Category: Mind

Thesis statement

Many people have had so many physical and emotional problems that at a time develop into chronic diseases. Most of this problem remains unsolved while other people have found simple means of solving such ailments. This paper explains some of the problems that have arisen because of for instance unsettled mind and how it leads to physical illness, and how physical stress has also contributed to having problems of the mind, and how each can as well be used to relieve the pain of the other.

Introduction

The human mind can be divided into the unconscious and the conscious mind. All human beings function from unconscious motives. This function is affected by a humans health status such that a person who is in poor health status will function more by unconscious mind while a healthy person functions more with a conscious mind.

The mind and the body can affect each other. The body can be used to relax the mind and vice versa. Furthermore, the mind can cause illness to the body and the body as well cause illness to the mind. The activities within the mind that includes thoughts and behavior can contribute to changes in the physical body. The way a person feels thinks and behaves, generally changes the physical behavior of the person. Therefore the emotional and the physical natures of an individual are connected. The guided imaging can hence be used to heal both the physical and emotional sickness of an individual.

The emotional mind of a human being

In most cases, the emotional mind of a human being causes physical sickness and is not necessarily exposed to the outside disease causal agents. For instance, if a person is stressed up, is angry, and does not resolve this problem, the inner tissues of the body will start to fight amongst themselves to solve the problem. This fight also makes the body fight for compensation, generally bringing about physical illness and pain.

In many years, the individuals relaxation by the use of imaging has been used to bring about environmental & physical healing. Pictures can be used universally to connect the unconscious mind and the conscious mind.

Imagery

Imaging can be used to heal the physical body by following certain steps. The first step of imagery is relaxation. Relaxation induces the body to heal quickly. Studies have shown that relaxation through activities like sleeping or praying (meditating) increases the chances of faster healing. The principle of relaxation can be used in a way such as preparation for childbirth. This will allow the expectant to relax the body and the pain becomes bearable while increasing the contraction. Aesthetic value entails concentration at some point for all people. The longer the concentration a person has the higher the aesthetic value is gotten. The aesthetic value will be more intense when they enter into a persons consciousness. Hence the quality of the aesthetic experience can be determined by the intensity and the duration of concentration (Shusterman, 1992).

The second step is visualizing the pain. In this case, a person should try to visualize whatever is seen on the body as it is. Through visualization, it will help a person feeling the pain to talk to the pain, for instance by trying to identify the root course of the pain and what is required to heal it. The third step is trying to get all the information that one might come across to know the root cause of the pain. The person will be able to relieve the pain without going into another painful situation. This leads to the next step of removing the pain. The pain can only be removed from the body if the sufferer is ready and willing to remove it. Finally, the removed pain should be replaced with a magical solution to make sure that there is a complete physical and emotional healing. The healing does not mean that people have removed the whole part of themselves, but by seeing and treating the cause of pain in a different manner and approach. For instance, if one had a negative perception about something, this might turn out to cause pain, and therefore by having a positive perception of the same might change a lot of an individuals life and subsiding of the pain.

Body and brain

The brain and the body interact such that the body cannot function without the brain. The autonomic system of the brain controls the body function that is far from the consciousness centers. The systems that are controlled by the brain that the body does not have control over them include, digestion breathing as well as the heartbeat. Some of these systems are completely not able to be controlled by the conscious body system. For instance, it would be very difficult for the body to control breathing especially when a person is asleep.

The different body parts have different functions. These different functions of the body system only coordinate and balance their activities through brain coordination. While sleeping, the other parts of the body and the conscious mind go off. But the and some parts of the brain work hard to heal all the days work and fatigue and make sure a person remembers all the days events. By sleeping, the body can defend itself against infections and help to recharge the mind.

The mind can as well heal locally. The placebo effect shows that a persons mind can create physical healing. For instance, fake medication like a mixture of sugar and distilled water can have a placebo effect on a patient. In this case, a patients health can be improved by the mere fact of believing that the sugar and water mixture will improve their health. According to Kristara, the traditional semiotics consider the speaking subjects within a human being to be not a person but rather some ideal subjects, a transcendental ego. this is just an abstract concept which in real sense doesnt exist while the western episteme considers that the transcendental ego is cut off from its body.

