially networked computers used by distance learning students, has provided increasing support and richness for the discursive element of learning. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34)

The strategies to support and enhance online educational conferences and meetings are now relatively stable and established (Salmon 2000, cited in Kukulska Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34 ) and depend crucially on the idea of an ‘e-moderator’.

The idea of e-moderating naturally leads us to examine the idea of ‘m-moderating’, i.e. the idea of moderating for mobile learning. The goals and objectives are comparable but the different technologies may transform the nature of the interactions.

Some mobile technologies, mobile phones, and most PDAs support peer-to-peer communications that are analogous to e-mail and not necessarily visible to any moderator. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 34-35).

Studies on m-Learning

One example study of mobile learning was a three-year European project using smartphones to desktop PCs with an integrated and specially developed software system. It began in October 2001 and finished in September 2004 and is said to be successful, the impact of the project on its target group was positive and rewarding. (Attewell and Savill-Smith, 2004, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 35-36).

The project was funded by the European Commission under the Education Area of the Information Society Technologies (IST) Programme and was led by the UK’s Learning and Skills Development Agency (LSDA).

The project addressed three social/educational issues relating to many young adults aged 16-24 in the EU, which are:

• Poor literacy/numeracy
• Non-participation in conventional education
• Lack of access creating ICT ‘haves’/‘have-nots’

The study proved beneficial in that it further pointed to the importance of mobile learning, especially to the chosen demographic.

There are also currently various software applications that have specific academic or pedagogic uses. Several of the bibliographic database market leaders (for example EndNote and Biblioscape) have versions for handheld computers or PDAs, and the same is true for the graphical tools that support mind-mapping or cognitive mapping. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

At the Pennsylvania State University at Delaware County Geoscience students now use PalmOne PDAs to enter field data straight into a spreadsheet for analysis rather than using paper. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 36).

This is one of the important developments of technology use in m-learning and e-learning. The virtual paper replaces the real paper. But as to how this changes education and the concept of people to technology has still to be seen. More and more empirical studies have to be conducted.

In specific forms of guidance, for example, careers guidance, mobile technologies can take their place in the blend of learning technologies used to deliver content and support discussion on careers topics.

Some work for careers guidance with the aid of m-learning such as:

• Group career education assignments as fieldwork, supported by e-mail or voice phone.
• Individual assignments investigate specific occupations, using videophone or telephone to interview occupational experts.
• Creating a vocational portfolio using picture messaging and text messaging.
• Job search skills practice using videoconferencing. (Vuorinen and Sampson 2003, cited in Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

On the other hand, universities and colleges now accredit students’ experiential and professional experience, and work-based learning is a growing component of many courses (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 39).

Research on m-Learning

One major high-technology corporate using mobile devices to support training is CISCO. The company initially introduced PDAs widely for training but this has changed over time. This was because the company felt that several issues stood in the way of wider deployment of PDAs: buying PDAs was an additional cost when employees already had laptops.

PDAs are now seen as being good for knowledge management, i.e. as repositories of reference materials such as glossaries, maps, or diagrams and for quick access. They are no longer considered good for what is seen as ‘learning’. Some materials are still provided for optional download to individuals’ PDAs. (Kukulska-Hulme and Traxler, 2005, p. 40)

The future of PDAs in the application of education is bright and promising. They are an aid/tool to enhance learning for all kinds of individuals, especially the disabled.

In their article “Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings,” Andronico et al (2004) commented on their study which aimed to investigate the use of mobile computing technologies to support the learning process in a University context (p. 90).

The study had three main areas, namely: first was concerned with finding effective models for mobile learning; the second was on the evaluation of learning processes in mobile learning environments; and the third focused on the technological aspects of mobile learning, and their integration with e-Learning systems, and more generally, with the information systems of the academic institutions (Andronico et al, p. 90).

