Art: Discuss, separately, how ancient cave paintings and shell beads indicate changes in how humans have thought over time
Ancient cave paintings were the inception of human culture, communication, and technology. The cave paintings and shell beads indicate the birth of the human mind. They show how humans evolved from being only involved in survival activity with other pursuits in life, namely, social interaction. These shell beads indicate a human race distinct from their natural self into a social animal with a distinct social identity. Archaeologist Randale White excavated thousands of shell beads from a cave sight in France. He believes it is a tremendous finding as they indicate the first phases in human evolution where humans seized to be mere flesh-eating hunters but evolved as social beings.
Technology: The spear-use demonstration by John Shea and the pictures of the Neandertal and human burials are both dramatic. Give one example of how the human version of each of these might have helped humans survive and reproduce better than Neandertals
The experiment demonstrated by John Shea showed how the Neanderthals were at a disadvantage vis-à-vis modern humans in terms of weapon technology. Both used a spear for hunting, however, the spear developed by the Neanderthals were used as a weapon to go for the kill at a very short distance. The Neanderthals used the spear to kill the animal taking greater risk. Even if they threw the weapon, it just managed to go twenty meters. On the other hand, modern humans developed a spear that was lighter and used it to throw the weapon to a distance of forty-two meters, a clear advantage over the Neanderthals. Overall, the Neanderthals took a greater risk with a technology that was not as evolved as that of the modern man.
The burial ground of both the Neanderthals and the modern man was also dramatically different. The formers were dug into a pit with no attention or decoration given to the burial ground indicating that they did not have any importance given to the symbolism of life and death. On the other hand, the modern human burial ground found in Russia shows burials intricately decorated with weeds indicating great respect for death among modern humans.
Language: were you surprised to see that gossip might be central to how the human mind has formed? Why or why not? How do you think this might relate to the story about deaf children in Nicaragua?
One would expect to find gossip as the reason for which social communication has developed but when one thinks more intently it becomes clear that the need to speak, develop a language, to talk was not required if one just had to constraint oneself to the expression of diurnal needs. According to Robin Dunbar, two-thirds of all conversation is essentially gossip (Hemingway). Steven Pinker believes that gossip is essentially an opportunity to get hold of social standing, but it is also important for other activities. The story of the Nicaraguan deaf children demonstrates how a sign language can evolve on its own without the barrier of any pre-formed syntax to enhance communication. This essentially shows how language may have evolved in prehistoric times for the modern man.
Were you convinced by the information presented in this video that we understand all that happened during this long time?
The video very briefly presented the evolution of humans from chimpanzees through their social interactions and their communication skills. Chimps cannot distinguish between deceits, conceal the fact, and look at other’s points of view and ability that humans develop by the age of five. Scientists believe being socially competent is an important skill when the brain has to develop faster to gain greater social intelligence and, thus, the next generation has to be more socially complex.
Do you agree with suggesting that cultural evolution could suppress biological evolution?
Richard Dawkins of Oxford University believes that the evolution of the human race as we see it now is more of cultural evolution than genetic evolution (Hemingway). Sue Blackmore believes that it is more of memes i.e., the evolution of language, culture, technology, social bearing, that has evolved over the ages and not just the genes, which has evolved but not at an exponential rate (Hemingway). Memes are also copied, and they are copied by the brains and are passed one through generation. The documentary shows that social evolution could also subdue biological evolution. I believe evolution goes genes, and memes are moving simultaneously, but advanced technological and social skills have aggravated the process of evolution of the minds.
Works Cited
The Mind’s Big Bang. Dir. John Hemingway. Perf. Liam Neeson. 2002. Web.
Jane Jacobs (2004) explains that science is admired in North America, and it can be explained by the fact that science has revealed significant information about the planet and its inhabitants. Although some people may oppose science based on their ideological views and accuse it of removing the enchantment from existence, science is fascinated with every detail of the world. Science can uncover dangerous knowledge that leads to destruction and violence, but it also can guide people in finding and fixing existing problems. Thus, science remains at the center of influence for the culture of North America as well as South and East Asia.
Science is a state of mind that is guided by the desire to discover truths about reality. It is different from other pursuits such as spying and guessing because it has specific limitations and rules with which these restrictions are applied. There are four stages in which any scientific problem is considered, and they are repeated indefinitely since the unraveling of one problem creates others. The first one is the posing of a “fruitful” question – an inquiry that considers all previously uncovered knowledge but introduces a new mystery. The second step is the framing of a hypothetical answer that often requires a scientist to employ creativity, imagination, insight, and courage. During the third stage, this hypothesis is tested, either by nature itself or in a laboratory setting, and its results reveal whether the proposed answer was correct or not. While the real world eventually tests all hypotheses, the information does not always become apparent to people quickly since they may deny or ignore the truth. Finally, the results of this discovery invite new questions to be asked, thus closing the circle of scientific research and making the process continuous and self-renewing.
Reference
Jacobs, J. (2004). Dark age ahead. New York, NY: Random House.
Skiing is defined as a sport that allows a person to travel over snow using skis and boots specialized for this sport. This sport has two main categories, including Nordic and Alpine skiing, with the latter origins being in the European Alps, while the former originated from Scandinavia.
Skiing is an ice sport that requires a lot of precision, courage, determination, practice and motivation. This sport is not for the faint hearted or for those that are cold averse since bad weather is synonymous with the winter season in Europe, when the sport is played.
To succeed in the sport professionally, skiers need to be athletic, handy and comfortable with discomfort, love the country (read mountains), and possess high level of physical coordination. Skiing could be termed as an extreme sport (it involves height, speed, special gear, risk and high level of physical exertion), and is usually categorized as sky diving and surfing, snowboarding, and mountain biking among other extreme sports.
In skiing, mastery is paramount if the skier it to move to the next level of the Sport which goes up to getting a Euro Speed Test qualification. This is a qualification that every ski instructor and professional skier in European countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Spain, Australia and the UK has to acquire in the course of their career. The Euro Speed Test is a must have requirement for one to become a Ski Instructor, and is part of the Level 4 International Ski Teacher’s Diploma (ISTD).[1]
The Euro Speed Test is also international and has tough rules and regulations. This is the reason why only the very passionate, competent and determined individuals are successful after working very hard at attaining it. [2] People who seek out skiing are mostly in search of excitement, thrill, excellence, social affiliation, self-actualization and the obvious physical fitness.
Like any other sport, skiing enhances the physical and psychological health of the skier, and improves their self-image. However, the skiers need to also take care of themselves not only physically, but also psychologically, spiritually, and all round, in order to enhance their endurance of the harshness of the sport.
The subject of psychology comes to light in this discussion because, for the sportsmen/ women to perform to their optimum, they have to be physically, technically and most importantly mentally fit to be able to meet the demands of the competitive and exerting sport. Skiers need to be psychologically ready for the ski racing competition.
This paper will be a source of information for sportsmen, regarding how to best prepare and keep psychologically fit for a competition that is both physically and mentally demanding. The positive impacts and importance of mental preparedness to skiing will also be highlighted. The Euro Speed Test will also be discussed in detail to give interested parties an insight into this important qualification for Skiers.
The main characteristics of high caliber ski competitors include passion for the sport, determination, persistence, drive and self-motivation. These competitors are hard-working and spend hours every day training. Skiing is a sport that involves extreme conditions and regulations, and the professional skier needs to be well prepared psychologically to face the competition positively. This paper focuses on the mental preparedness aspects of a skier whose intention is to pass a Euro Speed Test.
Views of Different Personalities regarding this sport
Professional skiing is for those who want to go beyond their boundaries, for the risk takers, for those who want to exert their full body and mind into the sport and the competition, and those who are passionate about the sport.
American Psychiatrists, Kramer and Why disclosed some insights regarding this sport, “I’d prefer to answer ‘why ski’ in terms of exhilaration or the conquest of fear, but my persisting with the sport bespeaks a certain obstinacy; when I succeed (in limited fashion) that same trait must count among the explanations” [3] This message shows that skiing competitors are the most driven and courageous characters, for without these characteristics, it becomes difficult to be a high achiever in skiing.
Smith, the Author of SKI Instructors Confidential and a Ski Instructor has talked extensively in his online comments about his love and thrill for skiing despite being an instructor for many groups of students, and others who are out to have fun – outside of the normal hustle and bustle of life. Smith believes in the power of mental training for skiers and sports personalities.
This is clear from his observation that, “A fundamental aspect of the mental side of sports is that athletes possess differing levels of mental skills that, like technical skills, can be developed with time and practice… mental factors such as self-confidence and concentration are malleable characteristics. Given the appropriate training, significant improvement may result.”[4]
The quality of the mental training and the abilities of the competitors have an impact on the actual outcome of the sporting competition. The mental status of the skiers affects their physical and technical outputs, and therefore needs to be well taken care of.
This is because the mind is a very powerful organ and is instrumental in life, as it fuels the action of the other organs either positively or negatively. When the person involved is optimistic and views everything with a positive and affirmative spirit, then, there is no limit to what they can achieve.
On the other hand, a pessimist and emotionally laid back individual may not achieve much, unless they work at improving their mental attitude, which can be developed and improved with the right coaching and mentoring. It therefore goes without saying that a ski coach or instructor, and the people that are around the skier while he trains, socializes and goes about the business of his training routine are fundamental in supporting his success in the final analysis.
Psychology and the Euro Speed Test
Sport psychology can be defined as the mental preparedness of the sportsman/woman for the day to day requirements of pursuing a certain sport including the physical practice and training on techniques of the sport. It also involves the preparation for upcoming competitions which are normally big events with dynamic conditionality, demands and professional requirements.
Sport psychology is a discipline that is most suited for those sportsmen/women who want to pursue professional careers in Skiing and who are aiming to attain the Euro Speed Test qualification. Competitions can turn even the most competent skier into a nervous wreck. It brings along with it a lot of anxiety and uncertainties.[5]
It is the dream of all professional Skiers in most European countries to attain the Euro Speed Test qualification in European Skiing, as it gives them an edge above the everyday Skier. For a Skier to be psychologically fit for the competition ahead of him/her, be it the normal ski tests or even the much tougher Euro Speed Test, they need to follow various guidelines that will help quell their nerves during the races.
A little anxiety is good to motivate the person to aim for the best, and to be in a mentally alert mode. Too much anxiety can be disastrous as it could lead to panic. However, excitement that is brought about by an adrenalin rush of facing the giant Euro Speed Test is a positive push for the skier. It would help much if the skier would view all the practice sessions before the big competition as the real thing. [6]
This means tuning the mind to the big event and all the expectations that come with it, aiming at excellence, dressing in the most comfortable and performance enhancing gear, having the right attitude, using visualization techniques that show a picture of winning and excellence, and performing with the same zeal and precision expected during the Euro Speed Test.
It could also be a big plus if the skier requests for some rehearsal, whenever this is possible, and when they are out there in the ice ranks practicing. This means, that the coach approaches his work during practice sessions as he will on the race day. The competitor wears the costume that will be worn during the race, goes through the race course to master the corners and the terrain, and invites friends and colleagues to act as the audience as this will be a good example of what to expect.
In essence, it will be in the best interests of the competitor to do everything in simulation of the main day, which will help towards reaching the target (the Euro Speed Test qualification). Building confidence during the training period is also a great way of preparing effectively for the Euro Speed Test.
