Category: Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 A.D., during which China’s populace would double. Known for its exchange development to the outside world that built up social ties with the West, the Ming Dynasty is likewise associated with its show, writing and famous porcelain. In early Ming times, China’s space broadened extensively in the south because of its fruitful attack of northern Vietnam. The concise control of Vietnam was met with decided nearby guerrilla obstruction, and the Ming government immediately chose to reestablish the limit to its original line. It never again attempted to push southward.

Social accomplishments in the Ming Dynasty were the numerous contacts made during the Ming time frame, social improvements were described by a for the most part preservationist and inward-looking attitude. Ming architecture is a great extent undistinguished with the Forbidden City, a royal residence complex built Beijing in the fifteenth century by the Yongle sovereign (and consequently expanded and reconstructed), its primary delegate. The best Ming sculpture is found in enormous statues as well as in little fancy carvings of jade, ivory, wood, and porcelain. Although a high level of workmanship is shown in Ming embellishing expressions, for example, cloisonné, enamelware, bronze, polish work, and furniture, the big accomplishments in craftsmanship were in painting and pottery.

During the fifteenth century the government had sorted out enormous tribute-gathering flotillas instructed by Zheng He to expand China’s impact. Additionally during the Ming, Japan turned out to be aggressive. In the fifteenth century Japanese thieves collaborated with Chinese pirates to make coastal strikes in Chinese waters, which were of a relatively small scale but were still highly disruptive to Chinese coastal cities. The Ming government later attempted to stop Japan’s attempt to control Korea, which turned into a long and expensive battle.

Some economic changes were mainly toward the government and technology in Tang and Song Dynasties. China was the world’s head in innovation yet mechanical advancement slowed back during Ming times. The purpose behind the slowdown in mechanical advances is a result of the government, the imperial government encouraged mechanical innovation as a foundation of military and financial strength but in the Ming and Qing Dynasty. These dynasties thought political and social strength was a higher priority than technical advancement. Keep in mind Ming and Qing need to come back to traditional China.

Some of the social changes incorporate the civil service examinations and Chinese society. Civil service examinations were given at region, provincial, and metropolitan levels, just 300 students were permitted to pass the test, the candidates lived in little cell-like spaces for a few days and invested their energy composing articles, sometimes they died but the exam continued for the others. Rivalry was furious since bureaucratic assistance had prospects for rich, social and money related awards which everybody needed, because of this the civil service exam system was sometimes corrupted, most of the people who passed the metropolitan tests ended up landing positions in the imperial bureaucracy. The assessments encouraged a serious pursuit of a formal education, it led to a rise in the possibility of social mobility in China.

During the rise of power in the Ming Dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor determined his grandson Zhu Yunwen as his successor, and he expected the throne as the Jianwen Emperor after Hongwu died in 1398. The most powerful of Hongwu’s sons, Zhu Di, at that point the militarily disagreed with this, and soon a political standoff erupted among him and his nephew Jianwen. After Jianwen captured a large number of Zhu Di’s associates, Zhu Di plotted a resistance that started a three-year civil war. Under the appearance of rescuing the youthful Jianwen from corrupting authorities, Zhu Di by and by drove powers in the revolt, the palace in Nanjing was caught fire, alongside Jianwen himself, his wife, mother, and courtiers. Zhu Di accepted the position of royalty as the Yongle Emperor, his rule is generally seen by researchers as a ‘second founding’ of the Ming Dynasty since he turned around a significant number of his fathers approaches.

In this paper, I will be analyzing the key differences and similarities between an empire and a kingdom in the early 1500s to late 1700s in parts of Asia. Empire, states an area that is controlled by a centralized government with many countries ruled by one government. As for kingdom, representing a government that’s controlled by a dominant family with the roles inherited through generations. Although empires can have qualities that represent themselves as kingdoms, not all kingdoms are capable to be empires. In this paper, I’m going to examine the differences in the Ming Empire and the Choson Kingdom in East Asia, the Mughal Empire in South Asia and the Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia.