The researchers took into consideration that the m-learning term is quite new or it appeared for the first time, hence they had to investigate the cognitive and pedagogical aspects of it. They investigated “how useful mobile computing devices could be for reading or for workplace activities based on studying activity theory; directions to application designers for the areas where the mobile devices should be most useful; the theories analyzed by other researchers on adult informal learning. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91).

The objectives of the study were:

• adoption of a well-tested e-learning platform adapted to the usage of mobile devices
• Implementation of mobile computing services in a University setting
• Study of learning models linked to mobile technologies
• Study of learning evaluation models based in an m-learning environment.

The research also investigated the context of lifelong learning. The stress was “on communication and human-centered systems design. Similar in some concepts to HandLeR is the project undertaken at the Tampere University of Technology where PDAs are used for mathematical education of children” (Andronico, 2004, p. 93).

Lifelong learning is continuing education, a process of individual learning and development that is ongoing from across one’s lifespan. It is broad and encompasses such areas as education policy, learning theory, human resource management, information technology, etc. Since most of the learners of lifelong education are mobile, many of them are employed who need further knowledge and training in their job.

In the research, the electronic device was used to measure the knowledge level of the students and find and adapt the learners’ speed in learning.

The study showed positive results on learning. It also found out that introducing new forms of teaching such as using a standard tool for drawing on PDA, make students spend more time working on that subject, compared to the other subjects; the researchers thought that PDAs and other mobile devices should be seen more like an extension rather than replace existing learning tools; and that not all kinds of learning content and/or learning activities are appropriate for mobile devices. (Andronico et al., 2004, p. 91)

Accessibility and m-Learning

The importance of mobile learning to accessibility cannot be underestimated. It is a significant factor in the provision of learning and training and is the key to strategies to support inclusion, participation, and diversity within education and training (Phipps et al. 2002, cited in Rainger, 2005, p. 57). This factor is significant in helping disabled people through “inclusive product design”, and as part of social responsibility.

Conclusion

There are positive results in the application of technology in education, particularly mobile education.

PDAs and m-learning have a bright future in e-learning. It is a must for students involved in m-learning to have PDAs, and the features of PDAs have enabled easy access to the Internet. The Internet on one hand is a necessity of m-learning. PDAs cannot be so useful without the Web. In other words, what goes together must be provided: the Internet, Information Technology, or the software necessary for imparting education and learning, and the PDAs should go together. They are a student’s need in the present high-tech world.

The new application in education can be beneficial to many sectors, particularly to anyone involved in the so-called continuing education, and to the sector requiring accessibility, or the disabled.

This revolutionary trend in education should be encouraged. M-learning, which is conducted with the use of handheld computers such as PDAs can be beneficial to both learners and educators, and also to commerce. The way education and learning are imparted allows speed and accessibility to anyone. It ignores distance and time.

References

1. Ally, M., 2009, ed. Mobile Learning. Canada: Athabasca University Press. ISBN 1897425430, 9781897425435
2. Andronico, A., Carbonaro, A., Colazzo, L., and Molinari, A., Ronchetti, M., and Trifonova, A., 2004. Designing Models and Services for Learning Management Systems in Mobile Settings. In Crestani, F., Dunlop, M., and Mizzaro, S. Eds. Mobile and Ubiquitous Information Access. Berlin Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-21003-2, p. 90-91
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8. Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.
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11. Trinder, J., 2005. Mobile Technologies and Systems. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge. p. 7
12. Trinder, J., Magill, J., and Roy, S., 2005. Expect the Unexpected: Practicalities and Problems of a PDA Project. In Kukulska-Hulme, A. & Traxler, J. Eds. Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainers. New York: Routledge.

Executive Summary

Cellphone culture, according to dictionary, is a word applied to express the phobic obsession with the cellphone in the common public. Also, it explains the characteristic of being instinctively connected to your cellphone, such as consistently surfing it, or clinging to it gratuitously. Cell phones influence our universal atmosphere, for the most part prominent in the shape of extensive marketing, not merely in the urban world, but in the third world countries as well. Contrasting the Internet, this has flickered panics of a “digital divide” flanked by the modern and the third world countries, as cell phones have become popular in the society, community or all over the planet.

