Since time immemorial, man has sought to understand psychology and explain his development throughout life. Through observation and experimentation, he has sought answers on questions about himself; of things he has no idea of. Some have been answered; some have remained enigmas.
The human psychological being is a complex entity and at times one would think of it as inexplicable. Psychological dualism seeks to explain that mind and body of man is independent, mind is separate from body.
It implies that though one can act over the other, these entities are separate and neither has influence on the other. Man is matter, body and soul (Dostoevsky, 2006, p. 1022). Monism on the contrary describes mental and physical human properties as a single entity.
It states that mind and matter are both formed from a single substance and both are dependant on one another (Pavlov,1956, p. 98). It clearly rids of the notion of dualism.
When it comes to matters medical, there is disparity between the attendance of the body and mind. The mind is considered a very delicate organ of the body and only specialists in the field of neurosurgery are allowed to conduct operations on it.
It is considered the most important organ of the human body and thus requires special attention. It would be highly unlikely to bump into a neurosurgery specialized hospital as it would be in the case of clinics, dentists, opticians etc.
Thinking is a process that is conceived in the mind. It is a cognitive mental process (Madell,1990, p. 56). Before the physical matter proceeds to take action, the notion has to come to mind. It is the mind which first receives his information then sends it out to the rest of the body for execution.
All actions stem from the brain and that is why when one suffers from brain damage, the rest of the body senses are tampered with. Feelings are more related to emotions than they are to thought. They are more of sensations or sentiments mostly affected by the environment or the physical state of an individual at a given time (Skinner, 1953 , p. 66).
In a case where one’s sibling is deceased for example, it is only natural to feel sad, or cry. It is a feeling that cannot be helped. You do not have to think of whether you should cry or not, as it is a feeling that comes by default.
It also happens at times when one is watching a sad movie that one gets teary suddenly without being able to explain it. Thoughts are more rational, more mental; they precede feelings. They allow us to assess the consequences that are involved in taking particular actions (Dewey, 2006, p. 75). They generate feelings and at times, may masquerade as such.
The difference can not be clearly defined as both co-exist as a unified whole. Every thought has an emotional valence to it that is either positive or negative. This allows us to prioritize our actions on them. Knowing is possession of understanding, information or knowledge; familiarity to a particular thing.
It is a cognitive process associated to reasoning (Baker, & Goetz, 2011, p.65) and could be implicit, (practice and expertise), or explicit, (theoretical understanding). It is solely based on facts or principles, and not gut-feelings.
References
Baker, M & Goetz, S. (2011). The Soul Hypothesis. New York: Thompson Shore-Inc.
Dewey, J. (2006). Realism Without Monism or Dualism. The Journal of Philosophy , 351-367.
Dostoevsky, F. (2006). Notes from Underground. In B. Wilkie, Literature of The Western World (pp. 1002-1077). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Madell, G. (1990). The Identity of Self. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Pavlov, I. (1956). Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes. New York: International Publishers.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan.
It is possible to concentrate on the idea that the people’s mind is responsible for the human’s attitude to the reality and to his or her perception of time, space, and the form of being because these categories are the results of the mind’s work.
Thus, people’s relations with the world depend on the peculiarities of this or that person’s mind and understanding of one’s role in the whole world.
Differentiating between identity and relational logics, it is important to operate the notions of time, space, and being and discuss them in detail with references to Virginia Woolf’s vision of the person’s mind and its possibilities in this context. Can people follow the principles of only identity logic or only relational logic?
The variety of the life situations and the reactions of the human mind to them can support the idea that there are no persistent followers of this or that pattern of behaviour, actions, and attitude because of the diversity of the variants and influential conditions.
In spite of the fact identity logic is based on the definite stableness of considerations and ideas, it is impossible to speak about one identity for the majority of situations and at all the life stages. From this point, relational logic is more flexible for defining the people’s behaviours.
Thus, the man is often different in his attitude to time, space, and even being, and this peculiarity can be discussed with references to Woolf’s considerations.
The opposition of the human’s dependence on his or her identity or relations has its origins in the power of the mind. Is a person stable from the point of identity and form of being? According to Woolf, the answer is ‘no’ because the mind “seems to have no single state of being” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97).
That is why it is significant to focus on the variety of persons’ forms of being which can be realised in relation to different people and different situations. What forms of being can people acquire because of the work of their mind? What are the mind’s relations with the persons in the street?
Are they the part of the whole picture of the world along with the person who observes them through the window? The mind “can separate itself from the people in the street, for example, and think of itself as apart from them” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97).
Separation and division of the world into ‘I’ and ‘the other people’ is the principle associated with the vision of the being according to the person’s identity.
Can this perspective be discussed as the only one for describing the possibilities of the mind in its relation to the world? Even being separated from the public with the help of a window and observing the other people from the distance, the mind often breaks these boundaries and acts according to the open relations with the world and persons in it.
The mind “can think with other people spontaneously” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97). In this case, people focus on the relational being instead of the defined one. Humans develop varieties of their identities while being involved in relations with the world and persons in it.
Thus, the notions of independence and identity are changed with the concept of closeness to the whole. As a result, not only the form of being is influenced but also the space which expands its boundaries in relation to the crowd is affected.
If the defined and relational beings can be changed under the impact of definite conditions and situations, what factor can influence the concept of time? The mind “can think back through its fathers or through its mothers” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97).
Thus, the mind can exist in the flow of the past, presence, and future where the past is the part of the presence, and the presence forms the future. Thinking back, it is possible to support the chain of times without references to its chronological character. From this point, the perception of time can be discussed as the perception of the eternal and dependent chain.
Fluency is in a kind of the continuity, and it is the way to determine the time from the relational perspective. Nevertheless, the perception of time also depends on the surroundings. The impossibility of the constant fluency of time for the mind is accentuated with emphasising the fact that actions can be spontaneous and sudden.
In this case, suddenness can result in “a sudden splitting off of consciousness” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97). This fact allows further focusing on the duality of the person’s mind and its perceptions. Consciousness which is the basics for understanding and explaining of the people’s actions can be split off, changing the perceptions of being, time, and space.