A well-recognized empire in East Asia created in the early 14th century by Zhu Yuan Zhang is the Ming Empire. The creation of this empire allowed for a more economic benefit towards society and the government more or less rather than ethnic wise. The Ming Empire is represented as a authoritarian and centralized government which devoted a lot towards the Confucian Civil Service Examination System. Hongwu, one of the founders of the Ming empire committed to restoring Confucian values and bringing together their country allowing for a stronger government. “He ordered that Chinese customs replace Mongol practices” (Yonglin, 153). This causing changes from the smallest things like dress code, to marriage and finally to the social hierarchy. Also due to his attentiveness towards education, he created a impact on the country “reshaped Chinese political history” (Yonglin, 153). As for the trades that occured in this empire, China was a great place for trade mainly from its easy access for mobility from the water around them. They were able to create a bond with other countries through the use of the hierarchical tributary system. This providing a benefiting for both the giving and receiving countries while others provide a tribute to China, China agrees to protect them from different causes. Although under the tribute system many countries got out of the way to receive autonomy for their country. As the Ming Empire developed their society second commercial revolution helped increase their communication and transportations for trade toward other countries. They were very open to forming a tie within their neighbouring countries. Due to the great amount of supply for agriculture, and many other goods without the use of machinery their trading relationships increased with many different countries including Southeast Asia, Europe, and Arabia. The Ming Empire progressively developed and had many downfalls through time whether it was through their great supply of agriculture or their monetization through their use of silver. They were able to overcome many things throughout their ruling era. Overall, the Ming Empire is a great example of an empire and its duties where its able to demonstrates a centralized government that is perceived to have maintained many strong relationships with many different countries.

Next, is the Choson Kingdom is also known as the Yi dynasty, which ruled in Korea by King Taejong during the alterations from Ming to Qing. Compared to others Choson is well recognized due to its capability to have lasted for over five centuries. A huge advantage that they have is due to their great bond with Korean yangban who were powerful elites that retained a powerful position within the area. Though Korea retains a weaker monarchy, Choson has inherited many of chinese traditions including a Chinese style centralized government and basing a lot towards the Confucian Civil Service Examination enabling them to adapt to many of the Chinese cultures. The Choson rulers have lacked power throughout their existence. There has never been a immediate family who retained all power over everyone else. Their rulers positions where not definit due to them varying from different families but mainly those within the yangban. The Choson Kingdom maintained a great amount of success within there existing years due to the number of restrictions they have set with their neighboring countries. “Isolated the country from disruptive foreign influences and restricting trade to official channels” (Miller, 34). They discontinued many relationships with others and even drawing a line for the relationship between Choson and the Westerners. They are a very self-reliant kingdom who strengthens their community through many independent actions. Compared to the Ming Empire who was more open to international trade and wished to start trade within the western area (Yonglin, 151). Choson is a good definition of a kingdom due to them being so confined from others and from the things they do.

In South Asia one empire that stands out to me greatly is the India Mughal Empire. The word Mughal came from the Muslim Turkish from parts of Central Asia who has mispronounced the pronunciation for Mongols in Persian known as the descendants from Genghis Khan. The Mughal empire is known to be a centralized government ruling over different countries allowing it to be defined as an empire. Their government is not based on feudalism and they only lead armies personally loyal to them. The bonds built within the major roles of the empire had emperors overthrown by the sons that inherited this major role. “Empire in which a majority of the subject were non-muslims” (Bose & Jolal, 30). Compared to the other two empires Iran and Ottoman the main evidence that allows the Mughal Empire to stand out is due to the use of non-muslims. Their government also included the use of the Mansabadon System which is an administrative system which provided calvary in the army when required. Although most of them are not just from the military they can also just be a civilian in their country. Compared to the Ming Empire the Mughals applied tax towards their agriculture and commerce. As for the tradings the Mughal Empire acquired “long distance overland and oceanic trade” (Bose & Jolal, 34) with other countries. The Mughal Empire also had a greater supply of cotton textiles, silk, and even dye. They became reliant towards the international trading system allowing for a gain to a better understanding of profitable tradings. Through these fundamental traits of the Mughal Empire, I have been able to analyze how their government differs from kingdoms. Personally, I feel that empire governments are more impactful and do more towards society rather than kingdoms who are presented more closed and restricted.