This could be done through positive journaling where positive happenings during trainings are recorded on a daily basis. Going through the journal before the races will give the competitor a boost in confidence and belief in his/her abilities to win. Confidence could also be built by teaming up with other like-minded individuals during daily practice and in cases where the coach acts as a mentor and friend of the competitors.
All these tips that relates to subduing the nerves just before skiing competition have been recommended by Perlus, an author who has published various works including the Ultimate Achievement Journal. [7] According to Knudsen, the high flying skiers in the world have some mantra they follow to help them stay on top of the game and to keep the momentum and motivation. He referred to these as ‘merely good sports psychology’.[8]
Imagery is the art of visualization or imagined sensations. This theory projects that, if a skier constantly imagines something or in this case a series of physical movement, this visualization can greatly improve performance during the actual sport. Attention focus is straight forward and is the focusing of one’s attention on a particular task or physical movement, to the extent that distractions become a background occurrence.
In a field where the crowd is cheering, commentators are on top of their game, and the weather is rearing, if a sportsman employs the attention focus technique, then they will only focus on their skiing target, which is likely to bring forth success.
Internal monologue is an art of sports psychology where the sports person maintains a positive and winning attitude. Basically, attention focus is speaking positively to oneself, affirming your skills and talent, barring the mental obstacles, before and during the competition that you are going to win despite the odds.
Murrel in his paper Psychology of Skiing adds onto the tactics of psychological survival for the skiing professionals with what he calls neuro associative conditioning (NAS) and Anchoring. [9] He explains this concept as imagining the impact of one’s skiing by turning on high-performance state.
What clearly comes out from this is that repeating the same thing many times becomes a conditioning, and this applies to skiing too. He recommends this kind of conditioning for the ski race competitors. This is assuming that the competitors are quite passionate and driven about achieving success, because having the heart into something really makes all the difference between getting it right, or being just mediocre.
Like in any other sport or any other thing in life really, it helps for a skier to practice relentlessly, to be persistent, focused on the goal, and determined to get the prize. This will lead to mastery of the intricacies of the sport and to ultimate success. It is the goal of each competitor to be number one, and that is why it is imperative that they practice some of the recommended psychological techniques for winning according to individual situations and believes.
The coach or instructor is a key player and determinant of how the skier will be mentally prepared for the big day. The ski instructor or coach is not just the trainer, but rather becomes a mentor for the competitors and plays the role of teacher, friend, parent and even psychologist.
The coach is the person that steers the racer on, even when the practice seems to drag. He encourages and re-asserts hope. The coach is expected to have knowledge in diverse matters pertinent to the racers success including physiology, biomechanics, education and even psychology. The coach is instrumental being the closest professional skier to the racer, and who can give the right guidance.
Importance of Preparing Mentally For Skiing
In line with the above recommended ways of keeping fit psychologically for the high flying skiers, there is need to understand why this is important and what is aimed at, for the benefit of the skier. Mental preparedness calls for step by step planning and goal setting. In skiing, it means that every day during training and practice, the skier is preparing in doses, with the big picture in mind (the race).
This systematic and structured way of doing things leads to success. As the old adage says, ‘failing to plan is planning to fail’. In the same way, failing to prepare psychologically for the overall plan of action in good advance before a race comes up is a sure way of failing. When the skier is mentally well prepared for what to expect during the race, then it goes without saying that this relaxation and confidence will propel the person to success.
Racers, to which group professional skiers belong, need to have a relaxation and winding down routine, to build their mental strength. These activities could include having adequate sleep, meditating, deep breathing and relaxation techniques, yoga, reading, eating healthy, and having positive people around them.
These are part of the package of mentally preparing for the competition and the Euro Speed Test. They enhance vitality, strength and energy level in the skiers. It is difficult to separate the physical, technical and mental aspects in skiing, as they all act as one big package towards the success of the racer.
The physical and technical competencies could be well developed, but if the skier is not in a good and positive mental disposition, then all these other competencies contribute minimally to success. Mental preparedness builds self-confidence and belief in self among the skiers.
The positive affirmations under the guidance of a professional coach can play a vital role in helping and supporting the racers to aim higher and believe in their abilities. Mental preparedness, that is, visualizing the worst case scenario especially in terms of weather and getting ready to handle the situation, enhances the racers responsiveness to harsh conditions of bad weather, tough courses, difficult snow conditions, and further equips the racers to be prepared for any kind of eventuality during the competition.
The Euro Speed Test
The Euro Speed Test qualification is a credential that is valued in the skiing field and once acquired opens many doors for the professional skier. This test is the optimum for the professional skier and after its acquisition; the skier is certified to become a ski instructor. The Euro Speed Test is a competition like any other and is therefore cause for adrenalin rushes, anxiety, and panic to some competitors.
Having crowds watching and judges checking every move of the competitors makes it no easier, but rather increases the pressure points. The length of time that the skiers have to wait before they get a chance to start the completion, which can sometimes take hours, is a big cause for anxiety and nerve wracking for the skier who is in line, and could work against the skier’s abilities and competencies due to the mental strain.
They could become less responsive and lose focus on the target when it takes too long to start. However, it would help the professional skiers to prepare for this unavoidable occurrence, by practicing visualization techniques during intervals of the long wait. Visualization helps the mind to keep active and occupied and is a technique of delayed gratification. When the skier uses the visualization technique effectively in this scenario, success will be most likely realized.
This program prepares the skier for technical free-skiing on challenging terrains including chutes, steeps, off-piste and moguls. The program philosophy is to set up the skier for large mountain tournaments, while at the same time training them how to become responsible and physically and mentally well-built. It is also focused on preparing the athletes to safely find their way on a variable terrain with extreme snow conditions.
In this view, the Euro Speed Test is designed to encourage participants to enhance general wellness, find out the critical skills and joys of ski racing, build and develop friendship, build self-confidence, productive use of time, and learn how to set and achieve goals. To ensure that the program is successful, its organizers must set some goals for their programs. The goals of Euro Speed Test are set as follows: [10]
Develop advanced ski racing skills within our participants
To ensure that our program teaches the participants on psychological and physical well being
Provide and environment which is favorable to enhance and maintain friendship
To encourage teamwork in sport
Help participants realize their personal goals.
Physiology of Skiing
All major muscles of the body are engaged during skiing especially in cross-country skiing. Because of this, skiing is the best training for keeping fit and developing endurance. Skiers have the highest maximal oxygen uptakes (this is how much blood the heart can pump). This means that for skiers to be successful in the sport, they need to have well-functioning hearts as well as lungs for oxygen purposes. When the skier’s body has a high capacity to uptake oxygen, then it is likely that success will be realized in a race. [11]
This is because oxygen is transferred to the working muscles in right quantities and at the right time, enabling the body to travel faster and over long distances. Skiers therefore need to include high level aerobic exercises in their training regime. Training of top skiers needs to be professional in order to build their oxygen uptakes and energy levels.
Relevant and effective training is important in the life of a skier as this will protect the competitor from injuries which may occur in case they hit slopes unprepared, and more so because they spend an average of 5 hours a day on the slopes practicing and training and need to be strong.
Leg muscles, especially thigh muscles, need tender care and regular exercise as they are the group of muscles mostly involved while skiing. Strength training including squats and lunges are the most recommended for strengthening leg muscles. Stretching of all muscles before and after skiing is also recommended for best results.
Physical wellbeing also enhances the psychological wellbeing of a skier, and therefore this two should go in tandem. Regular visits to a physiotherapist are also a good idea especially for those that experience some weaknesses, swelling or stiffness of muscles while training for the race. The following table shows the maximum oxygen uptake values for different sports, and skiing scores the highest, even ahead of a marathon. [12]
Preparing for a ski competition is a long process for the racers. It requires physical, technical and mental training on how to handle the race. Regular practice and relentless learning and preparedness, do actually contribute to improved performance and ultimately to success.
A professional skier who has participated in other races stands a better chance of winning as compared to an amateur or a person without much experience. On the other hand, due to the physiological factors that have been discussed in this essay, regarding requirement for strength and aerobic training to build and strengthen leg muscles, it would be right to say that a younger person does stand a better chance than an older one in racing.
This is assuming that both have received similar training, practice and preparation, and all other factors remaining constant, considering the younger person has more energy and has maximal oxygen uptake due to youth and vitality. This is also in assuming that the heart and lungs of the younger person are functioning at optimal levels.[13]
Conclusion
Skiing is no doubt a sport for the go-getters and those who are naturally physically active, people who are always looking for the next bigger challenge fit in this category as well. One thing is clear though, this is not a sport to do at whim, if success and professionalism is the target.
It requires commitment, persistence, self-discipline and high energy levels for excellent execution. For a professional skier to be successful, they need to develop and train in the physical, technical and mental aspects as detailed in this paper. The mental preparedness of a skier is vital for their performance during the competition. It is even more important when preparing to attain the tough Euro Speed Test qualification.
Bibliography
British Association of SnowSport Instructors, Module Information: The Euro Speed Test is the highest level of qualification by the British, Union publishers, London, 2002.
Gallwey, WT, & R, Krigel, Inner Skiing, Random House, New York, 1977.
Knudsen, E, ‘Sports Psychology and Skiing’, Ezine Articles, 5 January 2011.
Kramer, P & S Why, A practicing Doctor’s Views on Psychiatry and Contemporary Culture, In Practice, London, 2009.
Montana State University-Bozeman, Physiology and Psychology: Performance Benchmarks-Maximal Oxygen Uptake, Montana publishers, London, 1998.
Murrell, J ‘Anchors- the secret weapon for competitions’, Psychology of Skiing , Vol. 1, no. 5, 2011. PP. 12-15
Perlus, H, ‘Race as well as you Train – Ski Racing and Anxiety in Sports’, Podium Sports Journal, Vol. 77. No 4, 2011. PP. 12-56.
Smith, AR, Ski Instructor’s Confidential, the Introduction of the online Book, Winter publishers, London, 2005.
Taylor, J, Getting the Mental Edge in Your Skiing, Denver Post, London, 1994.
Footnotes
British Association of SnowSport Instructors, Module Information: The Euro Speed Test is the highest level of qualification by the British, Union publishers, London, 2002.
E Knudsen, ‘Sports Psychology and Skiing’, Ezine Articles, 5 January 2011
P Kramer & S Why, A practicing Doctor’s Views on Psychiatry and Contemporary Culture, In Practice, London, 2009.
AR Smith, Ski Instructor’s Confidential, the Introduction of the online Book, Winter publishers, London, 2005, p. 25.
WT Gallwey & R Krigel, Inner Skiing, Random House, New York, 1977, p. 25.
H Perlus, ‘Race as well as you Train – Ski Racing and Anxiety in Sports’, Podium Sports Journal, Vol. 77. No 4, 2011. PP. 12-56.
H Perlus, ‘Race as well as you Train – Ski Racing and Anxiety in Sports’, Podium Sports Journal, Vol. 77. No 4, 2011, p. 15.
E Knudsen, ‘Sports Psychology and Skiing’, Ezine Articles, 5 January 2011, p. 12.
J Murrell, ‘Anchors- the secret weapon for competitions’, Psychology of Skiing , Vol. 1, no. 5, 2011, p. 56.
J Taylor, Getting the Mental Edge in Your Skiing, Denver Post, London, 1994, p.56.
