Category: Mind

Imagine being able to heal for free, with no help from medications. It sounds crazy but it’s possible. It can be accomplished by incorporating the practice of mindfulness into our everyday lives. Mindfulness is essentially the practice of consciously focusing your attention on the present moment and accepting it without judgment (Harvard Health Publishing, 2019). The practice of mindfulness in everyday life can stimulate the healing process. Every individual has the natural capacity to heal on their own. Mindfulness healing originates in the Eastern world, specifically from Buddhist meditation. As addressed by Buddha, “every man and woman is the architect of their own healing and their own destiny” (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). In Eastern medicine, it is recognized that as human beings we’ve learned to hold on to all of our emotions and thoughts and in doing so we create density in our body. Things that Western medicine has labeled as cancer, migraines, headaches, depression, and anxiety (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). Needless to say, we have more power over our health than we have been taught to believe. The medical establishment has been slow to recognize the value of mindfulness simply because it doesn’t serve their industry.

In order to heal, one must get to the root cause of the disease. The root cause of a disease is from one’s mindset. The body will believe what the mind believes therefore, to convince the mind, one must think positive thoughts while also accepting the negative ones. As stated by Michael Beckwith in Heal, “tonic thoughts produce tonic chemicals, toxic thoughts produce toxic chemicals”(Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). When one lives in the present and chooses not to judge things as good or bad, it puts less strain on the mind. According to the article, The Healing Power of Mindfulness, “When you’re more accepting of what’s going on in the present moment, you bring less resistance” (Boyce, B. et al., 2017). Mindfulness of thoughts allows you to be aware of a thought (Boyce, B. et al., 2017). “By focusing on the here and now, many people who practice mindfulness find that they are less likely to get caught up in worries about the future or regrets over the past” (Boyce, B. et al., 2017). The fundamental cause of disease is stress. When one is constantly worrying about the future and the past, it puts one at risk because anxiety is related to worrying about future events while dwelling on the past can cause depression. The practice of mindfulness meditation plays a vital role in the treatment of depression, substance abuse, eating disorders, anxiety disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (Harvard Health Publishing, 2019). The healing process involves being in tune with what one is experiencing and to avoid shutting off from it, which can be achieved through the practice of mindfulness.

Not only does mindfulness improve one’s mental well-being, but it also enhances one’s physical health. It can help treat heart disease, lower blood pressure, reduce chronic pain, improve sleep, and alleviate gastrointestinal difficulties (Harvard Health Publishing, 2019). In Heal, Anita Moorjani discusses her experience with lymphoma. After slipping into a coma and experiencing a realm with her deceased father, she reached a state of clarity and accepted why she had cancer and how every decision she ever made in life was caused by fear. She felt herself coming out of the coma and in about a week the doctors saw the tumors disappear faster than they’ve ever seen before. At the end of five weeks, she was free of cancer (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). It’s amazing what miracles the body and mind can do. “Mindfulness works, in part, by helping people to accept their experiences—including painful emotions—rather than react to them with aversion and avoidance” (Harvard Health Publishing, 2019). It’s very easy to be in denial about a transformation in one’s body, most of us don’t want to believe we are diagnosed with a severe illness, usually we attempt to avoid it for as long as we can. This only hurts us in the long run because we have to accept our illness so we can heal (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). A very important aspect of mindfulness is attentiveness to what is happening in your body, your mind, and your environment (Boyce, B. et al., 2017). Jon Kabat-Zin and his peers conducted a study on people with psoriasis, a skin disease that is an uncontrolled cell proliferation in the epidermis. They found that the skin of people who meditate while receiving ultraviolet light therapy cleared four times faster than in people who were getting the ultraviolet light by itself (Boyce, B. et al., 2017). This is one example of a study suggesting how mindfulness awareness can make an extreme difference in the healing process. Mindfulness helps bring negative thoughts to awareness, when you accept your suffering and negative energy, it influences the health of the mind and body thus strengthening the healing process.

The practice of mindfulness should be taught and used more in the medical field because of the benefits that reside from it. It’s shown that developing a mind-body connection can cause significant chemical, physiological and biological changes in the body (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). Over time, mindfulness meditation builds more connections between the areas of the brain while slowing down the reactivity and increasing the sense of the body as a whole (Français, 2013). From studies and evidence shown, the practice of mindfulness aids to improve your mental and physical health. Kabat-Zinn states in Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present and Future, ‘Perhaps it is only strange in a society that persists in devaluating the present moment in favor of perpetual distraction, self‐absorption, and addiction to a feeling of ‘progress’” (Kabat-Zinn, 2006). We shouldn’t devalue the present moment, being aware of the present and being in tune with our body and mind is what helps our healing. In America, modern medicine is what we are familiar with, so why introduce a somewhat foreign practice? Ultimately because it has the potential to contribute to the further development of the field of clinical psychology, behavioral medicine, psychosomatic medicine, and health psychology (Kabat-Zinn, 2006).

Do we rely too much on someone in a white coat? In America, we have a healthcare system where doctors and insurance companies are treating symptoms but not getting to the root causes. They give a drug that has side effects and sometimes only worsens the disease (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). Medicine is useful and does miracles with physical trauma but for chronic illnesses, a holistic approach, such as mindfulness is the best choice (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). In a doctor’s office, you can believe the diagnosis but don’t believe the prognosis. You can’t believe the prognosis without considering the different options you have, you will ultimately lead yourself to failure (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). Joe Dispenza discusses in Heal, the tragic biking accident he had been in. The powerful force compressed six vertebrae in his spine. He was told he’d probably never walk again and needed to undergo radical surgery. Dispenza thought to himself, “the power that made the body heals the body” (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). After he left the hospital, he decided to create a plan, once he was satisfied with his plan he surrendered it to a greater mind. At the end of six weeks he had went through a whole entire thought process of reconstructing his vertebrae. He began noticing changes in his body and was back on his feet within 10 weeks. Dispenza now studies the mind-body connection and mind over matter (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). When you are seeking a negative outcome, it makes it easier to achieve that outcome. When you focus on the process and positive qualities, it reduces the likelihood of anxiety and depression, increasing the healing process (Kabat-Zinn, 2006). Medical students aren’t taught that your body has the ability to heal itself given the right environment and attitude. With more research conducted on mindfulness, it should be shown to influence some aspects of the medical practice in America. Organic chemist, David R. Hamilton, discusses his interest in how in order to test drugs, you give 100 people the drug to show the efficiency of the drug then you give the other 100 people the placebo. It’s remarkable how the group that received the placebo is shown to improve because they think they’re getting the drug. This explains that belief itself shifts biology. When they accept the belief they are getting the actual treatment, they feel as though they are being healed (Schomer & Morrissey, 2017). In modern medicine, it’s the bodies natural capacity to heal more than the substance doing the healing.

As humans, we often search outside of ourselves for the answers to life’s challenges. However, the answers to those questions reside within us. For example, when you fell off your bike as a kid, you scraped your knees and had a few bruises but your body automatically healed. We seem to forget how intelligent our bodies are. Though doctors have a place in our journey, they only help us create the environment to heal, it’s ultimately up to us to do the work. The whole point of mindfulness is to be in a relationship with everything you’re going through, to accept the good and the bad and to use the power of your mind and body to your advantage. This is where we can discover the healing power of mindfulness. If we all incorporate the practice into our everyday lives, it will enhance our well-being and health. Also promoting it in the medical field will help patients who feel they’ve hit rock bottom, a chance at hope. We shouldn’t feel like victims of biological genes or panic from the doctors prognosis, our own healing capacity is found within ourselves.

References

1. Harvard Health Publishing. (2019, August 19). Benefits of Mindfulness. Retrieved November 13, 2019, from https://www.helpguide.org/harvard/benefits-of-mindfulness.htm.
2. Kabat‐Zinn, J. (2006, May 11). Mindfulness‐Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present, and Future. Retrieved November 13, 2019, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.
3. Boyce, B., Kuyken, W., Hunter, J., Sofer, O. J., Bullock, G., & Alexander, A. (2017, May 22). The Healing Power of Mindfulness. Retrieved November 13, 2019, from https://www.mindful.org/the-healing-power-of-mindfulness/.
4. Klinic Français. (2013). Mindfulness. Retrieved November 13, 2019, from https://trauma-recovery.ca/recovery/mindfulness/.
5. Schomer, A., Morrissey, R. (Producers) & Noonan, K. (Director). (2017) Heal. USA

The brain is the most powerful organ in the body. It gives us the ability to feel the emotion and to critically reason, classifying mankind as the most intelligent species on the planet. We know its potential but it has been scientifically proven that we only use about 10% of our brain at any given time revealing a large gap in the potential and power that we could be taking advantage of. Although there is not a sure way to unlock the other 90%, there is a method with the potential to aid in becoming more aware of one’s surroundings, emotions, and purpose in this universe. We are talking about a technique known as mindfulness and will take a deeper look at this concept starting with the definition.

The most accurate definition of Mindfulness is a moment-to-moment awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and environment. This may sound simple but, in a world like the one we live in today, filled with distractions by the second; it can prove challenging. The practice of mindfulness is a basic ability possessed by every human, however, practiced by very few. When one is mindful, they don’t question their instincts, they simply recognize the feeling and sensation; bringing them to the surface and acknowledging them in an attempt to better understand where they came from and why they might have come up. This is not just a” feel good” practice, as a matter of fact, it has been proven to aid in the combat of some of the largest issues facing modern society today.