Introducing Cellphone Culture and its prospects

Recent research has revealed that that two billion people at present have possession of cellular phones, often called Mobiles in Europe as an adequate total of cell phones for about one third of the entire population of the world. In effect, a number of countries have even more cell phones than its general population. However, in the United States, 66% of the common public owns a cell phone, as US population makes 297 million, so it depicts 197 million cell phone consumers. In total, public used up 675 billion minutes communicating on cell phones for the month of June 2005 as per the estimation (Goldstein, 6-9).

Just take the example of the ring tones industry that lets its consumers to perceive sound of well-liked songs on their cell phones, at the moment collects total revenue of $5 billion per anal. However, minor industries currently advertise java games and the mobisodes industry allows explicit video content meant to be viewed exclusively on the cell phone. Some added inspired applications have taken place, comprising of Short Message Service (SMS), text messaging, and mobile chatting, WAP, EDGE, GPRS etc.

Cell phones influence our universal atmosphere, for the most part prominent in the shape of extensive marketing, not merely in the urban world, but in the third world countries as well. Contrasting the Internet, this has flickered panics of a “digital divide” flanked by the modern and the third world countries, as cell phones have become popular all over the planet. The mobile phone industry is described as alluring, moreover reasonably priced. Most of its consumers embellish and personalize their cell phones, going up to boost art cottage industries. The cell phone has now turned out to be a sort of art in itself, wherein a consumer’s preference of phone and embellishment performs as a type of private avowal.

However, the trend of the cell phone has rooted transformations in several cultural and social standards on the top. Workplaces, cinemas, playing fields and cafés are now some of the legroom in which the suitability of cell phone discussions is undecided and ambiguous. For instance, The Metropolitan Museum of Art doesn’t permit cell phones inside, but it doesn’t all the time prevent public from utilizing the cell phone. Cell phone appears to prioritize communication with community far-away over those giving out one’s gap, and the moral values of this new mannerism are not concurred across the world.

However, Cell phones are enabling its consumers to make their own micro-cultures; they are altering cultural standards and significance, and signifying consumers’ skill to adapt and refunction technology for their individual utility.

Cell Phone Culture: Social and Cultural Experiences and Technological Possibilities

Contributed to a social activity the mobile phone industry is currently recognized instants, significant circumstances where teenagers construct their social links. In the course of the mobile phone they are informing each other that they are in attendance so they are interconnected. In a sentence, they substantiate the soundness of their comradeship bond, which imagines that components are in ‘perpetual contact’, that they are permitted to explore each other out. Also, the precise sense intrinsic to teenagers’ culture, ‘home’ and ‘school’ are outlying from being unbiased positions; in contrast they are social spaces sturdily obvious by shared cultural connotations. As a minimum, in the eyes of the layperson, ‘home’ indicates a private space, and near environment occupied by family members or kins. The utilization of the mobile phone overturned the socially shared cultural sense of the residence. The picture of the residence as the private place is shorn of and come out to be the contradictory. The Home for a teenager is a community field, a position where an individual requires building a personal space, a warm retreat missing from the gawk and the ears of the other family members. While the mobile phone lets one to blot the limits of such an otherwise imperceptible position and its application brings about a turnaround of sense. Extra amusingly, 70 per cent of the calls made and received at school, happened when friends or classmates were there. The cell phone has twisted the metaphorical sense of the term ‘social link’ into a very factual one, being indoor or external is now a stuff of having or not having a cell phone. The link between the user and the technology does not take place in a social vacuum. Still when we echo upon private applications of a technology, we have to put them inside a superior background comprised of the conversations and the live outs of the public around the consumer It is not the mobile phone’s technological possibilities that create a mobile culture, nor the isolated user that suddenly decides to integrate this technology in his or her daily life. The very nature of social life makes it relevant to recognize that it is the interplay between some dimensions of a community specific culture, the possibilities proffered by the technology and the incorporation of such possibilities that make new shared cultural habits of livelihood (Caronia, pp. 90-102).