AR Smith, Ski Instructor’s Confidential, the Introduction of the online Book, Winter publishers, London, 2005, p. 25.
Montana State University-Bozeman, Physiology and Psychology: Performance Benchmarks-Maximal Oxygen Uptake, Montana publishers, London, 1998.
J Taylor, Getting the Mental Edge in Your Skiing, Denver Post, London, 1994, p.12.
Though it is generally considered that people should come up with their own solutions to the problems and that it is unreasonable and even absurd to make decisions based on what the others tell one, it cannot be denied that the opinion of the crowd matters much when it comes to the deciding point.
Therefore, the idea of crowd thinking is rather vague and ambiguous; while its negative aspects are well known, its advantages are also often mentioned. In addition, the very definition of group thinking stretches from taking the opinions of others into account to making a mixed decision based on what the entire group thinks is right. An issue truly worth researching, group thinking is the focus of the given paper.
There have been many attempts to describe the phenomenon of group mind or at least to show how potentially destructive group mind can be in every meaning of the word. One of the most famous and by far the most controversial researches on the topic, Zimbargo’s The Stanford Prison Experiment offers a number of opportunities to find a definition to the phenomenon of a group mind.
A research that involved a prison simulation has shown that people quickly accept the attitudes and the behavioral patterns that a newly acquired social status offers them; moreover, once one of the group members starts acting in a certain way, the rest of the group members considers the given behavior acceptable.
The given change cannot be attributed to the group members’ aptitude to violence: “Rather, the subjects’ abnormal social and personal reactions are best seen as a product of their transaction with an environment that supported the behavior that would be pathological in other settings, but was “appropriate” in this prison” (Zimbargo 742).
As Zimbargo’s research shows, the people who were supposed to play the role of the “guard” were not instructed to be violent and harsh towards the “prisoners”. However, because of a range of factors, starting with the choice of the uniform for the “guard” and the “prisoners” and up to the fact that the prisoners were not supposed to have names, the group mind made the “guard” change their attitude towards the “prisoners” and became even more violent. Judging by the given example, it can be concluded that a group mind is a phenomenon that makes people within a certain group develop a common type of behavior that can help them stay in a leader’s position.
Another peculiar study worth taking a glance at is Doris Lessing’s “Group Minds.” Unlike the previous study, the given one offers a definition to what a group mind actually is; As the author explains, “When we’re in a group, we tend to think as that group does” (Lessing, 1989). Therefore, group mind is a phenomenon that makes every single member of the group follow the group’s choice. However, putting the issue the way in which Doris Lessing has put it raises even more questions.
For instance, In Zimbargo’s study, it was clear where the moods that were brooding in the group came from – the social roles of a guard and a prisoner already have an underlying idea of punishment, which results in a violent attitude towards the “imprisoned.” In Doris Lessing’s essay, however, there is no setup – the author does not provide any specific situation, merely stating the obvious.
Therefore, in Lessing’ understanding, there will always be a factor that predetermines the mood of the group and the course of decisions that it is going to take. Hence, the definition of a group mind can be taken to a different level; group thinking can be defined as people’s aptitude to come to a single decision or manner of conduct within a certain group disregarding the specifics of the individuals’ personalities.
A slightly different idea of a group mind is offered by Ian McEwan in his Atonement. As the previous experience with Lessing’s story showed, the course of group thinking can be changed by different factors; however, Lessing does not define these factors. McEwan, on the contrary, almost shoves these factors in the reader’s face from the very beginning; called Obedience to authority, the chapter from Atonement makes it crystal clear that under the influence of authority, group thinking can be bent any way possible.
Every single sentence in the novel stresses the influence that the crowd has on a personality; the idea of a group mind is exercised mostly through the images of a physical pressure of the crowd, which makes the idea even stronger: “The exultant crowd exploded from the bar like champagne, hurling Turner and Netty aside” (McEwan 749).
Judging by McEwan’s work, a group mind is a power that can be controlled only by an authority and that takes no account of the opinion of an individual member of the crowd. Adding a final touch to the collection of definitions for the group mind, Solomon Arch’s essay on opinions and social pressure helps define a group mind by discussing the impacts that the choices of a group mind have on an individual (Arch).
In fact, the phenomenon of group mind can also be interpreted from a different position. There is actually a definition of the group mind phenomenon that does not involve the presence of a person who is supposed to control and channel the group mind into performing a certain action, accepting certain types of behavior, etc., in contrast to the theories above.
Aliva has analyzed in great detail the works of Freud, Le Bon and McDougal, the man who actually coined the term “group mind,” to come to a conclusion that a group mind is an intersection of every single individual mind of a specific group. Aliva claims that “individuals’ minds are like affluent rivers feeding the common ocean of the group mind” (Aliva, 2010, 262). Hence, a group mind does not necessarily need a controlling agent – unless it has one, it creates one by itself.
Summarizing the ideas that the authors of the five readings discussed above are trying to convey, one can conclude that a group mind is a phenomenon that occurs within a group of people and presupposes that they are going to make similar decisions – or, in case of a group decision, forcing the rest of the members to follow the crowd, – exercise similar behavioral patterns and develop similar attitudes.
Group thinking means that none of the group members considers the personal opinion of another member; moreover, it presupposes that the members do not have their personal judgments. Instead, they choose the easiest or the acceptable manner of conduct and are very easy to control.
Despite the fact that the phenomenon of group thinking is rather widespread, it is very hard to nail down the essence of group thinking. According to the results of the discussion above group thinking can be defined as the decision-making process that is carried out within a group and that presupposes that each member of the group follows the rest of the crowd blindly.
Therefore, a group mind is an intrinsically scary phenomenon that cannot be controlled and, therefore, can lead to the most deplorable results, which the works above display in the most graphic way.
Works Cited
Aliva, L. A. (2010). Psychosomatic symptoms and the “group mind.” Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 83, 255–271.
A man is not as complicated as he actually appears, all he needs is to feel secure and to have the feeling that he can believe in his woman totally.
What does a man want?
A man loves looking out for his women, to the point that he can pamper his manliness, just the same way he looks up to women who appear confident and strong, emotionally. When a woman runs to her man when encountered with problems every now and then, the man might show sympathy and even offer a shoulder to cry on, but this does not last for long.
It is good when the woman shares her problems with the man and together they work on solving it, however, it is important for the woman to know when it is too much, as it is due to this reason that many relationships fail. Thus, when a woman learns to solve problems by herself it makes her man proud of her (Lewis 59).
In addition, just like women, a man loves to be looked after. A wife or a girlfriend should know that her man’s mother, looks at him like her baby. The man can deny it as much as he can, however, he loves it when his mother is around, and when he looks for a girlfriend or a wife, he looks for one that has the same, or almost the same qualities like those of her mother. That is the reason some men are referred to as, ‘mamma’s boy’ (Barker 85).
A man also enjoys it when his woman balances pampering him with competition and excitement. Furthermore, it is hard for a man to guess what his woman wants. This is because the levels of intuition in him are not the same as those of the woman (Geraldo 27). It is then advisable for a woman to tell her man what she is thinking as opposed to letting him discover all by himself. It might never come to that, and so the woman should do it to avoid feeling miserable.
Regardless of his intuition being poor, a man knows it when his woman is manipulating or controlling him (Geraldo 27). When a woman resorts to manipulative and controlling games, her man usually starts blocking his feelings or sometimes hides them. This most of the time causes violent explosions or emotional breakdowns. In order to be happy and maintain happiness in a man when in a relationship, the woman should be considerate and honest. When respected, a majority of men are capable of being amazing individuals.
Moreover, a man always needs his space. It is good to respect that. A woman should give his man enough space to breathe as well as do the ‘ things that guys do.’ It is good to let him indulge with his boys during his night outs. Ultimately, if he is in a relationship that is secure, he will all the time long for his woman’s comfort and snuggle, and will desire to go back home to her.
Men and women are from different planets, and this may be the reason why many relationships work. A man and a woman can be compared to two lines, that despite being straight, intersect somewhere at the end. One cannot do with the other, and one cannot do without the other. Indeed, this can be considered one of creations lovely piece (Batthyany et al 180).
What is in the mind of a man regarding Love and Respect
Women want to be loved. A woman wants to feel that she is loved every time and if she is not regularly reminded, (not just by words, but also emotionally) she tends to feel like she is unwanted. This is in contrast to how a man feels. When it is true that he wants to be loved, respect is more important to him.
A woman should never question her man’s position in the house (Geraldo 39). That shows disrespect and it becomes equal when the man fails to show love. A woman should never disrupt when the man is correcting the children because to the man it signifies extreme disrespect.
What a man thinks about Sex
A man desires to be desired truly, by means of sex. When a woman makes a man feel like she is making love to him just because it is an obligation, it really turns the man off. This is because most men are satisfied when they know their women are satisfied. That way they feel more confident. When a man is rejected, it becomes very hard for him. He thinks that when he is told no to sex, it is just the same as being told he is not wanted all together (Lewis 72).
The image in a man’s mind
A woman can see a good-looking man and forget it within a very short time. Men, alternatively, tend to store images in their ‘pictorial’ memory. When they notice a pretty woman, the image can be kept in their mind’s hard drive, for several months. This is not their fault as it is how they are created.
It is the basic reason as to why women are advised to dress modestly. What men want when they look at pornography is not necessarily the body of the woman, but the woman’s face. This is because the eyes of the woman have the look that says ‘I want you’, which is what they desire, to be wanted and needed (Gurian 129).
What is in a man’s mind about a woman’s outfit?
Many men will deny it when asked of what they find admirable amongst a woman’s outfit. However, a man is best identified as the ‘sex visual’ (Hasan 129). According to Imam, to a man, what a woman is putting on can be used to know what kind of woman she is. During a man’s adolescence, a man undergoes a moment whereby he starts to develop a liking for a particular type of dressing in a female.
Some men prefer women in underwear with no-frills because they consider such women confident as they let their bodies speak for themselves. Others like it when a woman is in lingerie, mini-dresses, and heels. Overall, men’s preferences are due to their uniqueness (Gurian 130).
While a woman is inclined to hide what she perceives as an imperfect body, a man does not see that as important. Imam identifies that a woman might see another woman’s body as imperfect, while a man fails to notice that, but notices a woman in whom he has fallen for. Unsurprisingly, all men tend to be the same in one thing, they admire a woman’s clothing that does not only bring out the woman’s shape, but also the curves that come with it, which bring out the femininity in her, thereby pleasing what they see (Leman 178).
What a man admires seeing a woman putting on
Imam identifies that, a man likes to see a woman in tight jeans, pencil skirts, and tight dresses. This is because a man likes to perceive that under those clothes is a body, no matter how imperfect it is (Barker 92).
Jumpsuits and belted dresses are also their popular choices.
To Imam, most men like it when a woman is putting on a classic fitting black dress.
If its casual wear, then it has to be fitting such that the body shape is noticeable. If she opts for jeans, then they have to be the skinny ones, but have to be worn together with shoes that are high, as opposed to flat.
A simple vest is also considered nice on a woman. If she opts for a top, men like it when she leaves a bit of her cleavage out.
Some men consider seductive underwear to please in parties.
Most men like heels because they think that they enhance height, and most of all, flatter the body, when a woman is walking. The most admired shoe to men is the ‘almond’ toe.