In late 2018 the United States declared a state of emergency, but not one that you might suspect; the opioid crisis. This should come as no surprise as the numbers support this phenomenon, with clinical depression, anxiety, and stress topping the charts when it comes to disorders and illnesses. While medications may be able to temporarily suppress the effects of these disorders or mask them for a few hours, a practice like mindfulness can almost completely diminish these feelings when practiced regularly. When one understands the sensations of their own body, they can act as triggers, signaling the exact moment they may need to take a step back, close their eyes, and breathe. Being aware and understanding why your body is reacting in a peculiar way significantly reduces anxiety, taking the guessing out and leaving you fully aware and in control of your feelings.

Several experts around the world have conducted MRIs in an attempt to analyze the brain while practicing mindfulness. The results show thicker grey matter in the pre-frontal cortex, the section of the brain used when thinking critically, while the area housing the amygdala, where stress is regulated, grew thinner. It also showed significant growth of the hippocampus, the part of the brain responsible for memory and learning. Other studies have attempted to understand how practicing mindfulness could help with pain management, showing areas of the brain significantly thicken which experts say is the mind ‘disconnecting’ from the root of these feelings and past memories. Analyzing the data as a whole has proven the overall positive effects on the brain however, there is still much that is unknown. This is an interesting topic that many scientists and psychologists are taking an interest in.

In a world that never seems to sleep, mindfulness can provide much-needed moments of tranquility and calmness, reducing anxious feelings and making mankind overall happier. As we mentioned above, this is a basic human ability, the trick is to actually commit to it and dedicate time for oneself and oneself only. It is not impossible, as a matter of fact, it is necessary, as a person can only be strong for others if they are strong themselves.

A great way to start is just by dedicating time to oneself to just close their eyes and breathe. This will take practice, as we all have millions of things running through our brains every second of the day. Simply find a quiet place, close your eyes, and try to quiet the mind. This is the first and seemingly easiest, but the one that required the most practice.

Another great way is to quiet the mind actively. Those that cannot seem to sit still can embark on a journey, attempting to clear the brain and get in touch with the sensations that arise at present. It is easy to let your mind drift off along different tangents, especially on your first few attempts, but the most important thing is to recognize this challenge and work toward a better result the next time.

If you are feeling a bit insecure or unsure about your first time, join a group that welcomes all levels. This not only provides support from others within the practicing community but adds accountability making you more likely to attend a meeting when you schedule it.

We still have a long way to go to unlock the secrets to the human brain. The brain has been a curious topic for years, with researchers discovering new and interesting facts frequently. Mindfulness is a large field that has sparked the interests of many experts around the world, maybe one day we will understand clearly the connection between the human brain and the natural world around us. While it has the power and potential for great things, we are surrounded by so many distractions, cutting its genus potential short. By introducing this concept into one’s life and adding a few of the suggested practices, they’ve taken the first step into becoming a happier and healthier individual. Understand your thoughts and understand the power you possess within with mindfulness.

Recently, applications and mentality practices have been enhanced in settings that require concentration and social-emotional moderation. These settings include workplaces such as businesses, government agencies, professionals, and universities. Often pay attention to these settings using the 8- week course MBSR It is introduced. Four applications at work are discussed below.

First, mental actions are introduced in workplaces that are of great importance and the smallest errors can be important. The purpose of the plans to pay attention to these settings is to increase the ability to pay attention to tasks by eliminating outwardly perceptive thoughts. In a technical workshop, a study was carried out with 15 machinations. Machine-building work requires full focus, attention, and accuracy. Eight workers were in the experimental group and seven were in the control group. The experimental group was guided by a twenty-minute meditation before the start of the day and meditation ten minutes after lunch. The group was encouraged to have a similar meditation before retiring at night to calm down and improve mental concentration and concentration. After 8 months of MBSR, Craftsmen have reported that they are more focused and focused on reducing physical and bruising and improving the performance of the workforce against control staff.

Second, mindfulness measures have also been implemented in the field of medicine with reported benefits. Baer (2003) presented her findings of the 12 emergency nurses who participated in the Mindfulness Meditation Exercises for the 8- week program, along with a one-hour, six-hour retreat. They subsequently reported such benefits as reducing their desire to focus on the negative aspects of their clients and increasing their ability to free their minds from the negative emotions of others and less mental and physical fatigue. In addition to setting negative feelings, nursing professions also need to be able to show sympathy and empathy for others.

Third, the practice of mentality is now introduced to the realm of higher education. According to a recent study by Mrazek (2013), Colleges and universities focusing on workload, as a means of increasing the standardized student college test scores (for example GRE and LSAT) Focusing on focus. It is believed that the use of mentality increases cognitive ability and concentration under pressure. The study included 30 undergraduate students. 15 students were randomly selected to participate in mindfulness education and 15 students were assigned to a control group. Standard training MBSR from 8 weeks of mental training divided into two groups were. The morning exercise was guided by an experienced meditation practitioner. Nightly suggestions were offered before studying or retiring at night. Their results reported that participants were more relaxed, confident, and least stressed than controls.

Finally, the approach to paying attention to parents is considered as a way to promote secure relationships between parents and children. With respect to ‘ mental parents, ‘ Suzuki (1970) suggests that the concentration of mentality eliminates the parent’s mentality of old habits and restrictions imposed by previous experiences, thus spontaneous opportunities that were not previously foreseen, do not allow. This means that mentality can reduce the parents’ desire to respond to their children according to the way they submit themselves. In structured mental focus training, parents are encouraged to focus their attention on one thing. While some parents may respond to their children without focusing on what is happening here and now. Practicing parenting minds reminds a few mental breaths before responding to rush or anger. Additionally, there is evidence that mental attitudes toward parents have a profound effect on those who practice. In particular, Gunuratana (1991) Suggests that changes in mental parenting improve the overall quality of life of parents, children, and others who are in contact with them. In contrast to the learning of a set of skills for changing behaviors, the concentration of mentality creates positive changes that appear to result from a change in the way a person minds in relation to events in their environment.

Therefore, research shows that exercising in the mind of consciousness has a positive impact on individuals, including the relationship between parents and children, the relationships of the spouse, friends, and others that are important in their lives. Parents can re-connect with their children, and see themselves as more intelligent, positive, and reliable parents. These parenting skills are essential for building confidence in children, as well as supporting support for schools, friendships, and overall academic success. It seems natural that actions like the growing mentality in the program for children and adolescents. The following section discusses the use of attention to children and the school environment.

Our surrounding is filled with distraction. At the modern world where we have access to so many technologies and gadgets getting distracted easily is very normal. So, at this age holding our concentration in one particular thing is extremely difficult. We get so busy thinking about our future, we often forget to live. Mindfulness is an ability that will enable you to live and enjoy your life rather than surviving.

What is mindfulness

Mindfulness simply means living in the present. It is the awareness that we can develop by paying attention on purpose at a particular moment. We are filled with a mixture of feelings when we are doing something, be it some important work or any free activity. We become so concerned about the result of it and other irrelevant elements that we lose our concentration from the part where our main focus should be on. Mindfulness teaches us to focus on the task we are doing at that particular moment without judging, without thinking of the repercussions. It means acceptance and living moment-by-moment. At that moment you are not analyzing and trying to know what is happening, you are just a silent observer watching and feeling the moment. Mindfulness is not about any reaction, it is about your observation. It frees us from the distraction and let us feel the moment without thinking or worrying about it. Mindfulness has been developed from the meditation exercises of the Buddhists. However, it does not have anything to do with spirituality and anyone can practice mindfulness. It is one kind of meditation or a technique to a better way of life.

Mindfulness is not meditation

We need to understand it that mindfulness is not the same as meditation. It has some commonalities but isn’t the same thing. One major difference can be that meditation can cure many mental issues along with some health issues while mindfulness is the prevention of those issues. So, it is not a cure. It is a long term process that gives you the strength to prevent developing mental and health issues. Meditation is a short term process where the effects last for a small time. It refreshes your mind and keeps your mind calm to prepare for your daily tasks or to cure your mental issues. But mindfulness frees you from all thoughts and gives your whole system a break. Meditation is a way to start embracing the lifestyle of mindfulness.

How mindfulness works

Mindfulness is like any other skill that needs to be developed. It is not a temporary state, we need to keep practising. It is a way of life. When we try to do more than one task simultaneously, it hampers the overall productivity. Because we lose attention to every work and may miss important details. Mindfulness withdraws our attention from other tasks and brings them to one particular task. It increases our awareness of the details of one particular moment restricting the distraction around us. That means it removes the concept of multitasking from our mind. We can also get distracted by thinking about past and future events. Mindfulness brings our attention to the present moment. People get confused about remembering what was and imagining what is to come in the near future. By doing this, they can not live in the moment and fall into depression, they develop mental issues. As mindfulness teaches us to be nonjudgmental, it helps us to observe the present rather than worrying about the past and future. It gets us rid of the ‘what-ifs’ and let us think about the present.