This principle can work for everyone, including writers and women-writers who “being the natural inheritor of that civilization” can become “alien and critical” when looking at it from the distance (Woolf, 1989, p. 97).
This opposition accentuates the duality of the mind’s perception and conclusion. The ‘natural inheritor of that civilization’ acts according to the principles of the relational logic, being the part of the whole.
The moment when a person, especially a writer, becomes distant from his or her surroundings and critical about them is associated with the identity logic with focusing on differentiating between this person and the other people. Does Woolf concentrate on one vision of the person and his mind?
The author provides the readers with the point of view according to which she accentuates two possible ways of discussing the question at a time. The sense of difference is emphasised by the fact that “the mind is always altering its focus”, and it can discuss the world from “different perspectives” (Woolf, 1989, p. 97).
It is possible to see the world processes from a distance or be actively involved in its development, to perceive the time as the line or as the circle or chain, to think of the space as full of boundaries or as infinite.
All the variants can be close to different people in various situations in spite of their vision of their own identity because the people’s mind can change the focus and perspectives from which the world and people can be perceived.
Reference
Woolf, V. (1989). A Room of One’s Own. USA: Mariner Books.
Studies have shown that pedophilia is a mental disorder that compels victims to become sexually aroused by children who are below the age of puberty (Cantor et al., 2004).
Apparently, the disorder drives victims to become sexually abusive to children below 13 years. Studies have shown that this sexual deviation is as a result of abnormalities in the brain’s morphology (Schiffer & Volaufen, 2011).
Certainly, neurological structures of the brain especially the frontal lobe and temporal lobe have been known to cause the disorder.
On the other hand, non-pedophiles are individuals who are perceived to be normal and have no mind disorder (Cantor et al., 2008). For this reason, differences in morphological make up between pedophiles and non-pedophiles influence their brain functions (Carlson, 2010).
It is against this background that this paper summarizes the evidence to support the suggestion that there are differences in brain function between pedophiles and non-pedophiles. Moreover, the paper will also propose a study to advance the knowledge on pedophiles and the mind.
Evidences
From a careful review of literature, 95% of pedophiles are likely to commit sexual abuse that amounts to 70% of assaults to pre-pubescent children (Cantor et al., 2004). Of great importance to note is that 90% of pedophiles are men whose sexual abusive behavior occurs due to testosterone-related disorders.
Studies have shown that the disorder cannot be cured due to the fact that it is inborn (Schiffer & Volaufen, 2011). Nevertheless, there are measures that can be taken to control the sexual urge among pedophiles.
Medical experts have done investigation on the brain structures of people who are pedophiles and have compared them with the non-pedophiles. From the study, evidence has shown that pedophiles have less widespread tissues in the brain region (Cantor et al., 2008).
Notably, their superior frontal-occipital and right-actuate fasciculus have less tissues, a factor that triggers the development of the disorder (Schiffer & Volaufen, 2011).
Previous studies have shown that such tissues are responsible in controlling body functions such as sexual urge, self-control and sexual responses.
For this reason, it attributes to sexual deviations among pedophiles as opposed to non-pedophiles (Carlson, 2010).
In addition, numerous biological clues indicate that pedophiles often have low intelligence quotient. Hence, they perform poorly at school as opposed to non-pedophiles.
This literature can be supported by the argument that most of the victims are lefties. In other words, their left part of the brain is more functional than the right one. This has been attributed by the assumption that pedophiles might have suffered head injuries in their childhood age (Cantor et al., 2004).
Moreover, Schiffer and Volaufen (2011) suggest that this can be caused by problems that inhibit early childhood development. In line with this, brain function influences social development.
In this case, disorders in the brain can result into deviation of the social aspect of an individual’s life. For this case, one can analyze that most of the pedophiles have poor social links with other adults (Carlson, 2010).
Moreover, brain function influences one’s social behavior where pedophiles are unable to maintain their normal relationship with other adults.
In this case, they turn to children who are more vulnerable and are easily coerced as opposed to non-pedophiles who manage to construct consented relationships with their colleagues.
Besides, medical experts have revealed that there is a difference in the biological make up and mental functioning between pedophiles and non-pedophiles.
Conclusive research evidence indicates that pedophiles have less white matter in the brain as opposed to non-pedophiles (Cantor, 2004). Notably, the white assists the wiring system in the brain. Therefore, the deficiency affects the IQ as well as the rationality in thinking.
For this reason, Cantor et al (2004) assert that sexual offences committed by such individuals are not accompanied with stern measures like the case of non-pedophiles. In line with this, evidence has shown that even if the pedophiles are imprisoned for sexual offenses, there is likelihood that they will repeat the offence again.
Cantor et al (2004) highlight that there is a prevalence of 25% for pedophiles and that such victims will commit the act more easily as opposed to other criminals. In another line of study, researchers have posited that there are prenatal conditions that interfere with neurodevelopment and hence cause brain dysfunctions.
For instance, disruption of prenatal development in the brain due to stress may lead to pedophilic habit (Schiffer & Volaufen, 2011).
That notwithstanding, studies has shown that pedophiles have certain personality traits that differ from non-pedophiles (Cantor et al., 2004). The traits are psychological and hence are controlled by their brain function.
Traits associated with pedophiles include low self esteem, poor interpersonal functioning and poor social skills. For this reason, it is definite that the brain functions between pedophiles and non-pedophiles are different.
Nevertheless, with the above in mind, it is imperative to mention that there is a need to research further on the connection that exists between brain functions and sexual responses. In this case, advanced study will help to expose strong evidences that show how the disorder occurs.
Notably, this will help researchers to explain how medical practitioners can govern the influence of brain on sexual interests (Carlson, 2010). Needless to say, there is much that needs to be researched upon in order to gain adequate knowledge on pedophilia.
Proposed study
There is need for a study related to the topic to be discussed is why victims with the psychosexual disorder are highly oriented to children than adults. It is imperative to note that there are numerous controversial issues that are related to pedophilia.