Some men find jewelry on a woman attractive, however most men do not like it when a woman wears so many of them. Many will find it attractive when a woman puts on simple earrings, necklaces, and bracelets. However, women with so many piercings are disliked as they are considered, prostitutes.
What a man dislikes seeing on a woman
Men hate women in gladiator sandals. This is because they consider them as outdated.
Tunics and smocks are considered as a big ‘no’. Generally, any long garment that camouflages, hides, or shrouds according to many men, makes a woman appear pregnant.
Capri pants are considered to make a woman look stupid.
Oversized shades are considered as “ridiculous.”
Wearing plenty of makeup is considered an enormous mistake. No man prefers a woman who has a lot of make-up. In fact, many of the men consider women being most attractive to look at when they are somewhat undone.
What a man thinks
According to Imam, the following is what the outfit of a woman says to men.
Imam identifies that to a man, a woman who proclaims of wearing designer clothes is insecure or just shallow minded. Some men consider women who find labels as a priority, to be lost. Consistent to Imam, some flee when they notice a woman with designer tags, as they get worried about their balance on their credit cards, in case they start dating.
Most men consider women with high heels as “high-maintenance” (Leman 182). To a woman, stilettos are a source of power and encouragement. However, in a man’s mind he wonders how much fun she can be having standing while balancing on a six-inch bar. Some men are even worried when walking on the streets with their women on the six-inch shoes as they walk supporting them, so as not to twist their ankle. In the man’s mind at that moment is the worry of having to spend all the night inside the emergency room.
Though some men find it appealing when a woman puts on sexy clothes the environment and circumstance where she puts them on is important to them. Some are worried about their prospective dates wearing minis on an outing with their colleagues because they are worried of how their colleagues will judge them.
To a man, according to Imam, red lips are a symbol of a powerful, contented, and competent woman. A man is so much attracted to a woman with red lipstick such that when he looks at them he just waits for her to say anything, and he obliges.
A man knows best, the way a woman is required to dress since he fantasizes about a woman every time. The clothes that a woman puts on, to a man, define the kind of lifestyle she leads, how confident she is with her body, and therefore how much she can expose. In addition, the classiness and fashion of a woman, to a man, can be defined by her hairdo and makeup. Moreover, the taste and kind of personality that she has can be defined by the choice she makes when it comes to cologne and heels.
A woman who is aware of the way to carry a ‘powerful dressing’ in a womanly way is found to be extremely hot, by a man (Hasan 133). A woman in male dress tops to a man is beautiful and powerful. In addition, she is found seductive and feminine. Imam identifies that the women in these kinds of clothes, to men, are clever and have great elegance. They are aware of how to command a situation no matter how hard (Geraldo 52)
Men like seeing women in a 4-inch maximum heel. They consider anything longer than that weird. However, despite being in fashion nowadays, women in jumpsuits are disliked. In addition, women with lighter shades of makeup and a slight contour are found fascinating. In accordance to Imam, men do not like a woman who puts on so much foundation on their face, and puts on very funny hairstyles (Geraldo 54).
Overall, when a man likes a woman, he likes every bit of her. He also wants her to appreciate herself. Therefore, to a man, if a woman puts on garments that do not reveal her shape, the man worries that she might not be comfortable in it, and thereby loose her natural beauty due to embarrassment.
The most beautiful thing to a man regarding a female is the body, its lines, and silhouette (Gurian 157).So, men do not like when women cover themselves so much. However, a woman should wear what she feels comfortable in, and her man will appreciate it. In the end, a woman should appear her best. If one is comfortable in her skin and her body, she is on a captivating streak. Any messages a man might read on a woman’s clothing can be outmoded by her inner glow, a smile, coolness, as well as poise.
What a man thinks about a relationship
In case a man fails to give a name to repeated intimate and social interactions, it is a simple sign that he is unprepared for a long-term relationship. For a majority of males, a title comes with a lot of pressure, accountability and responsibility. When couples fail to live according to the expectations arguments are bound to occur, and eventually, the relationship, for one or both partners, can lack fun.
In such a situation, it becomes important for the woman to evaluate how she sees herself in the man’s future. This is because in relationships (mostly those that have been there for sometime) dramatic, intense, and life altering circumstances, can occur anytime. This is the reason a majority of the men prefer the ‘friends with benefit’ situation (Hasan 176).
Consequently, as most men get bored with such kind of a relationship, the outcome depends on the woman’s decision as to what kind of relationship she wants. If she wants the ‘friends with benefit’, or a concrete relationship then it is her choice to make. Either way, the woman cannot force the man to do something, which he has not made up his mind to do.
Works Cited
Barker, Geoff. What is on a Man’s Mind: What Every Woman Needs to Know. Sydney: New Holland, 2006. Print.
Batthyany, Alexander, and Avshalom C. Elitzur. Mind and Its Place in the World: Non-reductionist Approaches to the Ontology of Consciousness. Frankfurt: Ontos, 2006. Print.
Geraldo, Sam. A Woman’s Guide to the Male Mind: Men’s Real Views on Dating, Mating and Sex. Bloomington, Ind: AuthorHouse, 2011. Print.
Gurian, Michael. What Could He Be Thinking?: How a Man’s Mind Really Works. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003. Print.
Hasan, Servet. How to Read Any Man’s Mind. Bloomington, Ind: AuthorHouse, 2004. Print.
Leman, Kevin. Making Sense of the Men in Your Life: What Makes Them Tick, What Ticks You Off, and How to Live in Harmony. Nashville, Tenn: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2000. Print.
Lewis, Lonnie J. Man’s Mind: Wouldn’t You Want to Know? Sal.: Trafford On Demand Pub, 2011. Print.
According to Sociologists, cults are distinguished from other religious organizations based on the type of their beliefs, nature of their association and the size of their congregation (Hankins& Davis 10). The cult is a different religious group with unique doctrines.
On the other hand, a sect is a breakaway faction of a typical church. Some of the famous cults include the Unification Church also referred to as the “Moonies” an identity derived from its leader, Sun Myung Moon, ISKCON (Hare Krishna), the Scientology and the Children of God. The cult is unique from separatist sects since they doctrines challenge the western Judean-Christian traditions by placing emphasis on alternative religions such as the eastern Hinduism and Buddhism. This paper therefore investigates religious cults and their influence in the American society.
Background
Researchers interested in studying cultic movements have adopted the term, “new religious movement” in order to avoid passing negative judgment or labeling cults. Ne religious movements became famous in the western world in the period around 1960s. The American constitution allows for religious freedom. However, the American society under its constitution provides for acceptable norms to be practiced in the church without which the government enforces specific restraining legislation (Galanter 13).
The rapid growth of cultic movements in the American society from the period after 1960 is attributed to several factors. During this period, America was confronted with the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War among other social inequalities which subjected its citizens to cultic deception. The American society could be described as materialistic mixed with controversies on its values and norms on which the nation’s foundations were established.
Massive rebellion was witnessed in the society through an upsurge in crime, substance abuse and religious cults. The emergence of the cults was largely connected with the influence of Asian immigrants from the East through their religious philosophies during the period around 1960. It is understood that during this period, American immigration laws and policies were lenient enough to allow for an influx of foreigners especially from the East. The American society was therefore confronted with a mix of cultures from different parts of the world. New religious movements therefore preyed on innocent Americans interested in unraveling their identity and purpose in life amidst the social inequalities and confusion (Hankins& Davis 15).
In essence, the cults provided some certainty to its victims who were then subjected to a process of brainwashing and emotional blackmail. Brainwashing involved distorting the mindset and allegiance of followers through extreme doctrines, forced fasting and insomnia. However, circumstances keep changing in every society prompting dynamic responses from people. Consequently, anti-cult movements arose in America as a result of media highlights and people’s perception of cults being satanic or dangerous. Independent media has been quite vocal in creating public awareness about cults by highlighting personal testimonies through television, magazines and films among others. For instance, the media developed some newsworthy information out of Waco’s cultic case (Galanter 16).
Apart from brainwashing its victims, cults also kidnap and distort members’ resources through falsehoods through extreme doctrines. The Waco scenario in Texas illustrated the contest between cults and state investigation and law enforcement agencies. The Waco group was a breakaway faction of the Seventh – day Adventist and was known as the Branch Davidians after their leader, David Koresh. The intervention of the FBI and related state agencies in resolving the cult situation there developed into a siege scenario that resulted in the death of about hundred people. Cultic groups therefore represent a social phenomenon which requires a proper understanding of the individual personalities rather sweeping generalizations which label and fix the groups for punishment.
The church ministers to the secular society with some degree of tolerance in its religious beliefs and membership requirements. A typical church therefore seeks to entrench sacred teachings in the society in a structured manner without excluding itself from other people. On the other hand, sects and cults seek to maintain strict religious doctrines and practices from the mainstream secular society (Hankins& Davis 19).
Religious cults therefore demand that members adhere to a strict code of conduct, doctrinal purity and expect them to proof their allegiance to their faith. Religious cults focus most on the individual commitment of its members to established doctrines rather than the wellbeing of the entire congregation or secular society. Membership therefore fluctuates from one generation to another depending on the social status of a people in relation to religious beliefs and faith.
Mysticism is a characteristic feature of most of the cultic organizations. The Franciscans for instance dedicated their faith around their founder devoted to higher levels of spirituality. Mormonism is also another cultic group that has evolved into a sect and finally into a church as it developed structured doctrines and commitment from members.
These and other contemporary cults engaged their members in abnormal behavior such as speaking in tongues, faith healing and meditation through the guidance of spiritual leaders. The conflict between approval of the society and constitutional matters related to religious freedom has led to widespread anti-cult movements in the United States (Galanter 23). The tendency to isolate members within religious communes has been received with progressive suspicion even among the brainwashed and deprogrammed members.
Mind control
The process of brainwashing is done when leaders of the cults subject their members to physical and emotional stress. Problems in the society are simplified into a unique interpretation which is then overemphasized by leaders to their cult members for selfish reasons. Members of such cultic groups obtain unconditional love and attention from a fascinating leader who also provides the group with a unique identity. Information concerning the cult is withheld from the members subjecting them t o entrapment. In essence, the cult isolates members from the mainstream society including close family and friends in attempt to pursue high levels of spirituality.
Members are also confused to believe that the doctrines of the cult are the ultimate truth and a manifestation of religious purity (Hankins& Davis 27). Consequently, members are rendered as slaves to their charismatic leaders believing everything and anything within the domain of the cult. The charismatic leaders are therefore exclusively celebrated by followers making them corrupted. Extreme doctrines exemplified by the cults include sexual abuse and absconding medical care. For instance, married couples who are members of a cult may be advised to be celibate thus interfering with their intimacy and conjugal rights as practiced in conventional society.
Joining
People join cultic groups voluntarily. Joining and leaving a cultic group is at the discretion of a person. Due to pressures in the society occasioned by social inequalities and political instability, members of cultic groups are vulnerable to psychological manipulation and financial extortion. Poverty, disease and unemployment could subject youths to cultic deception through coercion and allegiance to a false heaven and paradise. People suffering from terminal illnesses and chronic pains are trapped by cultic doctrines as an alternative to the frustrations in their lives. In essence, people are affiliated to the charismatic leaders due to the circumstances and situations that confront them in life (Galanter 30).