Mindfulness meditation connects us with emotion regulation. It means that emotions are taken as they are. We just need to feel the emotion as it comes to us without analyzing irrelevant information. One needs to observe how your thoughts are processed. By understanding the pattern, you can get rid of them so that the thoughts can not dominate your present. Even our body can tell us a lot about it. Our body tells a lot about ourselves. When we are going through a stage of depression or anxiety, our body can also feel it. We notice an irregular heartbeat, headaches, problem in breathing. This happens when our memories are controlling our present. Mindfulness meditation can help us to let go of these memories to calm our mind.

What does it do for us

We go through so many challenges throughout the day. We all lead a hectic lifestyle. It becomes tiresome for us to keep working and working all the time. We might think it increases our productivity. But the truth is it doesn’t, in fact, it prevents us from being productive. When our mind is not fresh and thinking about too many things at once it fails to concentrate. Remember when you try too hard to get something you are creating a conflict between your mind and the outer world which is never a good approach. Mindfulness leads you to a way where you can stop these conflicts because it creates our awareness. The more you practice the more aware you become. But it is never about perfection. The beauty of our life is the imperfections. Mindfulness helps us to understand this truth and be happy. It makes you a fighter to face the imperfections bravely.

Nowadays, we will hear about mindfulness meditation everywhere. This much talking that is being done on this is justified. Scientists have carried out experiments and surveys to validate the effectiveness of mindfulness. They have found this to her truly effective. It does a lot of amazing things for our overall health along with calming our brain. One of the validations has come from a professor who has integrated mindfulness practice to the existing medications. The founder of the stress reduction clinic, Jon kabat-Zinn who had illustrated that mindfulness can bring amazing changes to our life. It can have a positive impact on our mental, physical health and behaviour.

As human beings, our mind wanders. It can process a lot of information at once. That is why we can put our concentration in more than one thing, it happens naturally. Researchers have proved that people get distracted most of the time, irrespective of what they are doing. Suppose you are at the office doing some important work. You can not hold that attention for much longer. You start thinking about the match you saw yesterday or you start thinking about the vacation that we went to last week and even start preparing for the next one in your thoughts. This distraction is not the case with you only. Most of us have to go through this distraction. It leads to unproductivity, delay in work and unhappiness. Researchers say that the distraction causes unhappiness no matter what the situation is. When we can not set our mind in one particular thing, meaning when our mind wanders we become less and less happy with our lives. Statistics prove this claim. Mindfulness meditation can get us rid of this issue.

Apart from this, it brings certain changes to our daily lives. Let us take one real-life example. Suppose you are asked to describe natural scenery. Now, you might be tempted to let the person know whether you like it or not. But is this what that person wanted to know? Of course, no. You get distracted and influenced by your choice and change your focus to something else which may be completely irrelevant. So, what you should have done in this case? Just describing the scenery to the person would have sufficed. By doing that, you would be concentrating on one thing only rather than getting distracted by some other information. That is what mindfulness meditation can do for us by teaching to hold our attention to one particular thing, to take everything one step at a time.

Mindfulness brings a lot of changes all together to help us lead a better life. By bringing your focus on one particular thing, it helps you to engage better in activities. You can really enjoy what you are doing without being distracted. It also has a positive effect on our physical health. When we get a clear mind, our heart stays healthy. As a result of it, we have good circulation of blood and normal blood pressure. It also reduces pains in the different parts of our body, helps us sleep and digest better. Along with physical health, mindfulness can also help us maintain a good mental health. We do not get depressed or suffer from anxiety disorders. We go not show any abnormal behaviour due to stress because our mind stays calm which we have learned through practising mindfulness.

To sum up the benefits of mindfulness we can take a look at the list below.

• Provides us with a better lifestyle
• Teaches us to focus on one thing at a time
• Does not let our thoughts of the past and for the future dominate our present.
• Lets us focus more on the sensation of our body
• Improves our physical health
• Keeps us away from the conflict of body and mind
• Helps us to keep a calm mind and thus keeps us away from mental issues
• Brings positive changes in our behaviour
• Provides us overall wellbeing to lead a happier and healthier life

Mindfulness exercises

There are several techniques you can easily try to achieve your goal. Let us look at some exercise for mindfulness meditation.

• Breathing: This is one of the easiest exercises which can be done by standing up or sitting down. You have to be still and keep your complete focus on breathing. First, you inhale with your nose with the complete upper movement of your stomach. Then you slowly exhale with your mouth. While this process, do not think about anything else. Feel the process throughout. Try to understand how your breathing works. It increases your awareness to one particular task. Continue doing this for 2-3 minutes and you will start feeling the difference.
• Focusing: This is the technique with an added step with breathing. In this exercise, you just need to sit calmly and start breathing rhythmically. While you breathe you have to keep track of every single inhale and exhale. Your chest will rise and fall along with your breathing. You will need to keep your focus on monitoring the movement.
• Observing: This is an important exercise that will help you in every field of your life. This one mostly depends on your choice. You can do this exercise the way you want. First, you have to pick an object and then you start your observation. Look closely and keep your complete focus on that object. Probably, you have seen that object before or you are seeing it for the first time. Irrespective of that, observe it like you are seeing it for the first time. When you focus deeply on it, you will notice the minute details.
• Noting: This exercise can be included in all the other exercises. Because it means to note what you are doing and feeling. When you feel any changes or distractions while exercising try to note it down so that you can know more about your habits and abilities.
• Listening: You already are familiar with this exercise. But maybe you are not doing it properly. It is listening to music with complete concentration. Put on your headphones and lie down or sit down. Calm yourself and start listening to a song you like. Try to feel the song. Try to understand the rhythm and inhale the magic of every instrument.
• Stop procrastinating: We are all guilty of this. We keep our work for the last moment and land in a difficult situation. Try not to do that. Keep a fixed schedule and capitalize on that diligently. When you have some tasks to do, just do it. Firstly, it will feel difficult. But after practising it for some time, it will become a habit.
• Appreciating: Try to appreciate the things of your surroundings. Look around yourself and you will find so many amazing things that you never admired. The people doing small tasks like carrying your mail deserve appreciation. Try to be nice to them and others. A simple thank you bring a lot of changes in yourself.
• Awareness: In this exercise, you will need to stop for a moment to feel your surroundings. What I mean by that is, when you go somewhere you quickly complete your task and you are back after that. But in this exercise, you will go somewhere and first will try to feel the ambience and try to understand where you are and why you are. Of course, you know where you are and why you are there, but just try to feel that within you to be ready for the next step. When you go to a beautiful place, you stand and inhale the beauty first. Then you start exploring the place. Do this in every situation of your life.

We live a very busy life. You write your assignment while you’re going to college or completing a presentation while sitting in the car or planning a vacation while in an office meeting. It is understandable why we live like this. In this era, time is very valuable. We try to utilize it in the best way possible so that we can get time to do other things. It does not make us more productive most of the time. In fact, we fail to find the real meaning of life, we barely survive. We waste too much time about the things we missed. We live in the past and future. We make relationships in the present, we create things in the present time, we party and play with our friends in the present time. So, why keep thinking about the past or future? We should learn to live the moment before our present becomes the past. By thinking about the things that did not work and planning to do it better all the time will harm your mental health and daily life. You live only once, so don’t waste it living in the past. When you are too much concerned about what happened in the past or what will happen in your future, you miss out the real joy of living.

Introduction

Ongoing research suggests mindfulness enhances executive function, although long-term interventions are time consuming and an unrealistic reflection of real-life. More recently, the benefits of short-term mindfulness have been highlighted, despite Anderson, Lau, Segal and Bishop (2007) observing no improvement in attentional control. This study aims to clarify the effect of short-term mindfulness on executive function and provide support for previous findings. A total of 98 participants listened to mindfulness meditation, mind-wandering meditation or an audiobook. Subsequently participants completed the Self-Assessment Mannikin (Bradley & Lang, 1994) to assess mood; Stroop (Stroop, 1935) and Simon task (LeMay & Simon, 1969) to test executive function and Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire 15-item version (FFMQ-15; Baer et al., 2008) to produce a score reflecting mindfulness traits. It was predicted that Stroop interference would be smaller in the mindfulness condition, compared to the mind-wandering and audiobook controls. Paired sample t-tests calculated a significant difference for each condition, revealing a Stroop interference effect. Whilst a one-way between participants ANCOVA identified a non-significant main effect of group on Stroop interference, inferring the size of the Stroop interference effect did not differ between conditions once general mindfulness had been taken into account. FFMQ-15 scores were an added covariate to determine the influence of mindfulness traits, although the main effect was non-significant. Overall, the results were inconsistent with the majority of previous research. This study argues the need for further research to identify a potential mechanism and understand factors required to maximise the benefits of mindfulness in terms of executive function.

Mindfulness – for some a way of life and for others a waste of time. Kabat-Zinn (2003) defined mindfulness as the awareness that emerges through purposely paying attention to the present moment and unfolding of experience without judgement. Mindfulness can be achieved through meditation interventions that involve paying close and continuous attention to an object, and if awareness shifts away, return attention to the object. The most commonly practiced intervention is mindfulness of the breath, where individuals focus on the physical sensations of breath entering and leaving their body.