Prayers have also been used very much to help the sick. Even if the prayers do not contribute to the physical healing of the sick, the person offering intercessory prayers demonstrates the love and kindness meditation towards the sick person, which might contribute to the physical healing. According to Bourdieu (1990), practical belief is not a state of mind but rather a state of the body. Certain activities such as rituals, involving women in religious manners, or even choosing the kind of food to eat or not to eat is a state of body and not mind.

The conscious mind in ancient time

The conscious mind was used in ancient times to move to the enlightenment stage. This was practiced by encouraging the persons undergoing enlightenment not to identify themselves with the conscious mind but to hold on to their awareness as being the holders or watchers. Aesthetic experience that produces knowledge is always contextual and situated. Although there has been a separation of the arts and science subjects which have brought about the deflection on the understanding of how aesthetic experience has played important role in creating human knowledge, (Carrozi, 2005). This has also been due to the development of knowledge as incorporeal by scholars.

Computers and the conscious mind

It is very difficult to claim that since machines such as computers can perform some complex functions, that it makes them conscious. This is not true because human beings can perform the same functions computers do perform even though at a slower pace and only that human beings might not understand some things since computers have predetermined logarithmic formulae to follow. This means that computers can never learn some truths like the conscious mind no matter how complex they can be. This is more so because some statements naturally are true even though they might not have been proved. This can be demonstrated by the fact that consciousness cannot be developed and if it could have been possible, then machines like computers can be used to develop consciousness so that they completely behave like human beings. Taking a mathematical case, for instance, the integers: a>b and c>a, then c>b.

These axioms need not be proved. They have just stored statements on their own; therefore, it is true that not all statements that are true have been proved scientifically or by any other means. Hence, it is not just possible to create a conscious mind, especially by machines. According to Ihde (2002), the techno worries usually reoccur with new advances and the success or failure of that pattern usually remains ambiguous.

Living with a conscious mind allows people to listen to others ideas. The conscious allows a person to live as far as the physical body will allow and be as well aware of the consciousness life after another. It also enables a person to lead from one idea to another and how to relate to other people.

A dreaming person & the slip of the tongue are some of the things seen as a person developing from subconscious to conscious mind. When a person searches for the space that is beyond words there has to be consideration of stillness and pause. This according to Bachelard (1964), It is through dreaming that a person moves to the immense world. The unconscious mind is not more known but can arguably be achieved through dreams. The unconsciousness can be referred to as the state of being unaware.

The unconscious mind is the aspect of the human mind that a person is not aware of. The consciousness is developed out of unconsciousness. This development leads to the development of subconsciousness that includes memories and perceptions that a person can reach for whenever they feel they need such attention. This implies a situation where people can decide to disregard certain stimuli even though they might be aware of them, for instance, if doing a school or college assignment and there is music in the background, but you dont pay attention to it.

Consciousness and unconsciousness

The collective unconsciousness is the kind of consciousness that has the potential awareness of all people but without their knowledge. These are the types of archetypes that describe the pattern of cultures that are exhibited in the various communities. In some cases, this might be because of the same experience the people in that community have or the same brain structures. Since everybody has his /her way of thinking and behaving it is not easy to change sense. This is because human beings never consciously chose the way they wanted to take up the world, but usually already find themselves in the world, this is indicated by Grosz when she argues that the body is a pliable entity whose determinate form is provided& through the interact of physical inspiration, Grosz 1994, p.187) in this argument the body of the mind are intertwined and they affect one another.

This makes one persons behavior seem like a sign of rudeness or disrespect depending on the culture. For instance, Asian children do not look their elders into the eyes while talking to them as a sign of respect. To western countries, this is a sign of disrespect and being inattentive. Hence a person can use the element of psychic to gradually shape the corporeal way of perceiving the world.

Consciousness has been greatly related to the process of attraction. A persons focus and attention are usually given to the conscious mind forgetting about the existence of the other parts of the human being but despite the forgotten parts, people are much more than the conscious mind as well as the unconscious mind. But the western cultures tend to pay less attention to the other species than they do with the conscious mind.

The subconscious mind

The control of human bodies can create the means that bring about knowledge & power on the microphysical level (Foucault, 1984). Disciplinary coercion will make a person (student, patient, prisoner, or workers) obey. But Foucault advocates for less use of violence to ensure obedience.

Therapeutic guided imagery has been used to help patients relax their minds by focusing on issues they need to confront. For instance, a person is asked to develop imagery that represents a certain disease symptom and confront it. This kind of information can be more helpful to the patient than when normally diagnosed with sophisticated methods.