Leaving
People can leave a cultic group voluntarily in the same manner they joined. Other means include expulsion, deprogramming and suicidal sacrifice. People leaving a cultic group find it difficult to adjust to the mainstream society unless they are adequately counseled. They often suffer from depression, stigma and depreciated financial status after losing their properties to their charismatic leadership (Hankins& Davis 34). On the other hand, some members leave cultic groups with significant positive experiences.
This is attributed to the particular doctrines that correspond to individual needs and situations of the members. Such survivors of cultic indoctrination do not suffer from extensive withdrawal stress since their psychological needs were addressed by the group. However, destructive cults have left members with negative consequences due to extensive manipulation, entrapment and deprogramming. Brainwashing renders members psychologically dependent on their leaders and the group.
Religion and Scientology
The term religion refers to a structured approach to human spirituality which entails beliefs and practices with a supernatural dimension (Rhodes 21). It gives reference to a higher power or some perfect truth. Religious practices can be expressed through prayer, cultural traditions and rituals, meditation, art, music, symbols and writings. It also encompasses personal practices with a common conviction about specific behaviors in the society with a particular focus to a supernatural or ethical view about idealism. This then constitutes the faith system, having psychological or communal background describing the society’s way of life.
Some of this traditions, moral values, traditional practices and scriptures considered to be divine in nature, have been found to extend the worldly view of philosophy to the extremes, often clashing with science.
The word “Scientology” refers to the practice of learning the truth (Lamont 19). Scientology as a religion believes that human beings are holy and not evil. It purports that life experiences shape man to become evil but their own nature which is good. It continues to state that people can overcome their own problems by focusing on their personal experiences while ignoring how their actions have affected others to avoid strife. Scientology continues to encourage their believers that through a dedicated self evaluation program, they are capable of acquiring a higher degree of spiritual uprightness.
The basic concepts about Scientology generally include eight pillars:
First and foremost is the drive to exist independently without interference from others. The second is the value for having a family, sexual intercourse and procreation (Chryssides 25). The third encourages people to exist in a society, within a nation, company of friends, in a city and generally in small or large groups. The fourth exemplifies the need to survive as human beings. The fifth to eighth encourages people to earn their livelihoods by exploiting nature in terms of animals, plants, the earth and ultimately the supernatural being or God.
This can collectively be applied with affinity, reality and communication referred in Scientology as the triangle (Chryssides 32). Affinity refers to affection; reality refers to mutual understanding while communication is the exchange of ideas. Therefore if there is proper communication between people on a subject which all have a consensus about, affinity rises which then add up to understanding. Scientology religion is basically founded on these principles in creating greater harmony in the society. It seeks to empower individuals to constantly improve their intelligence with a view of improving their own lives by way of identifying factors that pull them down and how they can personally deal with them. Once an individual attains self consciousness and independence, he then becomes helpful to the rest of the society including his family and friends.
Scientology comprises of beliefs and values fashioned by L. Ron Hubbard (1911-1986), beginning in 1952 referred “Dianetics”. “Dianetics” in Scientology refers to the modern science of mental health which tries to come up with innovative ways of curing mental illnesses such as neuroses (Malko 15). It exemplifies a doctrine that utilizes the soul to cure the body. Dianetics is what established the core doctrine of the church. This is done during the spiritual counseling sessions called auditing intended to assist someone evaluate personal life experiences with a goal to discover his potential and ability. Through self evaluation an individual is thought to advance to higher states of consciousness. The auditor uses a set of questions directed at helping a person to become consciously aware of life issues he may need counseling. This requires that the person be fully informed about laws and principles of life in general by learning Scientology principles basically to enable reach consensus before auditing takes place.
According to Hubbard, “the human mind can be divided into the analytical and reactive portions”. The analytical mind is thought to function rather perfectly while the “reactive mind” is the part which is unable to think or making decisions (Chryssides 40). The reactive mind is thought to record memories called “engrams” whenever the “analytical mind” becomes unconscious. Wrong interpretation of ‘engrams” leads to adverse consequences later in life.
This is believed to arise from the myth that engrams are painful such that their accumulation shifts the status of individuals further from their perfect identity. Scientologists utilize the dianetic training as a remedy for the destructive “engrams”. This is meant to advance one to the “Clear” state believed to position someone as a “thetan”, described as an individual with proper consciousness of self (Rhodes 33). One fact about thetan as taught by Mr. Hubbard is “exteriorization” which is the ability to exist in the spirit independent of the body thereby gaining the immortal status.
Hubbard defined scientology as a religion and even incorporated it as a church in New Jersey in 1953.Scientology educates that human beings are eternal sacred beings who are no longer aware of their proper immortal nature. Their doctrine involves a form of counseling technique referred to as auditing. Through “dianetic” auditing, members are promised to achieve an extraordinary human state known as clear with a superior intellectual quotient, pure thoughts as well as an overall improved physical and mental health. In order to achieve this results a tonal classification system is used which categorizes the emotional state of a person thus enabling effective counseling to take place. There is also the use of an Electro-psycho meter that identifies specific areas of religious strain or emotional stress to be audited.
Those who subscribe to it deliberately engage themselves in meditating excruciating actions that occurred in the past with an aim of being delivered from their present weaknesses (Lamont 26). The doctrines of the church are accorded significance equivalence of scientific laws and their applications rely on how the members put to practice the beliefs in everyday life. Scientology contains myths that members adhere to reflect perfect truth in their religion which actually revolves around a true personal identity characterized by infinite creativity and omniscience. The perfect identity of a person allows him to be inherently good and spiritually pure.
The United States and some other countries have recognized scientology as a religion hence not being taxed according to law which makes the church to insist this as a proof that it is a true religion (Malko 18). However a number of organizations have come up to oversee how relevant Scientology is as a religion the most prominent being the church of scientology itself. As a result it has been able to sponsor several religious community service initiatives which include a program of moral guiding principles normally expressed in a booklet referred to as “The Way to Happiness, the Narconon anti-drug program, the Criminon prison treatment program, the Study Tech education methodology a charitable organization and a trade administration program” (Chryssides 44 ).
That notwithstanding, Scientology has time and again been marred with controversies basically from its inception regularly being described as a sect that loots and abuses members financially charging inflated costs for their sacred services. In retaliation the church of scientology has repeatedly challenged these accusations using law suits but this kind of assertiveness has been labeled as harassment by its critics. Furthermore, an argument has been rife on the church’s belief that souls can revive and may have actually lived in other planets before existing on earth.
This is supported by testimonies from former scientologists who have revealed that particular Hubbard’s articles on this issue are only sold to members after paying exorbitant amounts of money to the church. This is similar to Hinduism which also believes in reincarnation where the present everyday life is believed to be affected by past incarnations. Scientologists actually assume to be born time and again in a similar process to reincarnation in order to attain the perfect nature and original glory. The church also believes in abolishing psychiatry supposedly since it is destructive and could be offensive (Lamont 31).
Conclusion
Religious cults are therefore destructive due to their extreme doctrines and isolation of members from mainstream society. Manipulation, brainwashing and extortion of members are a violation of conventional religion and human rights. The state is therefore legitimate in regulating religious organizations despite of religious constitutional freedoms towards elimination of cultic groups for the benefit of the nation. Scientology trains members on how to handle serious current social issues and evils such as illiteracy, immorality, insecurity, drug abuse and crime and not merely subscribing to a belief system (Rhodes 39).
The religion emphasizes that an individual is a spirit and not a body or mind which needs to be salvaged. Scientology uses the human spirit as a foundation to advance its doctrines aimed at restoring the true and perfect identity of human beings from their current materialistic state which may degrade them to look like animals. It is the recognition of the human soul that actually embraced scientology as a religion.
Works Cited
Chryssides, George D. Exploring New Religions Issues in contemporary religion. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999.
Galanter, Marc.Cults and new religious movements: a report of the American Psychiatric Association. New York: American Psychiatric Publishers, 2009.
Hankins, Barry& Davis, Derek. New religious movements and religious liberty in America. Texas: Baylor University Press, 2003.
Lamont, Stewart. Religion Inc: the Church of Scientology. Virginia: Harrap, 1986.
Malko, George. Scientology: the now religion. London: Delacorte Press, 2007.
Rhodes, Ron. The challenge of the cults and new religions: the essential guide to their history, their doctrine, and our response. Michigan: Zondervan, 2001.
The human brain as an organ has elicited lots of attention from scientists. The brain has been touted as being capable of adjusting itself to accommodate any new task that an individual sets out to accomplish (Tan 1137).
Even though new unexplored tasks require a lot of mental input at first, with time they are learned and can be accomplished almost unconsciously. Hugdahl (126) notes that whenever an individual carries out a task that demands a lot of attention, the parts of the brain associated with the task in question routinely increase activity.
Oliver Sacks explores this plasticity of the brain in his essay, The Mind’s Eye. He does this by articulating experiences of several blind people and with his own expert knowledge coupled with a few unique cases of sighted individuals. This aspect helps in giving an insight into the “worlds” of the blind coupled with how, in this state of blindness, their brains develop extra capacity to handle tasks that would otherwise be remotely conceivable.
This essay seeks to analyze Sacks’ essay with a focus on illuminating the key aspects of the experiences of the different blind men and women he encountered or read from and link them with the author’s other experiences in a bid to clearly understand the capabilities of the human brain.
Sacks lessons from experiences of the blind
Sacks narrates the experiences of different blind individuals whose work he has studied and relates them with each other in a bid to understand how the blind perceive their surroundings and in effect carry out their day to day tasks.
The function of the brain, through the mind, is highlighted for the mind is the conscious dimension of the human brain. In this state of consciousness, blind people, as evidenced by the different memoirs they authored, are in a position to go about their duties with a level of skill and tact that a sighted individual is incapable of achieving.
According to Sacks (203), Hull gradually sank into a state of “deep blindness” as he (Hull) called it. This state of blindness is akin to that experienced by individuals who are born blind and those who lose their sight at a tender age. From Hull’s book, Touching the Rock an Experience of Blindness, Sacks learns that it is possible to lose visual imagery even for an individual who becomes blind in adulthood.
After completely loosing visual imagery, Hull finds his auditory sense so enhanced that just by listening to rain, he is capable of making out an entire landscape. Based on Hull’s experience, Sacks confirms that a study by Helen Neville in which she posited that the brain had a way of reallocating the functions of its various sections for different new functions for which an individual has a need.
What is baffling is the fact that although Hull brings out his experience so vividly to the extent of convincing Sacks that every blind individual lacks visual imagery, Sacks came across several blind people who despite being blind for a long period of time, retain their visual imagery. What is more, their visual imagery is enhanced in their time of blindness than it initially was when they were sighted (Sacks 207).
This realization seems to refute Hull’s experience and the study by Helen Neville. However, this perception changes when Sacks encounters more blind people in person and via their pieces of work. One of the blind authors notes that despite being blind for a long period, making out a keyboard, for instance when typing, is quite normal.
In fact, this anonymous correspondent adds that in a new environment, it becomes difficult to find solace until a clear mental picture of the surroundings is constructed. The ability of a blind individual to enhance their inner visual ability is confirmed to Sacks by Torey whose extraordinary abilities after going blind left many baffled.