Many people disregard mindfulness, although research has highlighted the value of meditation. For instance, in reducing symptoms of binge eating (Kristeller & Hallett, 1999), improving mood (Speca, Carlson, Goodey & Angen, 2000) and enhancing relationships (Carson, Carson, Gil, & Baucom, 2004). Recently, research has investigated the effect of mindfulness on executive function – mental processes required for attention when relying on instinct would be inappropriate. Inhibitory control is a core executive function that involves managing one’s attention, behaviour, thoughts and emotions and allows us to override a strong internal predisposition or external stimulation to behave appropriately (Diamond, 2013). The Stroop task measures inhibitory control by assessing one’s ability to overcome the automatic process of reading and name the ink colour of a colour word. The Stroop interference effect occurs when a mismatch in stimuli delays response time, indicating cognitive interference (Stroop, 1935).

Research has demonstrated long-term mindfulness interventions can improve executive function. For example, Moore and Malinowski (2009) identified reduced Stroop interference in experienced Buddhist meditation practitioners, who self-reported high levels of trait mindfulness, compared to non-meditators. It was concluded that mindfulness was positively correlated with sustained attention via cognitive flexibility. Contrastingly, Riggs, Black and Ritt-Olsen (2015) found mindfulness was significantly associated with inhibitory control, but not cognitive flexibility. Jha, Krompinger and Baime (2007) concluded mindfulness improved attention-related behavioural responses by enhancing functioning of specific subcomponents of attention. Additionally, Teper and Inzlicht (2013) discovered long-term meditators made fewer errors on the Stroop task compared to a control group, although attributed findings to heightened emotional acceptance. This research suggests long-term mindfulness meditation can enhance inhibitory control, despite conflicting explanations of findings. However, extensive practice periods are impractical and an unrealistic reflection of real-life as the majority of people don’t have the time to commit.

Consequentially, research has investigated whether short-term meditation is valuable, or if long-term interventions are required to experience benefits. Wenk-Sormaz (2005) found brief meditation practice reduced habitual responding on the Stroop task. Meditation participants were better able to inhibit the automatic process of reading and focus on colour. Further, Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, David and Goolkasian (2010) examined the influence of brief mindfulness training on mood and cognition compared to an audiobook control group. Sustained attention and executive function significantly improved, but there was no effect on mood. It was concluded that mindfulness meditation increased focus on timed or speeded tasks. However, Anderson, Lau, Segal and Bishop (2007) investigated the effect of short-term mindfulness training, psychological education and physical exercise on executive function. Results revealed enhanced emotional well-being, but no improvement in attentional control. Therefore, short-term mindfulness meditation has been shown to enhance executive function, although there are mixed results.

Due to inconsistent findings, it is essential to clarify the effect of short-term mindfulness meditation on executive function and provide support for previous research. Therefore, this experiment aims to investigate the effect of brief mindfulness meditation on executive function. Participants listened to mindfulness meditation, mind-wandering meditation or an audiobook. Following this, participants completed the Self-Assessment Mannikin (SAM; Bradley & Lang, 1994) to assess mood; Stroop and Simon task (LeMay & Simon, 1969) to test executive function and Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire 15-item version (FFMQ-15; Baer et al., 2008). Only Stroop and FFMQ-15 data were analysed. FFMQ-15 scores were an added covariate to determine whether the effect of mindfulness on executive function was stronger if one’s initial mindfulness trait score was higher. Previous research has shown mindfulness to enhance attention and one’s ability to focus on a stimulus or ignore distracting stimuli. Correspondingly, mindfulness meditation should improve control over automatic behaviours and performance on executive function tasks. Therefore, it was predicted Stroop interference would be smaller in the mindfulness condition, compared to mind-wandering and audiobook controls.

Method

Participants

All 98 Swansea University Undergraduate Psychology students were recruited through opportunity sampling. The average age was 20.34 years (SD= 2.66) and the gender split was unequal (m=16, f=82). The sample had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and were not colour blind. Participants provided written consent and were not rewarded.

Design

The overall design of this study was a one-way ANCOVA. The Stroop task was based on a mixed design, manipulating two independent variables. The group was manipulated between-participants and had three levels – mindfulness, mind-wandering and control. In the Stroop task, congruency was manipulated within-participants and had three levels – congruent, incongruent and neutral. FFMQ-15 scores were an added covariate in the analysis. The dependent variable was response time.

Materials

In the Stroop task a central fixation cross appeared followed by a button with the message ‘Go’ that had to be selected to continue – ensured cursor was in the same starting location for each trial, controlling response time. The stimulus was printed in red, green, blue or orange and the participant selected the matching coloured button. There were 96 neutral (four X’s printed in one of the colours), 24 congruent (colour word printed in the same ink colour) and 72 incongruent trials (colour word printed in a different ink colour) split across four blocks (Stroop, 1935). In the Simon task participants were instructed to press a button with their right or left index finger according to the colour of a square, which appeared either side of a central fixation cross. In congruent trials the coloured square appeared the same side as the correct response hand, whereas in incongruent trials the coloured square appeared the opposite side to the correct response hand (LeMay & Simon, 1969). There were 60 congruent and 60 incongruent trials. Mood was assessed using the SAM (Bradley & Lang, 1994; appendix A), where participants rated happiness and excitement. The FFMQ-15 was used to produce trait mindfulness scores (Baer et al. 2008; appendix B). Participants were exposed to one of three listening tasks, lasting 15 minutes. The audiobook condition listened to the first chapter of ‘Harry Potter and The Philosopher’s Stone’ read by Stephen Fry. The other conditions listened to guided meditation used by Hafenbrack, Kinias and Barsade (2013). The mindfulness condition were instructed to focus on breathing and bring attention back to breathing if their mind wandered, whereas the mind-wandering condition allowed their mind to wander.

Procedure

Data collection and questionnaire administration was controlled using Gorilla (Anwyl-Irvine, Massonnié, Flitton, Kirkham & Evershed, 2019). To begin, participants were presented with the information sheet (appendix C), which outlined the purpose of the research, and provided informed consent (appendix D). Following this, participants completed the SAM (appendix A), before being randomly allocated to one of three listening tasks – mindfulness, mind-wandering or audiobook. After this, participants completed the SAM a second time, followed by the Stroop and Simon tasks – order was counterbalanced. Participants then completed the SAM again and the FFMQ-15 (appendix B), before being debriefed (appendix E). The experiment took approximately 45 minutes.

Results

It was predicted Stroop interference would be smaller in the mindfulness condition, compared to mind-wandering and audiobook controls.

The difference in response times between correctly answered neutral and incongruent Stroop trials produced Stroop interference response times (Stroop, 1935). FFMQ-15 scores were calculated following guidelines (Baer et al. 2008; appendix B). The z scores for Stroop interference and FFMQ-15 scores were used to identify outliers – data from one mindfulness and two audiobook participants were eliminated. The data was interval level and normally distributed according to skewness and kurtosis scores. A non-significant one-way ANOVA between group and FFMQ-15 scores suggested the covariate and dependent variable were unrelated. The data met the homogeneity of regression assumption, identifying a non-significant interaction between group and FFMQ-15 scores. Table 1 displays descriptive statistics for the mean and standard deviation.

Discussion

In this experiment participants listened to mindfulness meditation, mind-wandering meditation or an audiobook. Following this, participants completed the SAM, Stroop task, Simon task and FFMQ-15. It was predicted that mindfulness meditation would reduce Stroop interference. Paired sample t-tests revealed a significant difference for each condition. Whilst, an ANCOVA identified a non-significant main effect of group on Stroop interference and a non-significant main effect for the covariate of FFMQ-15 scores.

This experiment aimed to investigate the effect of brief mindfulness meditation on executive function. Significant paired sample t-tests indicated a Stroop interference effect. However, the non-significant ANCOVA implied the size of Stroop interference did not differ between conditions once general mindfulness has been taken into account. The finding, that mindfulness meditation did not influence executive function is consistent with Anderson, Segal and Bishop’s (2007) research, although inconsistent with the majority of research that identified brief mindfulness enhanced executive function (Wenk-Sormaz, 2005; Zeidan et al., 2010). Increased meditation practice and participants understanding the goal of executive function tasks may explain this discrepancy and could be applied to real-life. For example, in mindfulness apps by informing individuals of task goals to improve executive function.

The non-significant main effect of FFMQ-15 scores suggests the effect of mindfulness meditation on executive function was not influenced by initial mindfulness traits. This contradicts Moore and Malinowski’s (2009) observation that experienced Buddhist meditation practitioners had higher self-reported trait mindfulness. However, self-report measures are subject to bias and unreliable compared to the FFMQ-15 which Shallcross, Lu and Hays (2020) found to accurately identify levels of trait mindfulness. Despite Buddhist meditation practitioners being likely to have high levels of trait mindfulness due to lifestyle, this implies the effect of mindfulness on executive control is immediate and not influenced by internalised mindfulness traits. Given the non-significant findings, a potential mechanism by which mindfulness influences performance is difficult to identify. However, wider research has investigated alternative influential factors such as positive affect (Malinowski & Lim, 2015).

One limitation of this study may be the degree of participant engagement with the listening task. The experiment took place in a room amongst other participants with potential distractions, disrupting focus. This may have impacted performance on executive function tasks, particularly in the mindfulness condition as participants might not have been in the desired state.