For instance, studies have shown that the disorder is highly prevalent among males than females. For this reason, this topic will provide the research basics on this fact in order to derive evidences that can be substantiated.
From a careful review of literature, very few researchers have gone to the extent of studying how one can identify individuals with the disorder (Cantor et al., 2004).
For this reason, there is need to expand the body of knowledge on how to distinguish pedophilia from other sexual disorders that are related with brain functions.
Pointless to say, there has been allegation that pedophiles have low intelligence quotient and that they tend to be shorter as compared to non-pedophiles. However, studies have shown that not all pedophiles show poor performance in class (Cantor et al., 2004).
In this case, there is need to verify such a claim in order to eliminate bias. In addition, biological factors have been regarded to cause the disorder. Nonetheless, there is need to research and verify whether there are other factors that can alter the brain’s function.
Furthermore, it is evident that the sexual deviance causes insults to children and hence there is need to study and come up with legal measures that should be taken in order to control such acts.
This is due to the fact that a significant number of experts argue that victims of pedophilia should not be accused or even prosecuted in courts of law for the offence (Schiffer & Volaufen, 2011).
Study design
In line with this, the study on pedophilia should have a detailed and concise study design in order to capture numerous issues that have been debated upon. This will help to establish declarative facts about the disorder (Cantor et al., 2004).
In this case, the study should entail identifying the possible causes of the disorder and the prevalence rate among the victims. Notably, pedophiles should have their medical history analyzed in order to consider all the possible factors for the disease.
In this case, the study will emphasize more on the connection between sexual dysfunctions with brain disorders. Moreover, the examination or study should be conducted by experienced medical experts in order to avoid errors.
In addition, there is need to identify the possible signs and symptoms of the disorder (Cantor et al., 2008). For this case, a sample taken through random or simplified technique will be used in order to produce positive results.
Besides, the study should also entail curative and preventive measures for the disease (Carlson, 2010). Notably, past research has revealed that pedophilia can not be cured.
Nevertheless, there are therapeutic measures that can be used such as sexual orientation. In this case, the study will evaluate the effectiveness of such therapies.
Research methods to be used
Needless to say, there are numerous research methods that can be applied in the study. Suggested methods include use of qualitative and quantitative research in order to obtain theoretical and numerical facts.
Moreover, the study should be experimental and historical at the same time in order to have clear conclusion of the relationship between pedophilia and brain function.
References
Cantor, J. et al (2004). Intelligence, memory, and handedness in pedophilia. Neuropsychology, 18(1):3–14.
Cantor, J. et al. (2008). Cerebral white matter deficiencies in pedophilic men. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(1): 167–183.
Carlson, N. (2010). Carlson Foundations of Behavioral Neuroscience. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
Schiffer, B. & Volaufen, C. (2011). Executive dysfunctions in pedophilic and non- pedophilic Child Molesters. Journal of Sexual Medicine. 8(7): 17-43.
The aim of this study was to investigate whether early alertness on misinformation reduces chances of creating false memories in humans, and whether there was any relationship between DRM false memories and misinformation. As noticed from the study, initial perceptions on certain issues or events created after receiving the first information always affects human memory.
As evident from the findings of this study, there is a relatively positive correlation between early alertness about the occurrence of misinformation and chances of creating false memories about certain events in human beings.
Children filled with misconstrued information about certain aspects of their childhood will eventually build false memories due to receiving misleading information earlier. Alerting or warning people about incoming information increases their alertness, and thus, reduces chances of building false memories. The DRM technique of identifying false memories in humans is practicable in human cognitive psychology.
Understanding the Mind
The impact of misleading information on people’s perception of certain life events, issues, or experiences is still unknown. How people communicate and interpret information during conversation is imperative in determining the final perception of the content delivered (Blair, Lenton, & Hastie, 2002).
Evidence from numerous prior studies indicates that people can develop false memories about certain events they witnessed if they deliberately received wrong information regarding the events (Roediger & McDermott, 1995; Hyman & Billings, 1998). Scientific investigations indicate that informing people earlier on possibilities of receiving misleading information often reduces the chances of creating false memories.
Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) paradigm of cognitive psychology assumes that false memories happen when people provide wrong words that are absent in a list used in false memory assessments (Blair, Lenton & Hastie, 2002).
More precisely, the DRM false memories scientific paradigm assumes that misconstrued information regarding certain events results in the occurrence of misconceptions (false memories) due to fake memories created in the human brain.
In the same year, in an attempt to establish facts underlying false childhood memories, Roediger and McDermott (1995) investigated the patterns of remembering false events and recalling events that never happened. The study used a word list related to the word ‘sleep’ and employed two experiments to investigate the rates of false recall and false recognition in human memories (Roediger & McDermott, 1995).
The research discovered that approximately 40% of the study participants made false recall and almost 55% of the participants portrayed false recognition (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). Subsequently, a recent study by Hyman and Billings (1998) aimed at investigating whether individual variations influenced students in creating false childhood memories.
The researchers in this case interviewed students to examine whether they would present the same information given by their parents. They requested students to recall childhood events on two consecutive days (Hyman & Billings, 1998). Depending on the child’s mentorship, the study revealed that over 25% of the participants created false childhood memories.
Definition of key words
False memories are distorted recollections of the actual experience
DRM paradigm is a cognitive approach used in examining false memories in human beings.
The critical word refers to the central unmentioned word that represents the central theme in the DRM false memory lists.
Misinformation refers to misleading information on certain issues or events.
Aim and hypothesis
Based on the prior investigations concluded on the concept of misinformation and misconception on human’s ability in commemorating certain lifetime events, the intent of this study was to examine such perceptions empirically.
The main aim of the underway study is to investigate whether early alertness on misinformation (acting as the independent variable) reduces the chances of creating false memories (the dependent variable) on the misinformation effect.
The current study also seeks to investigate the relationship between DRM false memories (the independent variable) and misinformation (the dependent variable) as part of human cognitive psychology. In examining the problem from the above-mentioned perspective, the study used the following hypotheses to test certain facts relating to false memories in humans.