The applications of the cellphone in community legroom represent on numerous lengths of social communication. It includes Verbal vs. non-verbal interaction and co-present vs. remote interaction. Noticeably, the impending for non-verbal communication is restricted when networking telephonically. At one fell swoop, mobile telephony in community legroom insists that one use various non-verbal techniques to blot the particular environment of their doings. specifically there necessitate to be unique stratagem to extricate oneself from the pre-existing co-present interactions, there are plans for upholding one’s quasi-isolated standing throughout the dialogue, there are the concerns of reintegration back into the instability of the limited situation after the call, and to finish there are the deliberations of the other co-present persons facing, all through and subsequent to the call itself. Once gazing at the vicinity of non-verbal communication, this has been a fashionable region of scholastic spotlight. Loads of these investigations have came across into the irrefutable role of gesticulate, kinesics, proximics, vocalics, facade, haptics (touch), chronemics, and treatment of objects connected with phone call. Further than these sorts, there are cultural issues at engage in recreation. Certainly, for one engaged in investigating telephonic communication that is mainly deprived of these supports and relieves, one is occasionally enforced to speculate how communication is probable over the telephone at all. Non-verbal communication is used to mark one’s task in a communal situation. While clearing one’s throat is spent, so as well is one’s employ of space and gestures. The utilization of the cellphone is merely not the gesture. Somewhat, more by and large a communication between a being and their inclusive confined circumstance works there.

The impressive expansion of mobile phone industry is healthy recognized, with mobile users now greater than one billion all-inclusive. Through any assess, mobile service has attained bumpy equivalence with fixed line service in the majority areas, and exceeds customary fixed-line dispersion in developed and developing countries in a similar way. However, fixed lines have not been considerably relocated. Though the sum of fixed lines has been smooth in current years, with network contraction in selected pockets, additional fixed lines persist to produce fueled by Internet and other data entrance wants. In general, important adjusts in the opus of households’ access portfolios have occurred. These expansions ask scrutiny of the substitutability of fixed and mobile services as a way of entrance. Significant distinctions between the two stay, though, with wireless service differentiated by its mobility and fixed service boasting better broadcast value and bandwidth. If we take up a data set built from a U.S. consumer panel that encloses comprehensive data on households’ communications acquisition performance. That information detailed over a two-year period, take in information about a household’s subscription to fixed and mobile telephone service plus treatment of those and other communications tunes.

Traditionally, mobile telephone service did not create an good-looking substitute to fixed service. For its high relative price, cellular service was truthfully an extravagance, not a replacement for fixed line. The mobile phone technology also insulated considerably in non-price expressions. These disparities effected in cellular’s restricted infiltration charges when first brought in the 1980s. Ever since those early days, mobile service acceptance has full-fledged at amazing charges as the superiority of the service and the presentation of mobile suppliers progressively got better.

The increase of mobile services approaches at an occasion when telecommunications establishment and the community are worried over the need of pace in the advancement of struggle in landline checks. Unpacking and resale of network services to ease entrance has not created the rivalry initially imagined by legislation such as the 1996 Telecommunications Act in the U.S. In principle, mobile phone is a proxy since consumers can place and accept voice calls as they act up to now, the occurrence of consumers who relinquish fixed service totally and rely entirely on mobile, are hardly any. The contour of the typical wireless-only user is youthful and on its own. As per the last two annual reports on the wireless industry, the FCC wrapped up from its evaluation of third-party study that about 3% of U.S. consumers depend on mobile as their only phone service, while about 12% reported that they acquired mobile service slightly than inserting an extra fixed line. Two current reviews of British residential consumers, conducted a year distant, equally reported that 5-6% of persons maintain mobile as their single cause of telephone service in their residence. A substitute outlook is that fixed and mobile services are balancing (Rodini 1-5). Moreover, Mobile service allows calls that were or else impracticable, as when a consumer is taking a trip in a vehicle or marching on the lane.