References

1. Anderson, N. D., Lau, M. A., Segal, Z. V., & Bishop, S. R. (2007). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 14, 449–463.
2. Anwyl-Irvine, I. L., Massonnié, J., Flitton, A., Kirkham N., & Evershed, J. K. (2019). Gorilla in our midst: An online behavioural builder. Behavioural Research Methods, 52, 388-407.
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4. Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Lykins, E., Button, D., Krietemeyer, J., Sauer, S., Walsh, E., Duggan, D., & Williams, J. M. G. (2008). Construct validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in meditating and nonmeditating samples. Assessment, 15, 329–342.
5. Bradley, M. M., & Lang, P. J. (1994). Measuring Emotion: The Self-Assessment Manikin and Semantic Differential. Journal of behaviour therapy and experimental psychiatry, 25(1), 49-59.
6. Carson, J. W., Carson, K. M., Gil, K. M., & Baucom, D. H. (2004). Mindfulness-based relationship enhancement. Behaviour Therapy, 35(3), 471-494. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80028-5
7. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annu Rev Psychol, 64, 135-168. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750.
8. Hafenbrack, A. C., Kinias, Z., & Barsade, S. G. (2013). Debiasing the Mind Through Meditation: Mindfulness and the Sunk-Cost Bias. Psychological Science, 25(2), 369- 376. doi: 10.1177/0956797613503853
9. Jha, A. P., Krompinger, J., & Baime, M. J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioural Neuroscience, 7, 109- 119. doi: 10.3758/CABN.7.2.109
10. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003), Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present, and Future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144-156. doi: 10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
11. Kristeller, J. L., & Hallett, C. B. (1999). An exploratory study of a meditation-based intervention for binge eating disorder. Journal of Health Psychology, 4,357-363.
12. LeMay, R. P., & Simon, J. R. (1969). Temporal and symbolic S-R compatibility in a sequential information-processing task. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 80(3, Pt.1), 558–560. doi: 10.1037/h0027447
13. Malinowski, P., & Lim, H. J. (2015). Mindfulness at Work: Positive Affect, Hope and Optimism Mediate the Relationship Between Dispositional Mindfulness, Work Engagement, and Well-Being. Mindfulness, 6, 1250-1262. doi: 10.1007/s12671-015-0388-5
14. Moore, A., & Malinowski, P. (2009). Meditation, mindfulness and cognitive flexibility. Consciousness and cognition, 18(1), 176-186.
15. Riggs, N.R., Black, D.S. & Ritt-Olson, A. (2015). Associations Between Dispositional Mindfulness and Executive Function in Early Adolescence. J Child Fam Stud, 24, 2745– 2751. doi: 10.1007/s10826-014-0077-3
16. Shallcross, A.J., Lu, N.Y., & Hays, R.D. (2020). Evaluation of the Psychometric Properties of the Five Facet of Mindfulness Questionnaire. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment. doi: 10.1007/s10862-019-09776-5
17. Speca, M., Carlson, L. E., Goodey, E., & Angen, M. (2000). A randomized, wait-list controlled clinical trial: The effect of a mindfulness-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 613–622.
18. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. doi: 10.1037/h0054651
19. Teper, R., & Inzlicht, M. (2013). Meditation, mindfulness and executive control: the importance of emotional acceptance and brain-based performance monitoring. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(1), 85-92. doi: 10.1093/scan/nss045
20. Wenk-Sormaz, H. (2005). Meditation can reduce habitual responding. Alternative Therapies in Health Medicine, 11(2), 42–58.
21. Zeidan, F., Johnson, S. K., Diamond, B. J., David, Z., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training. Consciousness and cognition, 19(2), 597-605.

Introduction

There is a high prevalence of stress in contemporary western societies. A Stress in AmericaTM survey reported that over two-thirds of the 2020 adult respondents from the general population experienced symptoms of stress(fatigue, irritability, changes in sleeping habits) (American Psychological Association 2013). Caltabiano, Sarafino, & Byrne (2008) stated that stress is a condition that results when an individual comprehends a discrepancy between demands of his situation and resources of his biological, social and psychological systems. As a response to stress the body releases hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol and gluco-and mineralocorticoids (Caltabiano et al, 2008;Tasker & Joëls, 2015). These physiological changes, as a result of persistent stress, can result in health problems such as elevated blood pressure and a dysregulated immune system (Schneiderman, Ironson, Siegel, 2005), memory problems (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995), and mental illnesses such as depression (Hammen, 2004). Hence stress can negatively affect a person’s well-being, particularly their psychological well-being (Moeini, Shafii, Hidarnia, Babaii, Birashk, and Allahverdipour, 2008). Thus there is a crucial need for effective stress-reducing methods, given the increasing prevalence of stress. As stated by Henriques, Keffer, Abrahamson, & Horst (2011), what is needed is an intervention ‘‘that can be easily utilized by large numbers of people that are readily available, inexpensive and have minimal side effects’.

According to Ryff & Keyes (1995) and Shevelenkova and Fesenko (2005), psychological wellbeing is concerned with psychosocial functioning and psychological health. Research has shown that poor psychological wellbeing is linked to increased stress levels as well as depression, anxiety and a lower quality of life (Chu, & Richdale, 2009). Ho (1995) contradicts this research with findings that reported no differences between stressed and unstressed executives. However, even with majority of literature supporting Chu and Richdale;s (2009) research, there is a lack of research that focuses solely on stress and psychological well being.

A popular stress management method that has actually been tried in several scientific studies, albeit of changing quality, is mindfulness meditation. The term “mindfulness” has been used to refer to a psychological state of awareness, a practice that promotes this awareness, a mode of processing information, and a characterological trait (Germer, Siegel, & Fulton, 2005; Kostanski & Hassed, 2008). For the purposes of this paper mindfulness will be viewed as a state rather than a trait, that can be promoted by certain practices or activities (e.g. meditation). Long term interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy have shown positive benefits; emotion regulation, decreased reactivity and increased response flexibility (Davis, & Hayes, 2011). In addition, it was found that individuals who participated in an eight week MBSR programme showed reduced stress and an improved psychological functioning (Carmody, & Baer,2008). However, research regarding brief and single-session mindfulness meditation is still in its initial stages and thus far has reported mixed findings. Johnson, Gur, David, & Currier (2015) reported that although 25 minute single session interventions improved moods, it failed to affect cognition. On the other hand, it was found that computer based mindfulness exercises could increase state mindfulness even though they lasted a maximum of 5 minutes (Mahmood, Hopthrow, & De Moura, 2016). A study conducted by Steffen and Larson (2015) corroborates this finding. In the study it was reported that stress-related blood pressure decreased after a 15 minute mindfulness session.

Hence it can be determined that there is a lack of research with regards to the benefits of brief mindfulness meditation and , specifically, its effect on stress and consequently psychological well being. This study will therefore examine whether brief, single session mindfulness meditation will affect stress levels and psychological well being. Thus it is hypothesised that single session mindfulness meditation (1) results in reduced stress levels, (2) enhances psychological wellbeing (scores).

Ethical Considerations

A JCU ethics application will be completed prior to collection of data and will be submitted to the JCU ethics committee for approval. With regards to confidentiality, participants names will not be added once data is entered. Instead, a numeric code will replace participant names. Informed consent (Appendix A) and information sheets (Appendix B) will be allocated and participants will be made to sign them. Prior to the study, individuals will be informed of the non-mandatory nature of the study, and that an option to opt out of the study at any time is present.

Description of Procedure

Before the experiment begins the experimenter will use an online random assignment tool(www.graphpad.com) to decide which group a participant belongs to (A-Experiment, B-Control). Both groups of participants will then read the information sheet and sign the informed consent form, which will take approximately five minutes. Then participants will be separated into either the experimental condition or the control condition based on their assigned alphabet. The experimental group will meditate whilst listening to a guided mindfulness meditation video for five minutes. Participants will then experience the stressor. In order to induce stress, participants will be instructed to give a five minute speech on ‘Why their ideal partner should choose them as a mate’ in front of the experimenter and a confederate. Once the time is up, a saliva sample will be taken and the participant will complete the PWB scale questionnaire. This will take approximately 25 minutes. The entire procedure is expected to last 45 minutes. The control group will follow the same procedure, except instead of mindfulness meditation they will be asked to simply let their ‘mind wander’ [this aspect is similar to a procedure conducted by Mahmood et al. (2016)]. To avoid priming and self-selection into groups, the term ‘Mind Exercise’ will be used in the information sheet and consent form. ‘Mind Exercise’ refers to both mindfulness meditation and mind wandering.

Assumptions to be checked with SPSS

Multivariate/Univariate Outliers: There must be no multivariate or univariate outliers. Boxplots to be used to identify any univariate outliers. Multivariate outliers to be checked for using the Mahalanobis distance. The assumption is satisfied if obtained distance is less than the critical chi-square value. If obtained distance is greater than the critical chi-square value, remove outliers and retest assumption.

Multivariate Normality: Since samples are sufficiently large, Multivariate Central Limit Theorem holds and hence the multivariate normality assumption holds. If not, a Shapiro-Wilk test of normality will be run. If the test shows that none of the samples show a significant departure from normality, the assumption is satisfied.