H1: Early alertness reduces the occurrence of misinformation and lowers the chances of creating false memories of events.
H2: Late alertness and no alertness have the same effect in causing misinformation or false memories.
Pertaining to the first hypothesis, in case the results of the study support the stipulation of the hypothesis, then the result would probably conclude that early alertness reduces the occurrence of misinformation and thus reduces the probability of creating false memories in humans.
If the study concluded in favor of the second hypothesis, then the study would conclude late and no alertness has no influence on the occurrence of that the DRM false memories and misinformation.
Methodology
Study participants
One hundred Deakin HPS203/773 students participated in the online experiment. No record was made of their age and gender, as these variables were not essential to the research question.
Materials and Procedure
Participants had eight word lists, presented one at a given time. The research derived these lists from Roediger and McDermott (1995). Each list consisted of 15 words, with each having related to a central theme. The un-presented theme words were window, cold, cup, sleep, smell, rough, soft, and anger.
The lists were presented in two sets of four. The word lists were read out at a rate of approximately 1word per second. After hearing the first four lists, participants were asked to recall as many words as they could. They had two minutes for their recall. Participants scored their own recall and marked the words that they correctly recalled (maximum of 60) and the words that they incorrectly recalled (maximum of 4, one from each list).
Before participants heard the second four lists, they were given the following warning: “You might have noticed that each list is made of related words; all the words are related to one common word. For example, you heard the words: bed, rest, pillow, snooze, etc. All these words relate to the critical word sleep.
Sometimes people mistakenly remember that this critical word was presented together with all the others, even when it was not presented. If you remembered the word sleep in the first set of words, it was a false memory.
So when I present the next lot of lists, what I’d like you to do is, for each list, try to figure out the critical word that links all the other words together and note whether it was presented or not. Try not to mistakenly remember the critical word if it was not presented.
After the second set of four lists, participants were asked to recall as many as they could. They were given two minutes for their recall. Participants scored their own recall and marked the words that they correctly recalled (maximum of 60) and the words that they incorrectly recalled (maximum of 4, one from each list).
Participants then submitted their results through a website: they submitted the number of correct words and the number of incorrect words that they remembered from Set 1 (before the warning) and the number of correct words and incorrect words that they remembered from Set 2 (after the warning).
Results
Participants submitted the number of correct words and incorrect words they managed to remember from set 1 of the lists (before the warning) and the number of correct words and incorrect words they remembered from the 2nd set (after the warning). Before the warning, the number of false words (words incorrectly recalled) that the participants reported a mean of 1.75 out of the maximum 4, and a standard deviation of 1.24.
After the warning, the number of words incorrectly recalled by the participants had a mean of 1.45, and a standard deviation of 1.11. The paired t-test resulted that compared the means was t (99) =2.23. p=.028.
In the second phase of questioning, the number of correct words that participants reported had a mean of 17.02 and a standard deviation of 6.48 before the warning. After the warning, the number of words correctly reported by the participants, had a mean of 15.93 and a standard deviation of 5.56, while the paired t-test comparing the means was t(99) = 2.75, p =.007.
Discussion
The most important finding of the study is that early alertness or warning has significant impact in reducing the occurrence of false memories. The findings of the study support the first hypothesis, which states that early alertness reduces the occurrence of misinformation and lowers the chances of creating false memories on events (p>0.05).
High rates of words incorrectly recalled occurred before the warning of participants about the critical words. Recording a relatively higher number of words incorrectly recalled before the warning meant that misinformation occurs more often when the participants have little awareness of the misconstrued information.
Lack of alertness about the occurrence of misinformation makes the participants have high chances of creating false memories relating to the theme presented.
After the warning that gives them high awareness of possibilities of receiving misinformation, participants are capable of recording low numbers of words incorrectly recalled. This means that high alertness about the occurrence of misleading information frequently reduces the chances of creating false memories.
The findings also supported the second hypothesis, which states that late alertness and no alertness have the same effect in causing misinformation or false memories (p<0.05). Before reporting these findings, the initial perception was that there is no positive relationship between DRM memories and misleading information.
DRM false memories postulate that people create false memories on critical words that accommodate several other words of a given theme (Blair, Lenton, & Hastie, 2002). In the list of examinable words provided, participants tended to recall words that were not present in the list, but carried the central theme of the words presented in the list.
Sleep as a critical word, appeared in the participant’s false memories more frequently as one of the words that are renowned in the standard DRM false memory lists. This meant that there was a positive correlation between the DRM memories and misleading information.
The findings are consistent with past research as the science of DRM false memories has been imperative in the educational paradigm, especially when trying to understand the cognitive psychology of children. In establishing facts about false memories in children, Hyman, Husband, and Billings (1995) established that false memories occur due to lack of early warning or alertness among students.
The theoretical explanation of the findings is that early warning or alertness activates schema and enhances memory of a person. Hyman, Husband, and Billings (1995) further revealed that students’ ages were essential in determining results and the way the experimenter created false memories of the events.
In this view, since the study generally examined any participant, its limitation is it does not consider gender and age variations of participants. In real world, activation of schema occurs when students are learning new and strange things, which relate to their experiences in classroom or at home.
Conclusion
Following the conceptions of the DRM paradigm of cognitive psychology, which examines false memories in humans, the chances of having misconstrued memories recalled are high when humans receive the misleading information. However, early alertness about receiving misleading information helps in reducing the chances of building false memories in human brains.
When people remain aware about incoming misleading information, this alertness often reduces the chances of creating false memories. This means that DRM paradigm remains an effective tool in assessing cognitive psychology in humans.
References
Blair, I. V., Lenton, A. P., & Hastie, R. (2002). The reliability of the DRM paradigm as a measure of individual differences in false memories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(3), 590-596.
Hyman, I. E., & James Billings, F. (1998). Individual differences and the creation of false childhood memories. Memory, 6(1), 1-20.
Hyman, I. E., Husband, T. H., & Billings, F. J. (1995). False memories of childhood experiences. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 181-197.
Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(4), 803.
Throughout development stages, children learn to understand people around them including peers and adults. From such understanding, they are able to appreciate the fact that there are inherent differences among themselves in terms of what an individual knows, believes and wants.
In other words, they come to realize that the likelihood of having diverse goals and objectives is real as we possess diverse personalities and overall viewpoint over life. It is from this perspective that some theorists argue that this kind of understanding is referred to as “misreading other’s minds”. Nevertheless, this is known as theory of the mind or social cognition. This essay discusses how theory of mind is vital to the development of social skills.
Theory of the mind simply refers to the ability of a person to relate his mental attributes like desires, beliefs and knowledge to himself and those around and appreciate that other people may possess these attributes differently (Astington & Edward, 2010). Although this definition exploits philosophical thoughts, theory of the mind is different from what is known as philosophy of the mind.
This tries to explore several aspects of the mind since we cannot see what happens in our mind and in the mind of others. As such, what goes on in the mind of others can only be perceived due to lack of direct access. Through comparison, it is deduced that other people have a mind based on their ability to socially interact, proper use of the language and the comprehending of other people’s emotions and actions in response to what could be happening around (Schick, n.d.).
Theory of mind therefore permits people to attribute intensions and thoughts to others in attempt to explain their behavior and perceive possible intentions. Additionally the theory allows people to understand the role of the mental state of a person in explaining their intensions and overall behavior.
This ability to predict and understand other’s behavior and actions is quiet essential in developing and maintaining social relationships in the society (Renouf et al., 2010). In this regard, one is able to visualize the mind as the source of all forms of representations and any form of incompleteness could imply development or cognitive impairment.
Although theory of mind is considered natural in human beings, its fruition requires a wide range of experiences, which may take a number of years. Due to variations among human beings, people tend to develop theories of mind that are different in terms of their effectiveness (Astington & Edward, 2010).
The implication of this is the difference in its impact in the understanding of people’s intentions and behavior, which are imperative in developing certain aspects of one’s social skills. For instance, empathy is always perceived as the ability to recognize other people’s state of mind and is characterized by experiencing another person’s feelings and emotions as a result of what may have happened. Research indicates that theory of mind emanates from the ability of the mind to recognize, scrutinize and illustrate its entire functioning.
Theory of mind is crucial during early development stages of a child as the kid learns to familiarize himself or herself with people around or peers. These social skills make a solid foundation to fit in the society and develop relationships with other members of the society. As noted by Astington and Edward in their 2010 research, development of theory of mind is essential during early stages of human development.
The two argued that social cognition has the ability to help children cope with other people around by allowing them to view life from their own perspectives (Astington & Edward, 2010). All the same, the fundamental principle behind this ability to integrate well and develop social skills that are relevant depends on proper development of theory of mind.
In explaining this concept, it is equally important to note that theory of mind allows a person to have the capability to understand others mentally, considering different mental states which include but not limited to feelings, thoughts and motives. Besides enabling us to understand others mentally, this theory further permits an individual to explain his or her inherent behavior to others by allowing them to know the nature of our thoughts and what we desire to have (Hughes & Leekam, 2004).
In understanding theory of mind and development of social skills, it is vital to emphasize that this theory affects children during different stages of development. For instance, infants are usually quick to interact with family members and other people around and also impel others to interact. It therefore follows that infants are active socially.
This can be explained by focusing on a broader sense of the theory of mind, encompassing the understanding of various states including cognition, emotion, desire and intention. From this perspective, it is possible to explain how infants begin integrating into the world around them at the age of around six months as they are able to differentiate mechanical movement from biological (Hughes & Leekam, 2004).
These abilities further help infants to attend to certain behaviors and be able to view surrounding activities from the agent’s point of view. This progressive development allows infants at the age of twelve months to expect a goal from the other person in a more economical manner. Furthermore, this crucial ability to recognize intentional actions is of great significance in laying the foundation for communicative and social development.
During toddlerhood, children derive a lot of pleasure from imaginative play which triggers the initiation and advancement of the social contact. These “pretend play” skills are essential in co-operative interactions among siblings. It normally has a positive impact on the social life of children since siblings’ interactions are known to have great social-development impact. In addition, theory of mind is a major tool during language development in children (Renouf et al., 2010).
This understanding of the internal state of language allows children to demonstrate their consciousness about feelings, desires and emotions. At pre-school, children are able to comprehend emotions from a sophisticated point of view. They gain the ability to identify the difference between the appearance and feelings of people around them. They are also able to react towards certain events that may have caused alteration of their current or previous mood.
Similarly, these children experience two emotions that are conflicting concurrently. The main advantage of these developments is the fact that they enable children to be “mind-readers” and change their communal interactions (Hughes & Leekam, 2004). This understanding among preschoolers is highly associated with positive peer interactions, empathy and the capability to adhere to rules in order to manage emotional reactions.
Additionally, children at this age appreciate that one’s ability and personality play a major role in determining human behavior. This concept later becomes crucial in shaping the social life of children and in making of friends.
Throughout this stage of development, children show preferences of various social partners, indicating their ability to connect and converse with other children without depending on older people (Hughes & Leekam, 2004). It therefore suffices to mention that theory of mind development shows the manner in which children interact with their social partners.
As children advance in age, they further expand their knowledge about mental representations. Through this process, they are able to understand misconceptions about some beliefs, how biases and expectations impact on individual’s ability to internalize ambiguous events, differences in lies and comprehension of both mixed and undecided feelings (Hughes & Leekam, 2004).
Importantly, this stage of theory of mind enhances harmonic social coexistence as a result of few conflicts emanating from misunderstandings. In addition, children acquire a wide range of skills that are essential in avoiding situations which may lead to embarrassment.
In most cases, theory of mind development also allows individuals to gain clarity of motives, which is important in the manipulation of various social situations that arise. Although most children may exhibit high levels of physical aggression, middle childhood is characterized by relational aggregation, a behavior that extends to adulthood. Research also indicates that bullies develop higher theory of mind skills as compared to other people in the society.