Conclusion: What we have lived through and what’s yet to come…

The inhabitant of the cellphone culture today will anticipate getting the same services in a wireless fashion as he gets from a fixed network. These services have need of elevated bandwidths. It is not predictable that future cell phone users are resolving neither forcing to forgo functionality for the additional worth of mobility nor to disburse added for it, for the most part as he will barely be consuming any other immobile telecommunication devices. The descendants of modern digital mobile telephony systems, the self-styled “Third generation” mobile systems (UMTS and IMT-2000) plan to simply somewhat predicting these troubles. With mostly expanding second generation technologies higher data-rates, up to 2 Mbit/s are offered but merely to a restricted figure of consumers at the instant and just in some locations e.g. rural areas. In line to facilitate the exercise of really new and inventive multimedia tune-ups, yet superior bandwidths require to be offered at a lower cost that can be offered by second and third generation systems. Learning optional technologies and architectures for these wireless entrance infrastructures is the plan for advancement. While key limiting issues have been acknowledged as spectrum shortage, electric expenditure and infrastructure charges. Spectrum shortage is mostly because of nosiness from other consumers but also due to the unhurried procedure of international regulation & co-ordination with accessible tunes. Device power supply technology is too a input setback as it is not predictable to create considerable advancement in the coming decade laying stern constraints on electric expenditure. Since high bandwidths appear to claim immense infrastructure assets with very tall costs. These crises are the spotlight of the 4th Generation Wireless Infrastructure (4GW) project within Personal Computing and Communication (PCC), a nationwide planned research agenda aided by the Foundation for Strategic Research. The program instigates study, relevant to mobile industry, at the uppermost global level and runs graduate education preparing for international careers. The 4GW project sequentially intends at examining and suggesting general infrastructure architecture resolutions for the descendant of these 3rd generation structures, what is here conceptually denoted as 4th generation “system”, regarding technical, cost-effective and authoritarian standpoints. It deals with accurately interdisciplinary attempts, across from services & user behavior, infrastructure economics, telecommunication analysis, along to executing issues and the equipment. The estimated time frame for the consumption measured by the project is 2010-2015.

However, scenarios are at present bringing into play at a lot of positions and in several diverse businesses. The reasons of each scenario are special but the two vital designs are altering the ways public believe and generating foundation for deliberations.

Ericsson

The Ericsson has a constant scheme named “Vision 2005” which has been functioning since 1995. The backdrop to this proposal was principally that the marketplaces that Ericsson functioned in changes quickly, after that the board desired an innovative vision of where Ericsson is marching toward. Primarily, the focus was on the integrating markets of Telecom, computer and media. Over 500 people inside and outwardly were dialogued.

The primary consequences are partially obtainable in the annual report for 1996. It comprises of three scenarios and the identification of ten critical areas within Ericsson. One wrapping up of their effort is the essentiality of intensely originating the scenario idea within the organization. On the other hand, it is significant to obtain contribution from outside supplies. These scenarios are utilized within Ericsson to form business belongings used in the internal management education and as a means of communication with the most significant consumers. (as cited in Ericsson)

Siemens-Nixdorf

At Siemens-Nixdorf a little interdisciplinary group has been fashioned to “identify long-term mega trends and discontinuities that will influence information and communication technology”. The project has the name FutureScape. (as cited in Siemens-Nixdorf)

NOKIA

Nokia sketched its dream for the future of the mobility industry, forecasting that the Internet would develop into the chief driving force in the marketplace it anticipates will make 4 billion large-scale subscriptions by 2010. The statements were made in a speech by Nokia CEO and President, Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo, to more than 2,000 people from the mobile and Internet industries focusing the Nokia World 2006 conference.