• Linearity: For each data set, scatter plot matrices to be checked for line of best fit. If DV’s are linearly related, assumption of linearity is satisfied.
• Homogeneity: Observed covariance matrices for each group to be equal. Assumption to be tested using Box’s M test of equality of covariance. If the data fails this assumption, use SPSS Statistics to carry out Levene’s test of homogeneity of variance to determine if groups have equal variances. Assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices is satisfied if result is not significant.
• Multicollinearity: There is no multicollinearity. Dependent variables to be moderately correlated with each other. If the correlations are too high (greater than 0.9), there could be multicollinearity. Multicollinearity can be assessed by examining Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and tolerance. For there to be an absence of multicollinearity, VIF must be less than 10 while tolerance must be above 0.1. The assumption is then satisfied.

One-way MANOVA Analysis

Firstly, the Multivariate Tests table will be examined to find the actual result of the one-way Manova. By looking at the Wilks’ Lambda value under the ‘Sig.’ column it will be possible to determine whether the one-way MANOVA was statistically significant. If the value is significant (p < .0005), it can be concluded that brief mindfulness meditation has an effect on stress and psychological well being. Secondly, the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table, which contains multiple ANOVAs, will be examined. This is to check if brief mindfulness meditation has a significant effect on stress and psychological well being individually. It is important to note that an alpha correction should be made to account for the multiple ANOVAs being run. The alpha level has to be lowered to 0.025 for a Bonferroni correction to conduct a univariate F test for the effect of IV on each of the DV. Thirdly, if the univariate F test was significant (p < .025), it can be followed up with an examination of Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests results in the Multiple Comparisons table to check the differences between the groups.

Conclusion

Should the results of the study be significant, after the one-way MANOVA analysis, hypothesis one would indicate lower stress levels for participants in the experimental group than the control group. And hypothesis two would indicate higher PWB scores for the experimental group than the control group. Thus an indication of this would be that brief single session mindfulness meditation reduces stress levels and enhances psychological wellbeing. As mentioned in the introduction of this paper, the current study would make further comment on the ongoing research regarding the benefits of brief mindfulness meditation.

An implication of these results would be that brief mindfulness meditation can be included in intervention programmes for stress. This exercise can be included in programmes aimed to enhance an individual’s mental health. Future studies should consider a longitudinal study to investigate long term effects of brief mindfulness meditation. The current study would only have looked at university going students, hence, future longitudinal studies can consider the effects of mindfulness meditation on other populations (i.e. working adults, adolescents).

Music expresses our emotions. It is an important part of our life as it is a way of expressing our feelings as well as emotions. Most music includes singing or playing musical instruments, such as the guitar, piano, drums, or violin. Music plays a huge role in every society. Throughout most of the world and for most of human history, music-making was a natural activity and everyone participated in it. Music is an art form that unites pitch, rhythm, and dynamics in order to create sound. It can be performed by using different kinds of instruments and styles and is divided into different categories such as jazz, folk, hip-hop, pop, rock, etc. Music has a very important role in most of the ceremonies. People convey their feelings by using music played in the ceremonies.

Music is the most powerful medium and in some societies, there have been attempts to control its use. It is powerful at the level of the social group where it helps to communicate which goes beyond words, enables meanings to be shared, and promotes the development and maintenance of individual, group, cultural, and national identities. It is powerful at the individual level because it can induce multiple responses such as physiological, movement, mood, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. Music in itself can be used as a communication tool.

The music consists of different elements such as Duration, Pitch, Dynamics, expressive techniques, Tone Colour, Performing Media, Texture, Character, and Structure. Children are inherently musical. They learn through music and respond. Music provokes intense emotions. Music evokes the full range of human emotions from sad, nostalgic, and tense, to happy, relaxed, calm, and joyous. The value of music from an academic point of view is really amazing. It is the best way of communication. Children improve their social skills and learning through music. They bring up their self-esteem to a higher level. It makes a child more creative and imaginative. If we look at the physical, mental, and social aspects of human beings throughout history, we find that the effect of music is very far-reaching and vast.

Music lowers blood pressure and improves heart rate variability to reduce stress, depression, anxiety, muscle tension, pain, and sudden infant death. Music has a therapeutic power to heal many chronic patients, including those suffering from mental illness. After World War II, musicians went to the military hospitals to apply music as a therapy and this led to the foundation of music as a profession. There is a need to introduce music in nursing education, to enhance understanding of these professional caretakers to help patients improve positive behavior. Both children and adults could consistently identify the emotions that music is trying to express. Infants only showed matching of music and emotions for the happy condition age or gender differences were found. The majority of the children were consistent in their interpretations. Most children found the distinction between happiness and sadness easier to determine than excitement and calm. Children based their emotional responses on various musical elements like tempo and tonality. Experiments show that infants would smile when the singing was played and would cease crying. Mothers’s singing was beneficial for calming their infants and promoting mother-infant bonding. Sad story instructions had more effect on mood than music. Little mood change in the happy story.

The emotions of the participants were affected more by the cognitive instructions than by the music playing in the background. It has been observed that Dissonance activates brain regions associated with processing negative stimuli. While on the other hand heart rate decreases by unpleasant music. Infants as young as 2 months old prefer consonant over dissonant sounds.

Initial exposure to music typically increases liking, but over-familiarity often leads to disliking . Although sad-sounding music elicits sad emotions, sad music is liked as much as happy music in some cases.

Music-making promotes brain plasticity. The corpus callosum is larger for Children who have musical experiences before the age of 7, this means there is greater communication between the right and left efficient transfer of information. The corpus callosum is larger in an individual with musical experiences than in an individual without musical experiences. Children with at least 3 years of musical training performed better than those with no musical training.

Music has always served a social function; music provides identity and the opportunity to tell others who you are. Music often provides a ritual function, either in the context of religion or in secular rituals like dance parties. We can find music in every culture.

African music was based on drums made from hollow tree trunk which was used to communicate over long distance. Chinese music is based on the pentatonic scale. Chinese music often creates dynamic contrast by varying the instrumentation. In its voice, bamboo flute, and bowed strings are used. Irish music is based on a strong pulse and repetitive dance rhythms. Violins and voices are used. In Brazilian music, the Samba is the most popular music and dance in Brazil. The samba is traditionally played on guitars and Cavaquinho.

Music affects our emotions. When we listen to sad songs, we feel a decline in mood and when we listen to happy songs, we feel happier.

Music greatly enhanced the recovery process. Music was used in military hospitals as an intervention to assist the sick and injured during recovery. Music Therapy is used for many different issues, from stress relief to mental, emotional, and behavioral problems. It has been shown to help treat depression and anxiety and is often used to help elderly clients deal with memory loss and other diseases. Music therapy techniques have been used to maintain and develop joint and muscle function. It increases fine and gross motor coordination and control, increases muscle strength, increases range of motion, improves cardiopulmonary and respiratory functioning, and improves oral-motor skills.

Music and Music Therapy are used to counteract two major barriers, emotional turmoil and the associated inappropriate behaviour. Music is the source through which the children are engaged. It is used to structure their social and emotional development and in turn, their progression. It improves attention, memory, physical coordination, and mental development. The classical music stimulates the regeneration of brain cells. Certain kind of music improves mood, intelligence, motivation, and concentration. It also improves the quality of life and aids in physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs. Music has and always will affect the culture of the whole world. Music is often considered the expression of opinion, idea, or emotion. Therefore the culture’s ideas or views are almost always represented in the lyrics or style of their music. Music is very malleable and is affected by a countless number of factors. It has been generally accepted that both listening to and creating music can have various positive effects on mood and mental health. Music can help to elevate your mood and motivate you.

In conclusion, music is not only able to affect our mood but listening to a particular kind of happy or sad music can even change the way we perceive the world.

References

1. Davis, W.B., Gfeller, K.E., & Thaut,M.H. (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy – Theory and Practice. 3rdedition.Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
2. Blood, A.J., Zatorre, R.J., Bermudez, P., & Evans, A.C. (1999) Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain regions. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 382– 387.
3. Hunter, P.G., Schellenberg, E.G., & Griffith, A.T. (2011) Misery loves company: Mood-congruent emotional responding to music. Emotion, 11, 1068-1072.
4. Jones, M.R., Fay, R.R., & Popper, A.N. (eds.) (2010). Music Perception. New York: Springer.
5. Bengtsson, S.L., Csíkszentmihályi, M., & Ullén, F. (2007). Cortical regions are involved in the generation of musical structures during improvisation by pianists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 830-842.
6. Flohr, J.W. (2010). Best practices for young children’s music education: Guidance from brain research. General Music Today, 23, 13-19.
7. Campbell, D. (1997). The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit. (1 ed.). New York: Avon Books, Inc.
8. Davis, W.B., Gfeller, K.E., & Thaut, M.H. (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy – Theory and Practice. 3rd edition. Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
9. Bennett, R. (1999). General Musicianship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. (simple.m.wikipedia.org),(www.renderforest.com),(www.bebrainfit.com),(www.musictherapy.org),(www.positivepsychology.com),(www.teenink.com)

Introduction

There is a high prevalence of stress in contemporary western societies. A Stress in AmericaTM survey reported that over two-thirds of the 2020 adult respondents from the general population experienced symptoms of stress(fatigue, irritability, changes in sleeping habits) (American Psychological Association 2013). Caltabiano, Sarafino, & Byrne (2008) stated that stress is a condition that results when an individual comprehends a discrepancy between demands of his situation and resources of his biological, social and psychological systems. As a response to stress the body releases hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol and gluco-and mineralocorticoids (Caltabiano et al, 2008;Tasker & Joëls, 2015). These physiological changes, as a result of persistent stress, can result in health problems such as elevated blood pressure and a dysregulated immune system (Schneiderman, Ironson, Siegel, 2005), memory problems (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995), and mental illnesses such as depression (Hammen, 2004). Hence stress can negatively affect a person’s well-being, particularly their psychological well-being (Moeini, Shafii, Hidarnia, Babaii, Birashk, and Allahverdipour, 2008). Thus there is a crucial need for effective stress-reducing methods, given the increasing prevalence of stress. As stated by Henriques, Keffer, Abrahamson, & Horst (2011), what is needed is an intervention ‘‘that can be easily utilized by large numbers of people that are readily available, inexpensive and have minimal side effects’.