This blind person was capable of repairing the roof of his house single-handedly relying on his ability to form vivid mental images of his surroundings. In addition, Torey did some of the roof repairs in pitch darkness without much difficulty (Sacks 209). Having an engineering disposition about him, Torey was thus capable of creating mental images in so much detail that he narrates he could picture himself inside an operating transmission gearbox.
These experiences, coupled with several others from authors such as Tenberken whose visual imagery worked in the form of associating every phenomenon with a given colors including numbers days and so on, helps Sacks to realize that every blind individual responded uniquely to the loss of sight.
This position is confirmed when Lusseyran’s experiences in his early adaptation to blindness seems to resemble Hull’s experiences in terms of losing visual imagery (Sacks 219). What is unique about Lusseyran is that after losing the mental imagery for some time, he regains in what seems to be a miraculous occurrence.
He just saw a flash of light and from then on, he was in a position to start developing mental images so vividly that he became a reliable contributor in the French resistance to the Nazi rule (Sacks 214). Sacks wonders at some point if there is any typical blind experience. This aspect points to the idea that he came to learn that every blind person had a unique way of perceiving things and their brains adjusted commensurately to accommodate the developing extra-sensory ability.
Based on the anecdotal evidence from blind authors, his personal experiences and knowledge coupled with experiences of some sighted individuals and studies by scientists, Sacks reaches a conclusion that there is nothing purely visual, purely auditory or purely anything. This assertion holds as the functions of the brain seem so interconnected that for individuals’ senses to perceive anything, it is a result of different functions of the brain.
The metamodal functionality of the brain
In this respect, Sacks notes that the brain especially that of the blind or blinded, operates in “metamodal” states which implies that the operation of the brain is a continuum of interconnected sensory activities of which none can be isolated from another and in their interconnectedness, there are no words that can actually describe processes (Sacks 78).
In the process of perceiving the world, whether as blind or sighted people, one sensory organ delivers given information which is in turn used to perceive another detail or phenomenon so that the final construction of the world that is “seen” is a series of interlinked sensory perceptions, which the brain processes to give the final picture.
As Pascual-Leone and Hamilton posit, “We are able to derive information from one sensory modality and use it in another …” (1). This assertion confirms that in deed the final perception that people develop of an object or one’s surroundings is a result of interconnected sensory activity.
Through this process, a blind person such as Tenberken is in a position to perceive numbers and words in terms of colors so that in her mind, she associates particular numbers with certain colors. She notes in her memoir,
The number 4, for example [is] gold. Five is light green. Nine is vermillion. Days of the week as well as months have their colors, too. I have them arranged in geometrical formations, in circular sectors, a little like a pie (Sacks 212).
Considering this aspect, it becomes obvious that for Tenberken to develop a mental picture of the numeral 4, 5, or a given day of the week and associate it with a given color or locate a given day on the geometric constructions in her mind and link it a given color, a series of interconnected sensory activity takes place. This aspect shows that her intense “synesthesia”, like normal perception is a result of the “metamodal” functionality of the brain.
Sack’s use of rhetorical strategies
In a bid to articulate his own ideas and anecdotal evidence from the blind authors with scientific studies, which try to explain the various processes and functionalities of the brain that enable the various abilities of the authors, Sacks employs a variety of rhetorical strategies.
Some of the examples include the following right at the beginning of the article, Sacks uses an analogy in which he compares the learning process in animals through organs to the learning process in humans. In this context, Sacks brings to the reader’s attention, the fact that people’s learning process is similar to that of animals, but with the ability to also train our organs.
In this very introduction, a chiasmus is also employed by saying that men are taught via their organs and they teach the organs in return. This element is employed at this point to ensure that the difference between animals is delineated.
Animals stop at the point where they have been taught, but humans proceed to train their organs in different ways depending on how they want their organs to serve them. Another example of rhetorical strategy use comes out when Sacks summarizes the experiences of the blind authors who sent him memoirs.
Hull’s experiences for instance, are summarized in a systematic aimed at helping the reader understand how the experiences were linkable to scientific studies. The process of analyzing the experiences of the authors is also a rhetoric strategy, which aids Sacks in bringing out his arguments to the reader clearly. These are just a few instances of the numerous rhetorical strategies employed in the article.
Conclusion
This essay sought to analyze Sacks’ article in order to understand his overall message on the ability of the brain to adapt to any situation an individual finds himself o herself in by developing extra-sensory ability. Through an analysis of various memoirs from a variety of blind authors and relevant scientific studies, Sacks has managed to demonstrate the ability of the brain to adapt.
The accounts of various blind individuals reveal that their brains adjusted to allow them to “see” through their minds despite their blindness. The most illustrious example of this ability is when Torey repairs the roof of his house single-handedly and not even during the day only but at night in pitch darkness as well. Eventually, Sacks agrees that perception is a complex process, but the brain can adapt to any situation that an individual finds himself or herself in without much difficulty.
Works Cited
Hugdahl, Kenneth. “Symmetry and asymmetry in the human brain.” European Review 13.2 (2005): 119-133. Print.
Pascual-Leone, Alvaro, and Roy Hamilton. “The metamodal organization of them brain.” Progress in Brain Research 134.1 (2001): 1-19. Print.
Sacks, Oliver. The mind’s eye, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010. Print.
Tan, Uner. “The Psychomotor theory of Human Mind.” International Journal of Neuroscience 117.2 (2007): 1109-1148. Print.
The effect of group minds on behaviors implies the general influence group minds have on individuals’ thinking and opinions. The term “group minds” refers to joint intellect with regards to a conception in sociology and philosophy. This term in science fiction is widely explained as shared awareness.
In the book ‘‘group minds’’ by Doris Lessing, she brings out the fact that many people all over the world live in groups. Some of these are social and work groups not forgetting the family and the very minute percentage of the population that is contented by living in solitude. Such people are viewed in a negative way as to be either bizarre or egocentric. Lessing (12) portrays the ideology that people opt not to live alone for a lengthy period of time rather, they tend to look for groups to belong.
A hazardous fact is not belonging to a group but rather the lack of understanding of the social laws that rule groups and those that govern people individually. Group minds tend to think alike or in a better term, people in a group are ‘like-minded’ nevertheless, the challenging aspect of it is having a clear individual mind as an affiliate of a particular group.
Doris Lessing expounds on group minds by caring out an experiment where an individual is separated from a group and he /she is not given clear instructions on the task ahead which entails the comparison of different lengths of wood that have a slight difference from each other yet the group of people are collectively asked to perform the same task.
In the outcome, the majority group will stubbornly confirm that the lengths are equal while on the other hand, the minority, that is the individual who performed the task alone, will state that the pieces of wood differ in length. However, the group will continue persisting that right is wrong and after a period of enragement and even frustration, the minority will change their stand and join the majority thus most people give in to the major opinion hence the term “obey the atmosphere”.
The affect of group minds is usually strong and many agree that the most challenging thing is to differ with one’s group in opinion. A large number agree that they often side with the majority just because it is simply, the majority, even in situations where it is wrong.
A group mind is one major underlying hypothesis that goes unnoticed in a group and members of a group not only submit to the group but they also hardly notice that they have a collective mind and never have a difference in opinion and to them, other people not belonging to their group seem insignificant.
Members of this group are so resistant to change that no debate about their postulations can be held. Only 10 percent of the total population of the world can be called natural leaders since they have independent minds and do make their own decisions by themselves without influence from majority groups. In individual thinking, a person differs and rings out that one factor that is often overlooked by a group of people and this issue of overlooking by the group is brought about by the group thinking that they are right.
According to Lessing (56), when you analyse the way a stance towards a particular book is viewed by everyone, people say the same thing whether positive or negative until there is a drift in opinion: this may be an element of some wider social drift. She gave an example of a women’s movement where a publishing house governed by women re-assess the work of women writers who have been disregarded by the community due to the ‘group thinking’ of the masses.
In some cases, a shift of the general opinion occurs due to a person standing out against the general opinion and other people join him hence creating a new ideology that subsequently becomes general. When a well respected person of the society says that something is good yet someone who isn’t known in the society thinks it is not, it is difficult to differ and better yet, it is more difficult to differ when quite a lot of people say the opposite.
The external pressure that people undergo and succumb to often comes in form of groups such as patriotism, loyalty groups, beliefs and needs. However the hardest pressure that is difficult to control is the internal one which stresses that you follow the majority. An experiment popularly known as Milgrma is used to illustrate the group thinking phenomenon whereby, people who are randomly chosen were put in one room and an opaque screen divides the room.
In the second part of the room a number of volunteers are put in and they are wired to a machine that is used to run electric shock up to a point of killing a person similar to an electric chair. That machine gives them indications on how they are to react to the electric shocks either with a grunt then groan and screams and finally with a plea to cease the experiment.
Those people who were randomly chosen and put in the first room actually thought that people in the second half of the room were connected to the electrocuting machine. They were instructed to administer shock gradually increasing and hence ignore the grunts from the other side.
Out of this sixty-two percent of them continued administering shock up to 450 volts level and at the voltage of 285 the guinea pig had already become silent after giving an excruciating scream. Those that administered the shocks had a firm belief that they had given the painful shocks at their best and they experienced a great deal of pressure though they kept on increasing the volts of electricity.
After the experiment many of them found it incredulous that they had the capability of such actions and some of them said that they were only following the instructions given to them. This experiment very openly and clearly shows how majority of people follow orders issued to them regardless of their degree and nature even if atrocious in order to obey the authority above them. Such an example is the German Nazis who did not question the orders given unto them.
‘Group mind’ is an element of the general human behavior. Doris Lessing points out that by a person joining a group in the name of finding people like themselves, the chances of that group changing the views and opinions of that person are usually high. She also warns that if a person does not think for himself/herself, that person is a part of a group and may end up never having the opportunity to be a standalone individual with his/her own views (Behrens and Rosen 96).
Solomon Asch, the author of “Opinions and social pressure”, carried out several experiments to demonstrate the effect of group minds in human beings. In one of the experiments, college students were asked to give their views regarding various issues and at a later date they were asked the same question but this time around they were first given the views of the authorities and majority of their peer groups on the same issues.
In the outcome, many of the students changed their views towards the direction of the opinions of the majority. This proves the extent to which group minds has affected the society as a whole. The fact that a particular group has the majority rule tends to shift views even in the event of there being no argument for other views.
People should strongly criticize the power of social pressure since an affect of group minds causes uncritical submission to members of a group. According to Asch (105), the capability of rising above group thinking and the phenomenon of group minds through independent thinking is a factor open to human beings.
In another experiment a group of about eight to nine students were put in a room for a “psychological experiment”in visual acuteness. The experiment was about giving the comparison between lengths of lines where two white cards are marked by a black line. One card had a single black line while the other had three which had varying lengths.
The students were to make a choice on which vertical line had the same length as the one that was on the first card. Initially their answers were to be given in the order in which they were seated and they gave the same matching line and in the second round they gave a common answer. However, in the third round one person differed from the rest in his answer and he looked surprised by the disagreement and on the fourth trial he still disagreed while his colleagues are unanimous on their decision.
What was duly noted was that the more he disagreed in the other trials, the more he got worried and hesitant and one occasion he paused before giving his answer and spoke in a low tone of voice or he grinned in an embarrassed manner. The experimenter had given instructions to the other members of the group to give wrong answers unanimously and the dissenter had no idea about this.