This affects their socialization as they are physically aggressive and hostile. On the other hand, development in theory of mind when a child is underage may lead to extreme sensitivity to criticism, which may breed low self-esteem and nervousness (Hughes & Leekam, 2004).
From this discussion, it is clear that theory of mind is important in development of social skills, a process which begins at infancy and proceeds to adulthood. Throughout these development stages, people gain finer social skills to adapt to different situations in the social setup.
Hughes, C., & Leekam, S. (2004). What are the Links between Theory of Mind and Social Relations? Review, Reflections and New Directions for Studies of Typical and Atypical Development. Social Development, 13(4), 590-619.
Renouf et al. (2010). Relations between Theory of Mind and Indirect and Physical Aggression in Kindergarten: Evidence of the Moderating Role of Pro-social Behaviors. Social Development, 19(3), 535-555.
Learning Paper The human mind is controlled by the brain organ which is the basic unit for thinking, perceiving, behavior, learning and memory. Memory is the basic mental process that enables our brain to adapt to permanent behaviors rather than simple reflexes. Thus, learning and memory are intertwined and extensive research in this area has been undertaken. Other authorities have defined memory as the comparatively permanent transformation in a person’s behavior or his potential which is as a result of experience or learning. It is an internal change inferred from overt behavior and may be compared with other primary process producing relatively permanent change (maturation) that results from biological growth and development.
Behaviorist learning as pioneered by Watson (1963) who developed the stimulus-response model suggested that people learn from each other and as a result produces a behavioral change. The change is driven by the external environment of the learner and requires repetition and reinforcement. In addition, it can be asserted that learning is imparted by the recognizing the positive consequences of the behavioral change and that learning would occur when the brain could systematically link together behaviors into pattern. Cognitivist learning is concerned with the internalization of mental process. This refers to the ability to review a situation and act knowingly. In this type of learning, the human brain processes and reorganizes the data it receives. Memory interlinks what a person learns and retains the information and is the cognitive process of relating what has been learnt. The term cognition is widely defined as “the mental process or faculty of knowing”. The key goal of teaching and learning is to enable a person to reach a cognitive peak about a certain topic. Learning process has been divided into three stages namely; cognitive, practice and knowledge of performance. This means that practice will be perfected when a personal receives the results. However the state of awareness is reached after the student is encouraged to put the course into perspective that can be entered into memory. It is also important to consider environmental forces and how they affect learning (Wickens, 2005). To enable the student to commit data into memory, the teaching g must include materials and practical in his teaching methods. Moreover, students are different and therefore teachers are encouraged to use varying methods while presenting the information to capture the receptivity of every student. Effective learning must identify the mental process of the mind so that the learner may be helped in retaining the presented material. Since the external environment is beyond our control an effective teacher should introduce and control teaching strategies. To master a small amount of material advances future undertakings by the student and this encourages others to reach similar goals of learning. Thus, education should be an ultimate goal that helps student to learn how to think (Wickens, 2005). Memory comes in handy when a person is required to retain and recall past events. Memory is divided into three phases namely; sensory, short-term and long term. Sensory memory (i.e. hearing, vision) lasts for one second; short-term memory is usually maintained by rehearsal and long term memory lasts for unlimited period of time. Research has shown that learning takes place when a student can recall information from long term memory. The connection between memory and retrieving of data should device a lesson plan to support student in the moral process which enhances learning. Since the long term memory is the most crucial in the process of learning, and student’s major problem is to remember what they learned, an effective teacher should equip the students with organizational procedures. These include; sorting of information, relating, arranging and grouping information for easier remembrance.
References
Watson, J. B. (1963). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological review, 20,158. Wickens, Andrew P. (2005). Foundations of biopsychology (2nd ed.). Harlow, England; New York: Pearson, Prentice Hall.
The study of the mind is considered to be a science in itself. Basically, its so because it focuses on the functioning of the brain and the output thereafter as in character of an individual (cause and effect). Psychology is the term used to describe this as “the scientific study of the way the human mind functions”. In the past that there have been several means through which man has attempted to study the mind including functionalism, psychoanalysis and behaviorism among others.
What Experts Say
The experts in this field used several approaches to study the mind. Behaviorism has been the commonest as it shows better results and easy interpretation. As a science, the study of the mind has been suggested to include nature of the mind, the way it functions and the possible inner being or human activities of the mind (Holmes, 12). This will include issues like thought, concentration, intent and imagination. This is very beneficial as it has been indicated to develop techniques that enable people become conscious of the mind function and enhance use and control of such functions.
The law of effect is very critical in the study of the mind. It describes the thoughts as cause the manifested likeness is the effect. This law exemplifies a universal fact that thoughts are just things and that they are real and with an effect on the forces that infuse and create life in the whole universe (Holmes, 19). Though not dense matter, thoughts help people create their own realities and qualities of life. These manifestations are as a result of thinking and physical behaviors are effects of action.
Studying the mind is made possible by studying the human behavior. This is because the thought from the mind is considered a cause and the behavior thereafter as the effect (Santrock, 23). This is where the law of effect comes into play. Some books that can be of importance include The Science of Mind by Ernest Holmes; Ernst R and Blair-Broeker’s Thinking about Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior; J.W Santrock’s Psychology: the science of mind and behavior and Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior by Gross Richard.
Theory of Consciousness
According to the theory of consciousness, it’s through this awareness that people get to know the world around them and within. Consciousness is integrated on several things and that the information the mind perceive is integrated as well. To achieve consciousness, there has to be a single and integrated unit with a great repertoire of exceedingly differentiated statuses (Santrock, 23). This can explain several puzzling observations. Cerebellum has more neurons than the cerebral cortex. If one loses it consciousness will be impaired.
There is some scientific way of measuring the reaction of the brain as a person thinks or imagines different situations. Measuring imagination is a major proof that the brain and the mind are connected though the evidence is not so clear. Chemical reactions that occur during a process of thought present a new approach for future studies (Santrock, 23).