As for Southeast Asia, there has been one kingdom that plays a different role in society which is the Khmer Kingdom although its a kingdom it had the capability to be recognized with empire qualities. The Khmer Kingdom of Angkor located in Cambodia has been funded by King Jayavarman the second in 802. Jayavarman was a truly successful ruler who supported many things around his community from artworks to the building of temples and roads around the country. He allowed for a stable financial impact on his government allowing support towards schools, libraries, and hospitals. Khmer was able to maintain a great bond with China that allowed for active trade between both countries. As for the contradictory meaning towards the Khmer Kingdom, it has also come to the realization it also inherits the qualities of an empire. Khmer developed the title kingdom due to it being ruled by a dominant family member with the status of royalty within the modern era. But like what was distinguished by Craig A Lockard “the kingdom was a loosely integrated empire’ (Lockard, 39). This because through the impacts of the king, Khmer was able to develop a greater relationship with the neighboring countries. “Controlling much of present-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Southern Vietnam” (Lockard, 39) with the thought that one ruler controlling more than one country allows for the analyzation that this kingdom retains empire qualities. Khmer is also able to retain its empire title due to them having a government, although the kings had all power over the governors with autonomy. Although not a fully developed empire it enables similar qualities to an empire. Khmer here compared to other kingdoms is not as confined about the things they do rather they are more impactful towards society.

Overall, through the analyzing of different empires and kingdoms around the Asian region, I was able to identify the different impacts they both have towards their country and their government. The Ming and Mughal Empires help us explore the greater meaning of an empire while the Choson Kingdom differentiates certain characteristics that help identify them as a kingdom. Whereas in Southeast Asia we encountered the Khmer Kingdom which is special compared to others where it portrays kingdom qualities but at the same time was able to project empire affects in their society and government. Being able to clearly identify the differentiating factors between the two allowed me to have a clearer understanding of this topic. Through the examinations, other than the given definitions for the two I realized that empires create a greater effect on their country through bigger decisions whereas kingdoms seem more closed and restricted.

Question I. Art of South and Southeast Asia Vishnu, 15th century, Bronze, India

This bronze statue of Vishnu which was made in India during the 15th century. Hindu deity Vishnu is the preserver of the Universe and is the opposite of Shiva, who is destroyer of the universe. “Vishnu embodies the qualities of goodness and mercy because he is the preserver of life, righteousness, and truth.”1 The bronze statue depicts Vishnu in his human form where he has four arms. On the back-left arm, he is holding a conch which symbolizes power or illusion of which the universe arises. “The conch is also the fountain that creates the five rest of the elements.”2 In the statue it symbolizes the beginning of combat.3 On Vishnu’s left arm, he wields a mace, otherwise known as Gada. “The mace is named Kaumodaki and it represents the elemental force from which all mental and physical powers are derived. Kaumodaki also represents knowledge because the name it means captivating the mind.”4 On the back of the right arm of Vishnu, he has the discus which is also the chakra. The discus represents the mind and creativity. It is also a weapon that cuts the heads of demons.5 Both the mace and the discus are Vishnu’s choice of weapons in war. “Also, the Abhaya mudra is present on the statue’s right front arm. This mudra indicates reassurance, blessing, and protection.”6 Vishnu was known as the deity of protection which made him popular among Hindu rulers and kings who claimed to be incarnations of him on earth.7

Question II: Buddhist Art Shakyamuni Buddha, 13/14 C. Bronze, 9.125’ H x 6’ W x 2.75’ D, Thailand

This is a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, otherwise known as Siddhartha Gautama, who lived and taught in India in the sixth century. There are many iconographies that could be found on the statue. “There are thirty-two Lakshana, idealized characteristics, that are meant to symbolize the Buddha’s spiritual character and inner beauty. The most visible Lakshana on the statue would be the Ushnisha which is the bump on top of the head which symbolizes the Buddha’s wisdom and the attainment of enlightenment.”8 “The ushnisha could also be called a protuberance which is located on top of the Buddha’s hair which consists of his mass of compact curls.”9 The Buddha is also seen sitting in a lotus position of meditation.10 He wears a simple robe which covers his left shoulder and arm and exposes the right. Another common physical characterization of the Buddha are his elongated stretched ears which represented the time where he was born into royalty and wealth. The right hand on the statue seems to depict the bhumisparsha mudra.11 This mudra is associated with the moment the Buddha touched the earth to let the world know that he reached enlightenment. “The supreme god of the world, Samara, tried to distract the Buddha from his meditation. In response to the Buddha’s enlightenment, the world shook in acknowledgment.”12 The left hand just sits on his lap in meditation. This statue may have served religious functions. The sacred statue of the Buddha was placed in altars in monasteries and homes. They were a focal point for meditation and ritual.13