The dissenter who was also the minority had actually given the correct answer but he was opposed by a majority group that was giving the incorrect answer in unanimity. Out of 123 people put to this test, a large number of them followed the majority group due to group pressure that resulted from group minds. The minority shifted their answers to the majority which was out rightly misleading them in 36.8 percent of the varieties.
Although the individuals differed at some point, a quarter was independent and hardly agreed with the majority but at some other point some students affirmed with the majority in almost all the occasions.
This experiment conclusively shows that those students who followed the majority could not free themselves as the ordeal went on and on while the independent did not end up following the majority as the trials continued. Those that followed the majority did so because their suspicions failed to free them at the moment of making a concrete choice.
In addition, an experiment was carried out and it gave the conclusion that when an individual is subjected with only one person giving a contradictory answer to his, that individual is only influenced slightly. But as the trials continue and the opposition is increased to two people, he starts experiencing pressure and doubt on his answer.
In a case where the minority number keeps on decreasing where the members shift their answers and join the majority. So long as the minority subject has a person siding with his answer, he has invariable independence but immediately that person defects, the chances of the dissenter following the majority in the next trial increases sharply.
Philip Zimbardo in his book, “The Stanford Prison Experiment,” studied the psychological effects of a person as a prisoner or as a prison guard. He carried out the Stanford Prison study where his subjects were 24 college students who were allocated duties to be either “prisoners” or “guards” in a model of a prison situated in the Stanford Psychology Building at the cellar.
In this experiment, the volunteers knew they were participating in a study but they did not have a clue when it would begin. When they were arrested at random and taken to the prison they were in a placid state of distress. The “prisoners” underwent humiliation where they were undressed, shaved and searched and just like in an actual prison they wore uniforms, ID numbers and given an escort to the cells by the guards.
It was difficult for the prisoners to show any individual personalities due to the changes they had undergone which had brought isolation to them. The psychologists in this experiment did not issue any instructions to the guards on how to treat the prisoners all they were to do was to maintain order in the replica prison. The volunteer prisoners portrayed signs of shock and uneasiness and they ridiculed the guards as they tried to reclaim their individualism (Zimbardo 123).
The guards formulated a tactic to fight back so as to maintain order and discipline to the disobedient prisoners who had rebelled. The prisoners who had started the rebellion were stripped and put in a solitary confinement by the guards while those that had no involvement in the riots were given the privilege of laying in their bed, bathing and food while their colleagues lacked those three things.
But after sometime even those prisoners that obeyed were also subjected to punishment to a point where visiting the toilet was an advantage to that particular prisoner.
At this point the prisoners thought themselves to be actual criminals and both themselves and the guards took to their roles and acted way beyond their jurisdiction of what was expected and thought of them hence leading to psychological suffering.
Many prisoners had been emotionally disturbed and five of them were removed from the study earlier on when it was concluded that a third of the guards portrayed vicious trends.
After the experiment, the volunteers, that is, both the guards and prisoners were assembled into the same room for assessment so as to put across their feelings to each other and evaluations were drawn to the Milgram experiment. Due to the distress the participants underwent, the study ended within 6 days as opposed to the planned two weeks.
The aim of this experiment was to test the philosophy that personality characters of prisoners and guards were swiftly the key to understanding offensive prison circumstances. The experiment was terminated by Zimbardo when Christina Maslach who was conducting interviews opposed the horrendous conditions of the prison. Out of more than fifty people who had seen the prison, he noted that only one of them had raised the issue of its ethics and that one person was Christina Maslach.
In the excerpt from Ian MeEwan’s novel, ‘Atonement’, he states the German Luftwaffe had raided soldiers who were retreating and those on the beaches without the Royal Air Force(RAF) responding to this hence, they followed orders and followed the majority. This shows the affect of group mind in the military.
Atonement is a British film that revolves around romance, suspense and war and it is generally described as “redemptive and astounding”. In the film, Turner tried to maintain order on the movement that was before him a thing that he almost succeeded. A short man who worked with Royal Air Force (RAF) was cornered by the crowd and received a beating from some members of the crowd. The man was a minority while the crowd had the majority rule.
The crowd laughed at the man as he was kicked and no one questioned them. A sense of individual responsibility eroded the crowd as they circled around the short man as the members of the crowd got reckless and irresponsible. Turner took the assumption that he could not do anything to help the man because if he did so, he would be risking getting lynched by the mob. The factual threat that had occurred to Turner was the ‘righteous state of mind’ of the mob.
As a man decided to whip the short man, Mace tricked the crowd to thinking that he was going to drown the man an idea that the crowd was so excited about. In this, the minority which was comprised of Nettle ,Turner ,Mace and the wounded man ended up winning through their wise thinking whereby, instead of trying to stop the crowd they coerced it since the multitude had “group minds” (MeEwan 89).
Conclusion
Group minds on behaviors greatly affect human behavior and regardless of human beings having sufficient information about themselves, they do not use it to develop their lives. This aspect greatly influences the actions of a group whereby whatever the group has decided as a whole cannot be questioned and each and every member of the group does not have the power to think individually.
It is therefore appropriate and correct to state that group minds negatively impacts the lives of those belonging to a particular group. On the contrary, individual thinking enhances progression in people’s lives and it defeats the illusion behind democracy where people have the capacity to assess situations before following a group and its views.
Works Cited
Asch, Solomon. Opinions and social pressure. Prentice Hall Inc., 1955. Print.
Behrens, Laurence and Rosen, Leonard. Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. New York: Longman Pub Group, 1996. Print.
Lessing, Doris. Group minds. Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2001. Print.
MeEwan, Ian. Atonement. New York: Nan A. Talese, 2002. Print.
Zimbardo, Philip. Stanford prison experiment: A simulation study of the psychology of imprisonment. Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc., 1972. Print.
People normally depend on one another starting from the time they are born. When a child is born, he/she has to completely depend on those people around him/her for a number of years. But still, even if people grow up and become mature, they do not progressively become independent from one another but they instead turn out to be interdependent.
In the course of living, people come to make up a large number of relationships which are set up on “give-and-take” basis with those around (the community, family and friends) as well as the culture. Human beings have turned out to get used to this for the reason that they are biologically formed in such a way that they live in groups and also work and grow in groups.
Doris Lessing pointed out in her article “Group Minds” that, a small number of people take joy in being alone and people are in constant search for groups to associate themselves with. In this paper, a critique of Doris Lessing’s article “Group Minds” is going to be carried by considering what other authors say about group mind.
Group Minds
Human beings are social creatures and this obviously gives them power to come together in order to set up something that is stronger as well as more adaptive and inspired than any individual human being and that is, the group.
The general concern that Doris Lessing has in her article “Group Mind”, is that human beings have a lot of information available to them but they are not ready to use it to bring improvement in their social structures as well as groups and thus, they live their own lives.
This author is right to a significant level. The moment human beings come to a realization of the exact level to which groups control their lives; they can now start examining how to set up group minds which boost just love alone and the well-being of the society in general.
There is a strong believe within the society that human beings are “free individuals” who engage in thinking and speaking for themselves each day. However, this is not true because people’s actions are, in an unconscious way, under the continuous influence of groups.
Whatever relationship that exists between two people, or even more, who have the same views in regard to a particular issue offers a good example of the way groups are easily and unconsciously formed among people. Human beings would like to think of themselves as individuals, but the question is, are they actually aware of their group minds?
Doris Lessing points out that, as on one hand human beings living in the free world present claims that they have the freedom to live as well as hold beliefs the way they wish, on the other hand, they are negligent in being aware of the way the opinions they have develop from the influences of other people (Lessing 333).
Having such social groups as the family and work groups among other social groups as being a quite significant part of the “American lifestyle”, Lessing points out that it is quite normal for human beings to stay in groups and gather together in groups.
This author presents an argument that a very small number of people are willing to live in absolute isolation and they are of course, in constant search for groups to identify themselves with. Lessing goes ahead to point out that, whereas each and every person has experiences of “group pressures”, people rarely depict themselves as “someone who lives and thinks similarly of those in groups” (Lessing 333).
According to Lessing, the moment a person joins a group, in most cases this person changes his or her way of thinking in order to go in line with the group and “there is nothing harder than trying to maintain your own opinions while being a group member” (Lessing 334). This author draws a conclusion that “the reason why an individual never challenges the opinions and affirmations of a group is because they are developed by the entire group mind, and challenging these might cause the entire group to collapse.
Human beings brand themselves as individuals, but they fall short of understanding the way groups exercise their influence over them. Even in the conditions under which people are aware that they are wrong and should not certainly go in line with the group they, in most cases, go on following through with the group mind.
Lessing pointed out that “it is almost impossible to stand firm on your beliefs while taking part in a group….some of our shameful memories are how often we might have said black was white just because other people were saying it” (Lessing 334). A most important example is given by another researcher, Stanley Milgram, who set out to carry out the determination of the level to which “traditional individuals” would have obedience for the evidently morally wrong order of an “authority figure”.
Milgram carried out tests about the way particular individuals would give a response to imposing pain on to another individual for the reason that they were told to do so by another figure. He set up an experiment in which a person was required to engage in the studying of words that were paired in a list.
Another person was given instructions to ask the learner concerning the words in the list. Every moment the learner was not able to remember the paired words in the list, he was exposed to the electric shock as a way of punishing him. The strength of the electric shock was even increased every time this individual missed the “pairing word”.
The individual who had been assigned to inflict the pain (shocks), in a surprising manner, was not in any way very much disturbed at having to give out electrical shocks to the victim up to the time the victim turned out to be clearly uncomfortable, a point at which these individuals inflicting pain over and over again sought after “bailing the experiment” (Milgram 43).
But the “authority figure” in this experiment that was being carried out would give instructions to the one who was questioning the “learner” to go own regardless of what was happening.
Amazing enough, the one who was questioning would generally go on a few more times before they would stubbornly cease sending more electric impulses to the learner. Initially, the theory was that a large number of individuals would cease from carrying out the experiment having the awareness that the individual to whom they were sending the electric shocks was actually being inflicted but this notion was proved not to be true (Milgram, 43).
Those who were involved in the Milgram’s experiment held a belief that the scientist was very much aware of what he was doing and following this, the assumption they had in their mind was that they too, were doing a thing that was as well acceptable, although at the back of their mind, they knew this was not right.
The subjects surrendered the free will to choose that they had for the reason that an authority above them gave them instructions to do so. This is a clear illustration that gives evidence that going in line with an authority figure or a group in not the best choice at all times.
Lessing poses a question that “if we are truly individuals then why do we not stand up for our own morals and values?” (Lessing 334) This just gives out an indication that human beings hold a belief that the authority figures and large groups have all the possible answers and they have to act in a manner that goes in line with the ‘authority figures’ or groups’ wishes.
Although human beings can think for themselves, they ensure they conform to the authority’s decision and this is for the sake of the “group mind”. An explanation is given out by Milgram of his results in the experiment that “for many, obedience is a deeply ingrained behavior tendency, indeed a potent impulse overriding training in ethics, sympathy, and moral conduct” (Milgram 44).
A large number of human beings show obedience to the authority figures without much thinking. However, there are situations in which disobeying may be helpful to an individual in regard to achieving safety and maintaining one’s morals and values. Lessing, in her article, gives out a discussion about the dangers that come out from being obedient and these are also illustrated by another author, Shirley Jackson, in the short story “The Lottery”.