Conclusion
The current studies of Psychology and Psychiatry are valid as science as they study the functioning of man as an entity of investigation science. Legitimate science takes into account all aspects that possibly relate to it. The data is not just restricted to specific smaller realms of data but covers larger areas that will conform to the theories.
Work Cited
Holmes, Ernest. The Science Of Mind. Wilder Publications, 2007.
Santrock W. John., Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior. W.C. Brown. 2009.
The dichotomy of the mind is a concept of dualism. The mind exists as a separate entity from the body, thus both can work separately. The mind and body have different effects on each other.
Thus, one tries to gain control over the other. The stronger one eventually overpowers the weaker one and gains control. Both the mind and body are a danger to each other. Despite this, the mind is considered to be positive, while the body is considered to be negative in nature.
Similarities
The strength of the two is dependent on which one is stronger. In that case, one overpowers the other. Wong is characterized by dualism. This is the same case with Mr. Yee. Thus, both have two personalities that interact with each other at the same time.
The first mutually exclusive character within Wong is comprised of her spying personality. This is the personality that is able to interact with Mr. Yee’s personality. In Mong’s case, the mind is the privileged aspect of her. It takes precedence of her activities and determines what she does.
Her inferior character is her physical self. Thus, the mind is in control of her physical self. It is the mind that has determined the activities that she is doing. On the other hand, her body represents her physical aspect. It is the negative part that the mind has been able to overcome.
Despite the dangers, Wang has established herself as a spy. It takes many years for her to be trusted by Mr. Yee and be considered as his mistress. Thus, the mind ensured her safety as it controlled the body. The body will be a danger to Wong if it is allowed to gain control over her.
Thus, the mind has been able to sustain her in a dangerous position for a long time and maintained her secret identity.
Mr. Yee is controlled by his physical aspect during his interactions with Wong. It is the dangerous part because it can lead to his assassination. The assassination attempt involves riddance of the physical aspect of Mr. Yee.
It is seen as an effective method as the collaborator will no longer be able to conduct the wishes of his mind. Thus, Wong’s mind has been able to control both her physical aspect and Mr. Yee’s physical aspect.
Thus, the actor and spy have been able to be defined by dualism. There is a dichotomy of the mind because it is able to control both characters
There also exists a similarity at the end when both characters are able to switch their body and mind, a process that can be termed as refiguring. Both characters change the basic aspects of the body so that control is determined by either the body or the mind.
In the actor’s case, her body was able to take control of her mind. This led her to make rush decisions, thus becoming more exposed to dangerous circumstances. It is for this reason that led to the death of her comrades and loss of her life. Thus, the body is a danger to the mind.
It is the mind that ensures control of the body, thus the mind is able to survive within the body. In some cases, the body begins or tries to regain control, leading to dangers and harm to the body.
Women’s bodies are considered as their weakness. Their bodies will easily take over control of their minds, thus their negative part will have power. In Mr. Yee’s case, his mind was able to take precedence over his body later on.
This is where he was able to realize that there was an assassination plot against him. Grosz has been able to detail that when a comparison is done between the body and mind, it is the mind that will easily win.
The mind has control over nature, and the ability to reason makes it the primary between the mind and the body.
Differences
The spy and the actor have various differences that can be seen because the final occurrence defines whether the body or mind is stronger in both characters. Initially, it can be seen that Wong’s mind is stronger, but the body is able to become stronger.
In comparison, Mr. Yee’s body had precedence over the mind during the beginning of the film. It was later that refiguring occurred. Thereafter, Mr. Yee’s mind overcame his body and he was able to recognize the dangers surrounding it.
Wong’s faults begin when she goes into the domain of sexuality. Thus, the principles guiding her mind receded and she was faced with ambiguity. This realization does not happen in an instant; instead, it arises from a feedback loop occurring between perception and actions.
Personal body actions result from perception and the environmental attributes that occur encourage more actions. Constant sexual encounters within the film result in better understanding of the environment and how the characters are influenced.
Wong fails to remember more details of her initial mission due to the duration of her assignment. She is attracted to Mr. Yee and is tired of her initial task. Thus, she has grown tired of her deceptive ways as the body begins to overcome her mind.
Wong once lived in Shanghai where access to basic needs was difficult. Thereafter, she was able to enjoy a better lifestyle once she moved to Hong Kong. She is wealthy, a consequence of her interactions with Mr. Yee.
She has been in her fake position for many years and it has become a ritual to her. Thus, cognition becomes available through these interactions. Reasoning it is not achieved through thought, but through how the environment has influenced the person.
Wong does not think about her past in order to inform her current decisions. Thus, she is not able to play the original duties expected of her. Wong’s changed reasoning results in the application of a modified response. She adapts into her new environment, leading to her demise.
In the scenario above, the mind and body can be related to the human and environment. Thus, Wong is a human who takes over her environment. She is able to control it, but refiguring occurs after a period of time within the environment.
She was controlled by her environment and her decisions were determined by her environment. There are various factors that can result in reconfiguring. According to Grosz, the body is influenced by such factors. In the film, Wong was influenced by sexual desires.
The body acts like a system of meaning and it derives its importance from the environment. Thus, meaning is only achieved through the actions of the body.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the general aspects of lust and caution within the movie can be compared to the mind and the body. Caution results from the mind, while lust results from the body.
The body is considered as a negative aspect amongst the two and leads to dangers. In “Lust, Caution”, the spy’s body had greater control over her than the mind, leading to her execution.
The modern lifestyle has made the Americans to simply find a middle ground for adaptation as the modern inventions become complex each day. Although majority members of the society can be considered relatively normal, they have to live within an altered state of mind, which programs the mind to unconsciously slip, while protecting its autonomy to selection of the kind of information to keep, irrespective of the number of times of interaction with the stimuli.
When the mind is faced with innovations such the internet, television, and shopping experience, it will transition into a distorted state to protect itself from the unnecessary information storage.