Question III: Monochromatic Ink Painting Bamboo, 1634, Shi Yanjie Ink on paper, 88′ H x 26.375; Image: 48′ H x 19′ W, China, Ming dynasty

This art piece is called “Bamboo.” The monochromatic ink on paper painting is created by Shi Yanjie. He paints a bamboo which is a plant that can bend without breaking. The bamboo has been a symbol of integrity and strength.14 This art piece was created during 1634, Ming Dynasty in China. The Ming dynasty was a period after the Yuan dynasty. It was the period of cultural restoration and expansion.15 Painters recruited by the Ming court were instructed to follow the style of styles of earlier Southern Song dynasty. The Three Friends of Winter was popular among the Song Dynasty. From Yanjie’s monochromatic art piece, the bamboo is considered to be one of the Three Friends of Winter. The Three Friends of Winter consists of three plants that don’t lose their leaves or hibernate in the winter.16 These plants include the pine, bamboo, and plum. Since they appear to withstand the winter, these plants symbolize steadfastness, resilience, and perseverance. They are also highly regarded in Confucianism and are the ideal character traits for scholar gentlemen.17 The bamboo has also been a common subject among the Ming and Quin scholar-painters.18 Scholar painters often painted quickly with ink on paper and chose subjects like bamboos for instance that would be drawn using the same brush skills that required being skilled in calligraphy.19 The Ming scholars had a unique way style of calligraphy. Their brushstrokes were more of a personal performance and more expressive. They valued the presence of personality in a work over a technical more structural skill. The Ming scholar painters aimed for mastery of performance rather than laborious craftsman shift.20

Question IV. Secular Art in Japan and Korea Scholar’s Items, Chaekkori, 19th century Ink and color on paper, Framed 36.75” H x 18.5” W; Image 28.125” H x 13.5” W, Korea, Joseon dynasty

This art piece is called the Scholar’s items, Chaekkori which was created in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty around the 19th century. “Chaek” means book and “Kori” means material.21 The Scholar’s items, Chaekkori was made with paper and ink, and color which was made out of mineral pigments. The Chaekkori is a common subject which consists of piles of books and scholar’s equipment. These subjects were common in both court paintings and in folk paintings.22 “This genre reflects the highest values of Yangban, which is the pursuit of knowledge and education guided by Confucian ideology.”23 One of the kings of Joseon, king Chongjo was interested in these Chaekkori paintings because of the Western perspective style that were used. “This technique could have possibly been used under the influence of Jesuit painters in Beijing such as Giuseppe Castiglione.”24 The three-dimensional effects were commonly used in Chaekkori along with reversed perspective. In reversed perspective, the objects are seen larger than those nearby. This causes the art pieces to look flatter.25 “The Chaekkori were seen as conveyors of cultural values and was often displayed within homes, studios, and at school. They reflected a reverence for scholarship and learning.”26 This subject has gained the middle-class interest and soon they became patrons of Chaekkori. The middle class would instill the value of education in their children with this idea. The Chaekkori also expressed the parents’ wishes for their sons to pass the national civil exam and encourage them to continue their studies.27

Question V. Follow the Box Following the Box, Date of Artwork, Amrita Sen Hand constructed book using hand-made paper, ink and watercolor drawings, tea stains elven double-sided accordion pages, 12×9 in. extended to 103 in. custom constructed box, 11 x 14 in, Country of Origin: India

The “Following the Box” exhibition consists of visual dialogues between photographers and artists from the U.S. to India. Alan Teller and Jerri Zbiral brought a box of unidentified photographs.28 These unidentified photographs were taken by an unknown U.S. soldier stationed in West Bengal during World War II.29 Amritah Sen is one of the artists who express her interpretation of these photographs through her hand-constructed book. This art piece was made with handmade paper, ink, watercolor drawings, and tea stains. The photographs that the unknown U.S. soldier took reminded Sen of her family album which seemed happy and carefree.