At the two-day event, Nokia alleged development in the mobility industry was gathering speed faster than previous envisaged, and that it now probable the industry to achieve the target of 3 billion mobile subscriptions globally in 2007. Also, Nokia granted its new forecast of 4 billion global mobile subscriptions in 2010.

The Music, mobile TV and navigation services take part significantly in accelerating this development, both in sophisticated and rising markets where in the conclusion, escalating numbers of people are contacting the Internet for the first time on their mobile rather than via a Personal computer. In view of this, Nokia reported it guesses that the substitute marketplace will report for about 65 per cent of the global market this year and that this figure is expected to rise to over 80 per cent by the year 2010.

Nokia also revealed its newest mobile phone for the up-and-coming markets, the Nokia 2626, the company’s first entry level fashion phone. Guiding a new trend to emerging markets, the Nokia 2626 is targeted at style-conscious consumers, presenting a mirrored color screen, a range of color covers and fashionable accessories, as well as an FM radio, GPRS and even e-mail (Manila, NA).

Future Mega Trends

Globalization is a continuing occurrence that has influenced the society ever since mankind started to cross the oceans. Communicating appliances is more related to the work of the 4GW project, but is still too fundamental to be considered as a short-term phenomenon.

Services become more independent of the underlying infrastructure and also relate more to the work of the 4GW group, compared to the Globalization trend. Services, such as phone calls, are being more separated from the infrastructure they use. A phonecall today typically crosses many different types of infrastructure e.g. from a mobile terminal through a wireless connection into a digital network, perhaps via satellite link over to an analogue network to another connected phone (Zander).

Standards are, in the world of mobile industry, are important as starting points for technical developments. The standardization process within the standardizing organizations is becoming more and more a political matter. This slows down the process and forces companies to search for alternatives. One way is to “de-facto” standardize by taking control of the market.

Most technology is developed to be used. That is easy when one is enhancing existing technology to better suit the existing needs. What about future needs and future technology?

To be able to start thinking of the future needs it is necessary to examine what the future needs might be. To be able to do that it is necessary to examine the needs today and in what directions the development might go. What is needed is a much broader approach than what is normally considered. Factors outside science and technology has to be included as well as developments that might take place within science.

Nearly all above scenarios are here illustrated as little narratives or accounts of the future world they imagine. Most scenarios explain a circumstance by means of diverse viewpoints to phase the situation for a firm. However, characteristic outlooks are financial growth, technological growth and political-cultural progress. To depart a notion on the person who reads, most scenarios are offered with unconventional names that together attempt to include the core of the scenario and pull towards you. This is observed as a significant ingredient of the scenario. Many sets of scenarios hold one scenario that actually fluctuates from the predictable.

Works Cited

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Jens Zander. “Radio Resource Management in Future Wireless Networks – Requirements and Limitations”. IEEE Communications Magazine, 1997.

Maguire,G.Q, Ottersten, B.,Tenhunen, H., Zander, J., “Future Wireless Computing & Communication”, Nordiskt Radioseminarium, NRS-94, Linköping, Sweden, 1994.

Project Management and Computers in the Year 2010, Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Vancouver, Canada, 1991. Vol. 3, pp.435-444.

Jim, Goldstein. “The Third Generation of Wireless Communications”. (2005): 3. University of Yorkshire Publications.

Letizia, Caronia. “Mobile Culture: An Ethnography of Cellular Phone Uses in Teenagers’ Everyday Life”. (2004): 90-102. Sage Publications.

JAMES E. KATZ and SATOMI SUGIYAMA. “Mobile phones as fashion statements: evidence from student surveys in the US and Japan”. (2006): 2-9. Sage Publications.

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