In this story, the villagers depict the observation that was made by Doris Lessing that “it is the hardest thing in the world to maintain an individual dissident opinion, as a member of a group” (Lessing 334). The villagers in “The Lottery” as well portray how lack of a vision as a member of a group can be quite harmful. Lessing observed that “the majority will continue to insist and after a period of exasperation the minority will fall in to line” (Lessing 334).
Solomon Asch in his article “Opinions and Social Pressure”, points out that “the assumptions are that people submit uncritically and painlessly to external manipulation by suggestion or prestige, and that any given idea or value can be ‘sold’ or ‘unsold’ without reference to its merits” (Asch 307).
What this author is putting across is that a large number of people do ignore their values as well as their virtues without ceasing to engage in thoughts about whether they actually needed to be ignored. Asch and Lessing “tie together” to give an illustration about the way a group can be very powerful and how considerably a group can have an effect on the mind of an individual within the group.
Human beings give in to the external pressure that comes from the authority figures as well as from the peers. Basing on what Lessing points out, there is actually nothing wrong for an individual belonging to a particular group. The problem comes in only when individuals do not understand the “social principles” which serve to control groups as well as control individuals. It is quite clear that groups are an integral part of the society.
In Jackson’s “The Lottery”, the group behavior was actually dangerous to each and every individual that was involved. Other than the clearly seen threat of the “lottery winner” dying after being stoned; this was a tradition of the village. Any individual who had thoughts that could not conform to the group was insulted and regarded to be foolish (Jackson 3). Following the mentality of this group, the direct effect that came out of this was individuals killing the fellow members in the society without any indication of he practice being stopped.
To avoid this practice, it could only require a single individual in the society standing up and protesting, regardless of whether this is a decision of the group or of an individual. By one person in the society boldly giving out his or her opinion, this will serve to change the way people in the group look at things or situations. Since human beings are conscience and aware of themselves, they have the power and ability to positively utilize the group mind in order for them to be able to renew the human condition.
Conclusion
People in the society depend on each other and they find themselves unconsciously forming groups with which they identify themselves. Human beings label themselves as individuals, but they fall short of understanding the way groups exercise their influence over them. It becomes hard for individuals belonging to particular groups to come up with individual decisions that may go against the group and therefore they end up doing what they might be aware that it is not right.
According to Doris Lessing there is actually nothing wrong for an individual to identify him or herself with a certain group. The problem comes in only when individuals do not understand the “social principles” which serve to control groups as well as control individuals. It is quite clear that groups are an integral part of the society. Once people get to find out the exact level to which groups control their lives; they can now commence on looking for ways to set up group minds which boost love alone and the well-being of the society in general.
Works Cited
Asch, Solomon E. “Opinions and Social Pressure.” Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. Eds. Laurence Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. New York: Pearson Longman, 2005. 306 – 312.
Jackson, Shirley. “The Lottery”. Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. Eds. Laurence Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. 1 – 9.
Lessing, Doris. “Group Minds.” Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. Eds. Laurence Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. New York: Pearson Longman, 2000. 333 – 335.
Milgram, Stanley. “The Perils of Disobedience.” Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum. Ed. Laurence Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. 41 – 47.
Clark and Chalmers argued that “beliefs can be partly constituted by features of the environment, when those features play the right role in driving cognitive processes” (Clark & Chalmers, p.12). This argument is important in the world of cognitive science because for many centuries scientists were trying to understand how the mind works.
The mind is capable of a range of activities that can be described as both simple and complex. For simple processes scientists are able to provide an equally simple explanation which is linked to human adaptation.
But when it comes to certain human behavior specially those generated from beliefs there are no clear answers. It is therefore important to acknowledge the contribution made by Clark and Chalmers in the attempt to know more about the cognitive process.
Before going any further it is imperative to highlight the necessity of beliefs with regards to human behavior. Without beliefs as foundation of behavior nothing can be accomplished. Consider for instance the example wherein a man calls a woman and asks her to go on a date.
The man said that he regrets to inform her that he cannot pick her up and instead requires her to take a taxi and bring herself to a particular five-star restaurant located in the downtown area.
The first thing that the woman does is not initiate a complicated mental process but to simply access her beliefs. She could either believe that she knows where the place is or she believes that she does not know where it is and therefore requires the assistance of a phone book in order for her to inquire where the said restaurant is located.
Clark and Chalmer’s argument can only be verified if there is indeed a preliminary step that occurs before complex brain functions commences.
Thus, it is important to agree on this part that before the brain leaps to action it first access the person’s beliefs regarding a particular stimulus or challenge. In this case the problem is the need to move from point A to point B – the woman has to navigate her way from her house to the restaurant.
In developing their argument Clark and Chalmers illustrated a similar problem. A girl tried to find a museum by determining first her beliefs regarding her knowledge about the exact address and location of the museum. It is only after being certain of this belief that the girl accessed her memory to figure out that the museum is located in a certain place with a certain street sign.
A boy on the other hand does cannot access him memory because of a certain disease but he believes that the address of the museum was written down in a notebook that he carries with him wherever he goes. The next thing that he did is to consult the notebook and by doing so he was able to determine the exact location of the museum.
In the two illustrations mentioned above there is a link between the brain and the physical environment. But it must be clarified that the brain is not utterly dependent on the physical environment in order to perform all of its functions. Nevertheless, it was also made clear that the brain can indeed utilise certain aspects of the environment to solve a problem or to perform a certain action.
This argument makes sense because the mind and the body cannot exist apart from a physical world. Furthermore, the problems and challenges that human beings have to deal with on a daily basis are part of the physical world. For instance, a woman’s desire to meet up with someone has to do with time and location. These are features of the environment.
Time, distance, and direction are inputs needed by the brain to provide a specific solution. But Clark and Chalmer’s argument goes beyond the brain’s capability to utilise resources because it has more to do with the mind’s ability to extend itself outside of the human body.
Role of the Environment
The beliefs of a human being with regards to solving a problem can be partly constituted by what can be seen and sensed in the physical world. In other words the mind can be extended on certain features of the environment and utilises these objects and materials into tools that helps the person access particular information or generate a solution to a problem.
However, not everything can be used and the mind cannot be extended to any object. The criteria to include nonbiological candidates for inclusion into an individual’s cognitive system are listed below (Menary, p.46):
That the resource be reliably available and typically invoked.
That any information thus retrieved be more or less automatically endorsed. It should not usually be subject to critical scrutiny. It should be deemed about as trustworthy as something retrieved clearly from biological memory.
That information contained in the resource should be easily accessible as and when required.
The mind can be extended only on objects that can help the mind access a set of data without having to expend a great deal of resources in doing so. It must be achieved flawlessly in the same way that the brain can access biological memory.
This brings to the conclusion that what makes humans so much more cognitively capable is not merely the improved structure of their brains but their amazing capacities to create and maintain a variety of special external structures (symbolic and social-institutional) by which Clark means language and culture (Logan, p.223).
In the illustration provided the boy utilised a notebook but in other settings human utilise symbols built into language and culture. Clark clarifies by stating that:
Mind cannot usefully be extended willy-nilly into the world. The notebook is always there – it is not locked in the garage, or rarely consulted. The information it contains is easy to access and use. The information is automatically endorsed – not subject to critical scrutiny, unlike the musings of a companion on a bus. Finally, the information was originally gathered and endorsed by the current user (unlike the entries in the encyclopaedia” (Marraffa, Caro, & Ferretti, p.217).
It can therefore be argued that the mind selects certain features of the environment and locks into it to develop a system of retrieval of information and interpretation of meaning.
This is nothing new. For many decades researchers were able to prove that language and culture are symbols that the human mind can access to determine meaning and conformity to a particular set of rules and expectations (Denton, p.17).
Extended Mind
The theory of the extended mind is plausible because of the fact that human beings live within a physical environment. Human life is impossible it is detached from a physical world. Thus, the interconnection and the overlap are very difficult to separate. It is like a fish living in the ocean.
Only someone who lives outside that system can perceive that water and fish are different entities but the fish has no idea that there is a world beyond that realm.
Human beings are more intelligent than fishes. Humans can easily make the distinction that there is an atmosphere and that there are different types of elements and chemicals present in this world. But humans cannot envision a world outside the physical reality. In other words humans cannot think, live, breathe or make conjecture outside that physical realm (Barden & Williams, p.37). Therefore, the connection is constant and occurs even without conscious thought.
The second reason why the theory is plausible is based on the findings of other researchers in the field of cognitive science. For instance one researcher made a comment that: “It would, therefore, be no great surprise if the theory of mind and the theory of symbols were some day to converge” (Fodor, p.xi).
The mind can manipulate symbols and can break codes even without prior knowledge regarding a particular set of symbols or language.
Furthermore, philosophers and thinkers of the past had discovered the power of the mind to function even beyond the context of biology. For example Descartes discovered that persons who had lost a limb could be led to think that this “limb” was being moved, or pained, merely by stimulating parts of the nervous system.
This sort of information led Descartes to the conclusion that there must be some kind of contact between the mental and physical worlds, and that the contact must take place in the brain (Popkin & Stroll, p.125). This is the challenge faced by researchers in cognitive science.
It is no longer enough to simply label the brains functions as occurring in three different levels: a) physical; b) procedural; and c) computational (Dawson, p.33). It is equally important to find out the specific action taken. This study does not attempt to explain the complex functions of the brain. It simply provides an overview of a particular action of the brain when it comes to the utilisation of the physical world in order to generate information and solve problems.
Conclusion
Clark and Chalmer’s argument can be understood only if it can be proven that the action of accessing beliefs comes prior to complex cognitive functioning. Complex cognitive functions can be used to describe activities like accessing memory and solving a problem. In this view, the mind looks for a correlation with regards to a particular problem and beliefs regarding that particular issue.
It is only after determining a person’s beliefs regarding that problem that brain initiates high-level functioning. Thus, Clark and Chalmers argued convincingly that in that gap, in a moment of inaction, the brain extends itself to objects that can be found in the environment to facilitate the problem solving process.
The best example is the use of language and culture. Thus, the extended mind theory is plausible because the evidence of this phenomenon does exist.
In the case of language and culture the brain requires very little effort. A child talking to his or her parents does not require a prodigious amount of brain power to complete the task. A person feeling shame because of breaking a particular tradition does not have to use high-levels of brain functioning to feel uncomfortable. The mind extends itself because it can and it is efficient to do so.
Works Cited
Barden, Nicola & Tina Williams. Words and Symbols. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Clark, Andy & David Chalmers. The Extended Mind. MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1998.
Dawson, Michael. The Classical View of Information Processing. MA: Blackwell Publishers.
Denton, Robert. Language, Symbols and the Media. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2006.
Fodor, Jerry. Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind. London: MIT Press, 1987.
Logan, Robert. The Extended Mind: The Emergence of Language, the Human Mind and Culture. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.
Marraffa, Massimo, Mario de Caro, & Francesco Ferretti. Cartographies of the Mind. New York: Springer, 2007.
Menary, Richard. The Extended Mind London: MIT Press, 2010.
Pinker, Steven. How the Mind Works. New York: Penguin, 1999.
Popkin, Richard & Avrum Stroll. Philosophy Made Simple. MA: Elsevier, 1993.