She also says that there is a sharp contrast in the flow of life captured by the American soldier in 1940s Bengal and how a middle-class urban family is portrayed.30 With that said, she decided to make an album showing the contrast. First Sen chose ten portraits and group photographs that Alan Teller and Jerri Zbiral brought along with ten similar pictures from her family album of early 1940s.31 To Sen’s surprise she saw that there was kind of a similarity among the photographs. Yet there were a clear and distinct differences between the photographs. Sen decided to focus on four important political history of Bengal. These included the Bengal Famine, the Japanese bombing over Calcutta, the Indian National Army activity and the death of Subhas Chandra Bose in South-East Asia, and the communal riots of 1946.32 Sen’s artwork depicts the malnourished people and emphasizes the cruel reality. Amrita Sen brings to light on what she calls the “official history.”33 Her art piece shows how people can live their lives in different formats simultaneously, oblivious to what is happening all around. When the audience looks at the art piece, there is no start or end. They could see the story flow through different pictures, and it will all come back in a circle.34

Proof of Visit

I went on the day it was free so they didn’t give me an admission ticket. I took some pictures of the artworks I wrote about. Here is the Bamboo by Shi Yanjie.

Bibliography / Works Cited Page

1. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Iconography of Hindu Art & Architecture,” (13)
2. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Iconography of Hindu Art & Architecture,” (15)
3. “Didactic Panel,” Vishnu, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
4. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Iconography of Hindu Art & Architecture,” (15)
5. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Iconography of Hindu Art & Architecture,” (15)
6. Neave, Dorinda, Lara C. W. Blanchard, Marika Sardar, and Miranda Bruce-Mitford. Asian Art. Boston: Pearson, 2015. (16)
7. “Didactic Panel,” Vishnu, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. November 10, 2019.
8. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Ch1 Buddhism,” (25)
9. “The Buddha Shakyamuni.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 25, 2019.
10. “The Buddha Shakyamuni.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 25, 2019.
11. Neave, Dorinda, Lara C. W. Blanchard, Marika Sardar, and Miranda Bruce-Mitford. Asian Art. Boston: Pearson, 2015. (16)
12. “The Buddha Shakyamuni.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 25, 2019.
13. “The Buddha Shakyamuni.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 25, 2019
14. “Didactic Panel,” Bamboo, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
15. Department of Asian Art. “Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-.
16. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Ch8 Song & Yuan Painting,” (56)
17. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Ch8 Song & Yuan Painting,” (56)
18. “Didactic Panel,” Bamboo, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
19. “Didactic Panel,” Bamboo, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
20. Department of Asian Art. “Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. Pacific Asia Museum. “Auspicious Beauty
21. Auspicious Beauty. (2011). [Pdf] 46 North Los Robles Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91101: Pacific Asia Museum.
22. “Screen / Painting.” British Museum. Accessed November 26, 2019.
23. Auspicious Beauty. (2011). [Pdf] 46 North Los Robles Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91101: Pacific Asia Museum.
24. “Screen / Painting.” British Museum. Accessed November 26, 2019.
25. “Chaekgeori.” The Art Institute of Chicago. Asian Art. Accessed November 26, 2019.
26. “Chaekgeori.” The Art Institute of Chicago. Asian Art. Accessed November 26, 2019.
27. Auspicious Beauty. (2011). [Pdf] 46 North Los Robles Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91101: Pacific Asia Museum.
28. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
29. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
30. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
31. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
32. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
33. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
34. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
35. Auspicious Beauty. (2011). [Pdf] 46 North Los Robles Avenue, Pasadena, CA 91101: Pacific Asia Museum. Available at: https://pacificasiamuseum.usc.edu/files/2016/06/PAM_AuspiciousBeauty.pdf
36. “Chaekgeori.” The Art Institute of Chicago. Asian Art. Accessed November 26, 2019. https://www.artic.edu/artworks/185180/chaekgeori
37. “Didactic Panel,” Bamboo, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
38. “Didactic Panel,” Following the Box, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
39. “Didactic Panel,” Vishnu, on view at the USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena CA. (November 10, 2019)
40. Department of Asian Art. “Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.
41. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000-. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ming/hd_ming.htm
42. Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Ch1 Buddhism,” Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Ch8 Song & Yuan Painting,” Enholm Molly, Class Lecture: “Iconography of Hindu Art & Architecture.”
43. Neave, Dorinda, Lara C. W. Blanchard, Marika Sardar, and Miranda Bruce-Mitford. Asian Art. Boston: Pearson, 2015.
44. “Screen / Painting.” British Museum. Accessed November 26, 2019. https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1347554&partId=1
45. “The Buddha Shakyamuni.” Khan Academy. Khan Academy. Accessed November 25, 2019 https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-asia/beginners-guide-asian-culture/buddhist-art-culture/a/the-buddha-shakyamuni