According to Ryff & Keyes (1995) and Shevelenkova and Fesenko (2005), psychological wellbeing is concerned with psychosocial functioning and psychological health. Research has shown that poor psychological wellbeing is linked to increased stress levels as well as depression, anxiety and a lower quality of life (Chu, & Richdale, 2009). Ho (1995) contradicts this research with findings that reported no differences between stressed and unstressed executives. However, even with majority of literature supporting Chu and Richdale;s (2009) research, there is a lack of research that focuses solely on stress and psychological well being.

A popular stress management method that has actually been tried in several scientific studies, albeit of changing quality, is mindfulness meditation. The term “mindfulness” has been used to refer to a psychological state of awareness, a practice that promotes this awareness, a mode of processing information, and a characterological trait (Germer, Siegel, & Fulton, 2005; Kostanski & Hassed, 2008). For the purposes of this paper mindfulness will be viewed as a state rather than a trait, that can be promoted by certain practices or activities (e.g. meditation). Long term interventions such as Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy have shown positive benefits; emotion regulation, decreased reactivity and increased response flexibility (Davis, & Hayes, 2011). In addition, it was found that individuals who participated in an eight week MBSR programme showed reduced stress and an improved psychological functioning (Carmody, & Baer,2008). However, research regarding brief and single-session mindfulness meditation is still in its initial stages and thus far has reported mixed findings. Johnson, Gur, David, & Currier (2015) reported that although 25 minute single session interventions improved moods, it failed to affect cognition. On the other hand, it was found that computer based mindfulness exercises could increase state mindfulness even though they lasted a maximum of 5 minutes (Mahmood, Hopthrow, & De Moura, 2016). A study conducted by Steffen and Larson (2015) corroborates this finding. In the study it was reported that stress-related blood pressure decreased after a 15 minute mindfulness session.

Hence it can be determined that there is a lack of research with regards to the benefits of brief mindfulness meditation and , specifically, its effect on stress and consequently psychological well being. This study will therefore examine whether brief, single session mindfulness meditation will affect stress levels and psychological well being. Thus it is hypothesised that single session mindfulness meditation (1) results in reduced stress levels, (2) enhances psychological wellbeing (scores).

Ethical Considerations

A JCU ethics application will be completed prior to collection of data and will be submitted to the JCU ethics committee for approval. With regards to confidentiality, participants names will not be added once data is entered. Instead, a numeric code will replace participant names. Informed consent (Appendix A) and information sheets (Appendix B) will be allocated and participants will be made to sign them. Prior to the study, individuals will be informed of the non-mandatory nature of the study, and that an option to opt out of the study at any time is present.

Description of Procedure

Before the experiment begins the experimenter will use an online random assignment tool(www.graphpad.com) to decide which group a participant belongs to (A-Experiment, B-Control). Both groups of participants will then read the information sheet and sign the informed consent form, which will take approximately five minutes. Then participants will be separated into either the experimental condition or the control condition based on their assigned alphabet. The experimental group will meditate whilst listening to a guided mindfulness meditation video for five minutes. Participants will then experience the stressor. In order to induce stress, participants will be instructed to give a five minute speech on ‘Why their ideal partner should choose them as a mate’ in front of the experimenter and a confederate. Once the time is up, a saliva sample will be taken and the participant will complete the PWB scale questionnaire. This will take approximately 25 minutes. The entire procedure is expected to last 45 minutes. The control group will follow the same procedure, except instead of mindfulness meditation they will be asked to simply let their ‘mind wander’ [this aspect is similar to a procedure conducted by Mahmood et al. (2016)]. To avoid priming and self-selection into groups, the term ‘Mind Exercise’ will be used in the information sheet and consent form. ‘Mind Exercise’ refers to both mindfulness meditation and mind wandering.

Assumptions to be checked with SPSS

Multivariate/Univariate Outliers: There must be no multivariate or univariate outliers. Boxplots to be used to identify any univariate outliers. Multivariate outliers to be checked for using the Mahalanobis distance. The assumption is satisfied if obtained distance is less than the critical chi-square value. If obtained distance is greater than the critical chi-square value, remove outliers and retest assumption.

Multivariate Normality: Since samples are sufficiently large, Multivariate Central Limit Theorem holds and hence the multivariate normality assumption holds. If not, a Shapiro-Wilk test of normality will be run. If the test shows that none of the samples show a significant departure from normality, the assumption is satisfied.

• Linearity: For each data set, scatter plot matrices to be checked for line of best fit. If DV’s are linearly related, assumption of linearity is satisfied.
• Homogeneity: Observed covariance matrices for each group to be equal. Assumption to be tested using Box’s M test of equality of covariance. If the data fails this assumption, use SPSS Statistics to carry out Levene’s test of homogeneity of variance to determine if groups have equal variances. Assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices is satisfied if result is not significant.
• Multicollinearity: There is no multicollinearity. Dependent variables to be moderately correlated with each other. If the correlations are too high (greater than 0.9), there could be multicollinearity. Multicollinearity can be assessed by examining Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and tolerance. For there to be an absence of multicollinearity, VIF must be less than 10 while tolerance must be above 0.1. The assumption is then satisfied.

One-way MANOVA Analysis

Firstly, the Multivariate Tests table will be examined to find the actual result of the one-way Manova. By looking at the Wilks’ Lambda value under the ‘Sig.’ column it will be possible to determine whether the one-way MANOVA was statistically significant. If the value is significant (p < .0005), it can be concluded that brief mindfulness meditation has an effect on stress and psychological well being. Secondly, the Tests of Between-Subjects Effects table, which contains multiple ANOVAs, will be examined. This is to check if brief mindfulness meditation has a significant effect on stress and psychological well being individually. It is important to note that an alpha correction should be made to account for the multiple ANOVAs being run. The alpha level has to be lowered to 0.025 for a Bonferroni correction to conduct a univariate F test for the effect of IV on each of the DV. Thirdly, if the univariate F test was significant (p < .025), it can be followed up with an examination of Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests results in the Multiple Comparisons table to check the differences between the groups.

Conclusion

Should the results of the study be significant, after the one-way MANOVA analysis, hypothesis one would indicate lower stress levels for participants in the experimental group than the control group. And hypothesis two would indicate higher PWB scores for the experimental group than the control group. Thus an indication of this would be that brief single session mindfulness meditation reduces stress levels and enhances psychological wellbeing. As mentioned in the introduction of this paper, the current study would make further comment on the ongoing research regarding the benefits of brief mindfulness meditation.

An implication of these results would be that brief mindfulness meditation can be included in intervention programmes for stress. This exercise can be included in programmes aimed to enhance an individual’s mental health. Future studies should consider a longitudinal study to investigate long term effects of brief mindfulness meditation. The current study would only have looked at university going students, hence, future longitudinal studies can consider the effects of mindfulness meditation on other populations (i.e. working adults, adolescents).

Music expresses our emotions. It is an important part of our life as it is a way of expressing our feelings as well as emotions. Most music includes singing or playing musical instruments, such as the guitar, piano, drums, or violin. Music plays a huge role in every society. Throughout most of the world and for most of human history, music-making was a natural activity and everyone participated in it. Music is an art form that unites pitch, rhythm, and dynamics in order to create sound. It can be performed by using different kinds of instruments and styles and is divided into different categories such as jazz, folk, hip-hop, pop, rock, etc. Music has a very important role in most of the ceremonies. People convey their feelings by using music played in the ceremonies.

Music is the most powerful medium and in some societies, there have been attempts to control its use. It is powerful at the level of the social group where it helps to communicate which goes beyond words, enables meanings to be shared, and promotes the development and maintenance of individual, group, cultural, and national identities. It is powerful at the individual level because it can induce multiple responses such as physiological, movement, mood, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. Music in itself can be used as a communication tool.

The music consists of different elements such as Duration, Pitch, Dynamics, expressive techniques, Tone Colour, Performing Media, Texture, Character, and Structure. Children are inherently musical. They learn through music and respond. Music provokes intense emotions. Music evokes the full range of human emotions from sad, nostalgic, and tense, to happy, relaxed, calm, and joyous. The value of music from an academic point of view is really amazing. It is the best way of communication. Children improve their social skills and learning through music. They bring up their self-esteem to a higher level. It makes a child more creative and imaginative. If we look at the physical, mental, and social aspects of human beings throughout history, we find that the effect of music is very far-reaching and vast.