Internet and altered state
In the internet age, a computer user may quickly get engrossed in surfing and even forget the primary reason for browsing the internet. Before such an individual realize, he or she has spent several hours immense in search, research, and entertainment from the tone of information easily accessible. For instance, a prolonged online chart may create an imagination of transition from the virtual (unreal) world to a real world.
Actually, despite the several hours spent online charting, the mind may not remember the conversations after a short while as a result of its selective mechanism of transitional information engagement. As a result of the complete engrossment in the online engagement, an individual may lose touch with the reality and will not be in a position to track time usage and the information gathered.
Television and altered state
Television viewing has become a culture and part of everyday activity of a typical American. It is found in every household and it has replaced the formed form of engagement enjoyed by the yesterday generation. It is a common phenomenon for an individual sit inactively for several hours watching different programs and commercials. Since it is unusual for the mind, it will transit into a mesmerizing daydream.
At this state, the mind may only function as a centre for temporary holding information, which is quickly let to pass without having to occupy a space in the imagination module. Such an individual will be able to hear sounds and sight visuals in the programs without having the capacity to remember what happens after a short while. For instance, an individual may watch the same commercial everyday but will never recall the words or actions of the actors simply because the mind goes into trance every time the visual images and sounds replay.
Shopping and altered state
In the typical shopping experience, especially in the modern malls, different stimuli such as smell, colour, texture, and sound interact to barrage the mind as each element compete to gain the centre of attention of the shopper.
As a result of the dazing experience, the shopper’s imagination may be clouded and made to feel like wading through a mysterious maze that does not have its beginning or end. As a result, everything will appear similar and a sense of confusion may stream in. In this state of confusion, the person will forget what he or she wanted to buy, especially within the preconceived shopping plan.
Conclusion
Apparently, individuals browsing the internet, watching TV, and shopping in a mall share a similar behaviour in trying to put up with the mind-boggling contraptions of the contemporary life. Actually, the adaptation phase has instigated a self defence mechanism in the mind through passive response to the stimuli generated by these inventions.
Convenient sampling refers to the use of respondents who are available at the time you need them. I used convenient sampling in picking interviewees, whereby I excused myself to each respondent, requesting them to kindly spare me their time to interview them. I promised them confidentiality to the information they would give, anonymity, and that it was purely for research. The interviewees were college students aged nineteen, and I approached them while leaving school after classes. With the aim of being able to study the thoughts of the interviewees on certain issues, I took 15 minutes to interview the individuals, and indeed it was worth the time spent.
The session was interactive as the interviewees were so free in pouring their hearts out, making it easier for me to gather the necessary information I intended to have. I had an objective of finding out the errors young adults make in their minds on mere comments, how people perceive them, and advancements made towards them.
I realized that the interviewees were steadily developing biologically, cognitively, and psychosocially. Biologically those that mature early in terms of physical appearance are perceived to be older. Girls who mature early are taken advantage of and exposed to social ills such as early initiation into sexual activities, pregnancies, and even early substance use (Cole & Hall, 2009). On the other hand, boys are assumed to be more responsible and believed to be better performers in sporting activities. Adolescents have stopped reasoning as children, who only think of the present but think as adults. They embrace both concrete thinking and abstract thinking. They are able to think and make inferences out of their imaginations hypothetically. Adolescents are ready to take risks in new adventures as they only think of the fun part of it. For instance, members of opposite sexes have crushes on each other and any advance extended to an individual is perceived to be sexually attached. When an individual offers something to a member of the opposite sex, other adolescents who witness that think that the one offering is crushing on the one given. The one is given, on the other hand, may think that she/he is offered the gift because of some reason. Nonetheless, the one offering the gift may also have some feelings behind the gift.
Adolescents start being sensitive to what people will say about them. They showcase their concerns through hairstyles, clothing, language, and even accessories (Prester, 2009). These help them in seeking attention from their peers and even older people. Similarly, these also aid in building confidence among them. Most of the adolescents believe that having crazy hairstyles, funny clothing, speaking in slang, and having expensive accessories such as phones make them have many followers and likes from their peers.
Adolescents think that they can be independent. This makes them start hustling on their own in search of self-identity and self -worth separate from that of their parents or guardians. This is done through the exploration of one’s talents, being goal-oriented, and identifying opportunities that could lead them to such independence (Bálint, 2014). Being future-oriented is also another way of gaining a self- identity. Youths gain cognitive maturity, which is vital in developing their future careers, and they are likely to also refine their morals, sexual values, and beliefs. They expect to be treated as adults and have access to alcohol and other drugs, among other freedoms like attending night clubs (Belsky, n.d.).
Jean Piaget, in his theory of cognitive development, helps in understanding this age group (as cited in Cole & Hall, 2009). He clearly states that at this stage, one tends to think both in concrete and abstract situations while Lehman and Nisbett disagree, arguing that one will not be in a position to think abstractly at this age if not exposed to an idea or concept ( as cited in Bálint, 2014).
In conclusion, I have learned that the adolescence stage comes with a lot of excitement and confusion and that when those undergoing this stage are not early prepared psychologically and mentally, they may end up making mistakes, some of which may affect them all their lives. Every adult passes through this stage, and most of the thinking errors are made by almost everyone at this stage. For instance, in adolescence, most people think of seeking attention through language, clothing, and hairstyle, among other things. Men tend to get different funny haircuts as women try to style their hairs in such a way that they think will attract the opposite sex.
This topic has helped me understand my children because this is a stage they have to pass through, just the way I passed through it. I now understand why my parents and grandparents were very hard on me during my adolescence: they feared that I could go astray. They helped me understand the errors of thoughts young adults commit. Through my parent’s and grandparents ‘advice, I was able to understand why my friends and I made errors in thoughts and perception at adolescents.
References
Bálint, Á. (2014). Towards the positive psychology of adolescence. Hungarian Educational Research Journal, 4(2), 23-27. Web.
Belsky, J. (n.d.). Experiencing the lifespan (3rd edition).
Cole, L. & Hall, I. (2009). Psychology of adolescence. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Prester, T. (2009). Psychology of adolescents. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publisher