Music lowers blood pressure and improves heart rate variability to reduce stress, depression, anxiety, muscle tension, pain, and sudden infant death. Music has a therapeutic power to heal many chronic patients, including those suffering from mental illness. After World War II, musicians went to the military hospitals to apply music as a therapy and this led to the foundation of music as a profession. There is a need to introduce music in nursing education, to enhance understanding of these professional caretakers to help patients improve positive behavior. Both children and adults could consistently identify the emotions that music is trying to express. Infants only showed matching of music and emotions for the happy condition age or gender differences were found. The majority of the children were consistent in their interpretations. Most children found the distinction between happiness and sadness easier to determine than excitement and calm. Children based their emotional responses on various musical elements like tempo and tonality. Experiments show that infants would smile when the singing was played and would cease crying. Mothers’s singing was beneficial for calming their infants and promoting mother-infant bonding. Sad story instructions had more effect on mood than music. Little mood change in the happy story.

The emotions of the participants were affected more by the cognitive instructions than by the music playing in the background. It has been observed that Dissonance activates brain regions associated with processing negative stimuli. While on the other hand heart rate decreases by unpleasant music. Infants as young as 2 months old prefer consonant over dissonant sounds.

Initial exposure to music typically increases liking, but over-familiarity often leads to disliking . Although sad-sounding music elicits sad emotions, sad music is liked as much as happy music in some cases.

Music-making promotes brain plasticity. The corpus callosum is larger for Children who have musical experiences before the age of 7, this means there is greater communication between the right and left efficient transfer of information. The corpus callosum is larger in an individual with musical experiences than in an individual without musical experiences. Children with at least 3 years of musical training performed better than those with no musical training.

Music has always served a social function; music provides identity and the opportunity to tell others who you are. Music often provides a ritual function, either in the context of religion or in secular rituals like dance parties. We can find music in every culture.

African music was based on drums made from hollow tree trunk which was used to communicate over long distance. Chinese music is based on the pentatonic scale. Chinese music often creates dynamic contrast by varying the instrumentation. In its voice, bamboo flute, and bowed strings are used. Irish music is based on a strong pulse and repetitive dance rhythms. Violins and voices are used. In Brazilian music, the Samba is the most popular music and dance in Brazil. The samba is traditionally played on guitars and Cavaquinho.

Music affects our emotions. When we listen to sad songs, we feel a decline in mood and when we listen to happy songs, we feel happier.

Music greatly enhanced the recovery process. Music was used in military hospitals as an intervention to assist the sick and injured during recovery. Music Therapy is used for many different issues, from stress relief to mental, emotional, and behavioral problems. It has been shown to help treat depression and anxiety and is often used to help elderly clients deal with memory loss and other diseases. Music therapy techniques have been used to maintain and develop joint and muscle function. It increases fine and gross motor coordination and control, increases muscle strength, increases range of motion, improves cardiopulmonary and respiratory functioning, and improves oral-motor skills.

Music and Music Therapy are used to counteract two major barriers, emotional turmoil and the associated inappropriate behaviour. Music is the source through which the children are engaged. It is used to structure their social and emotional development and in turn, their progression. It improves attention, memory, physical coordination, and mental development. The classical music stimulates the regeneration of brain cells. Certain kind of music improves mood, intelligence, motivation, and concentration. It also improves the quality of life and aids in physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs. Music has and always will affect the culture of the whole world. Music is often considered the expression of opinion, idea, or emotion. Therefore the culture’s ideas or views are almost always represented in the lyrics or style of their music. Music is very malleable and is affected by a countless number of factors. It has been generally accepted that both listening to and creating music can have various positive effects on mood and mental health. Music can help to elevate your mood and motivate you.

In conclusion, music is not only able to affect our mood but listening to a particular kind of happy or sad music can even change the way we perceive the world.

References

1. Davis, W.B., Gfeller, K.E., & Thaut,M.H. (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy – Theory and Practice. 3rdedition.Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
2. Blood, A.J., Zatorre, R.J., Bermudez, P., & Evans, A.C. (1999) Emotional responses to pleasant and unpleasant music correlate with activity in paralimbic brain regions. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 382– 387.
3. Hunter, P.G., Schellenberg, E.G., & Griffith, A.T. (2011) Misery loves company: Mood-congruent emotional responding to music. Emotion, 11, 1068-1072.
4. Jones, M.R., Fay, R.R., & Popper, A.N. (eds.) (2010). Music Perception. New York: Springer.
5. Bengtsson, S.L., Csíkszentmihályi, M., & Ullén, F. (2007). Cortical regions are involved in the generation of musical structures during improvisation by pianists. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 830-842.
6. Flohr, J.W. (2010). Best practices for young children’s music education: Guidance from brain research. General Music Today, 23, 13-19.
7. Campbell, D. (1997). The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit. (1 ed.). New York: Avon Books, Inc.
8. Davis, W.B., Gfeller, K.E., & Thaut, M.H. (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy – Theory and Practice. 3rd edition. Boston: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
9. Bennett, R. (1999). General Musicianship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. (simple.m.wikipedia.org),(www.renderforest.com),(www.bebrainfit.com),(www.musictherapy.org),(www.positivepsychology.com),(www.teenink.com)

Actions of serial killers have been documented in history for decades. Every story you hear sound more gruesome than the last. People have been trying to figure out for ages what makes someone want to kill another human being. It either comes down to how they where raised to just having their brains wired differently. Many people believe most serial killers are made that way because there is no humanly way possible a human can kill another human just cause. So, what really is the cause for all these people to become serial killers?

Some people think murders could be a sort of “mephitic” leisure for people. (Williams, D. (2016)) It’s kind of ominous to think someone can find killing someone entraining or enjoyment in it. But its understandable people think that could be a form of leisure for some people for, the simple fact of todays technology. With today’s technology everyone can read the horrifying stories of how people kill other people. From all the way to China to right here in the United states. In those articles you can read the past of a certain serial killer and you end up finding out they either had a rough childhood or where diagnosed with some sort of mental illness.

What defines a serial killer? The 3 common characteristics in all serial killers is, victims, time and incident. For somebody to be called a serial killer they must have killed more than 3 people. At 3 or more incidents or occurrences and a “cooling off time between each murder. So, from what is understood there is a clear difference between a serial killer, a mass murder, and from just a person going on a killing spree. Most of the reason for a serial killer is the motivation or relationship with the victim. So, a hitman would not be considered a a serial killer for the simple fact that they are just doing it for the money. (Culhane, S. E., Hilstad, S. M., Freng, A., & Gray, M. J. (2010))

It is said its important for someone to study all these different types of serial killers for future references in hopes of making it easier to catch future serial killers. It is also useful to do these studies to help to see the psychology and mind of a serial killer. There are many tests that can be given to someone to test such things as demographics, personality disorders, psychopathy, criminal attitudes and behaviors, family experiences, and drug usage. One of the most widely used test is called The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 also known as MMPI-2. This test consists of 567 true or false questions testing it is to aid in the assessments of psychopathologies, personality characteristics, and behavioral disorders. The Megargee Criminal Justice and Correctional Report was requested to compare the subject’s response with other incarcerated people. (Culhane, S. E., Hilstad, S. M., Freng, A., & Gray, M. J. (2010))

In the study conducted the subject is a male born in 1943. He’s currently incarcerated, he has never been diagnosed with a disability or a psychological disorder. He did have a rough child though, with an abusive father that later abandoned his siblings and mother. His first kill happened in 1972 he raped and killed his victim in cold blood abandoning the body behind the store dumpster. He has a total of about 4 victims all victims where either raped or tortured before being killed and abandoned. He was arrested on Labor day in 1972 and was sentenced to life in prison and also a second one for the rape.

The first test that was done on the subject was the MMPI-2 the scores revealed thing that where true such as the FAM score which was a 63-meaning subject maybe felt hostility and negative feelings towards family members, possibly being abused as a child. Due to his scores subject was classified in Group Delta. But he didn’t fit completely in that group because he didn’t have many psychological disturbances. So, it was concluded subject really had an average score and was a normal prisoner expect for his abused and rough family history. (Culhane, S. E., Hilstad, S. M., Freng, A., & Gray, M. J. (2010))

Before the research of this paper I did not know there where actually such tests that compared the psychology of serial killers. I knew there where many reasons somebody could become a serial killer, but I didn’t know what defined a serial killer such as the amount of people they killed and in how many instances they killed. So, for example someone who would have killed 3 persons in one day and never kill again would not be considered a serial killer. I also didn’t know there was such thing as Leisure researches who do such thing a research serial killer and why killing is a leisure to them. But I also realized that there’s still so much to research over serial killers and we can use all the information available for law enforcement to stop these people. So overall this research and any future research involving serial killers should be encouraged.

References

1. Culhane, S. E., Hilstad, S. M., Freng, A., & Gray, M. J. (2010). Self-reported psychopathology in a convicted serial killer. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 8(1), 1–21. doi: 10.1002/jip.129
2. Williams, D. (2016). Entering the Minds of Serial Murderers: The Application of Forensic Leisure Science to Homicide Research. Leisure Sciences, 39(4), 376–383. doi: 10.1080/01490400.2016.1234953