The mind can help the body to succeed in physical fitness exercise. This is through motivation fact that the mind can have. If the mind is not motivated, nothing can contribute to the success of the exercise, whether through good nutrition, or the best exercise. The non-conscious mind can help a person achieve a goal without following the proper means. It can work from backward towards the means. This is possible if a person sets a goal of the non-conscious mind, and helps to find information that can help achieve that goal.

The subconscious mind can receive instructions by affirmation and setting goals. An affirmation can also be used in conjunction with visualization in instructing the subconscious mind. When a person thinks or speaks of affirmation, visualization pictures are created in the human mind to make the brain think in terms of pictures. Visualization helps to change a personalities behavior or character. This is by closing the eyes and concentrating on certain visualization that helps meet desired and results.

Visualization has been widely used in sporting activities to give a sportsman a good concentration to win the game. The use of visualization currently with musicians and athletes helps to improve performance, as the act of practicing in the mind is the same as physical practicing.

Process visualization can help a person to do certain actions in a correct and orderly manner. For instance, one can visualize which activities are supposed to be done during the day. In that case, the mind will help a person do the entire days activity, and with repeatedly doing this, the mind will be neurotically set to be carrying out the activities. The body responds to the imaginaries created mentally even if they are anatomically incorrect.

Controlling a persons mind is not possible. To do this, it means that one has to penetrate through their conscious defenses and causing alteration in their subconsciousness. To break through the barriers of this mind and control a person, educating the persons without their knowledge (i.e. through covert hypnosis) can do it. Words, phrases, and tones can be used to penetrate a persons mind and eventually capture and control their minds.

Another common method to help in the therapy healing in Australia is the private subconscious mind healing, unlike trying to know the root cause of the pain and talk to it. This method has been used differently without digging into the part to heal a patient (without tracing back to know the exact causes of the problem). This method avoids the use of the other methods of therapy because when you try to root out the causal agent of a problem, the deeper it might go, and removing it becomes even much difficult. The causes of problems are very vulnerable and hence do not become easy for the removal. Hence, the private subconsciouses mind healing helps to remove pain without fighting the differences in the mind. In this kind of healing, the subconscious part of the mind plays a bigger role in healing, than the conscious mind. This is because most of the things done by the subconscious mind are beyond the bodys control. In trying to ruin a persons life in strict linear ways, many problems can occur in that persons life. Therefore a person must allow the subconscious mind to take control of the whole body system without necessarily the person having to know why such activities are taking place. This is because the body knows what is happening much more than the conscious mind knows. Therefore, for the healing process completely to take place, a person has to allow the body to take control of it and just ensure that persons have trust in themselves more and more.

Conclusion

It is not possible to separate the mind and the body. Most of the activities that a person performs are affected by the thinking, behavior, and culture of the individual. Moreover, body relaxation can be used to relax the mind and vice versa to bring about both physical and emotional healing to a person.

References

Bachelard, Gaston, 1964, nests, The Poetics of Space, Beacon Press, Boston, 90-104.

Bourdieu, Pierre, 1990, Belief and the Body, The Logic of Practice, translated by Richard Nice, Cambridge University Press, UK, 66-79.

Carozzi, M. 2005, Talking Minds: The Scholastic Construction of Incorporeal Discourse in Body and Society, Vol. 11(2): 25-39.

Foucault, Michel, 1991,The Body of The Condemned and Docile Bodies (from Discipline and Punish) in Paul Rabinow (ed.), The Foucault Reader, Penguin. London, 170-187.

Grosz, Elizabeth, 1994 Lived Bodies: Phenomenology and The Flesh in Volatile Bodies: Toward A Corporeal Feminism, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, USA, 86-111.

Ihde, Don Bodies, 2002 Bodies, Virtual Bodies and Technology in Bodies in Technology, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 3-15.

Kristeva, Julia, 1989 (first published 1973) The System and the Speaking Subject in Toril Moi (ed.), The Kristeva Reader, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 24-33.

Richard Shusterman, 1992, Art and Theory, Between Experience and Practice in Pragmatist Aesthetics, Blackwell publishers Inc. Massachusetts and Cambridge 34-61.

Introduction

Does the world take a particular form regardless of how we view it? If so, do we possess such knowledge so as to ascertain the form the world has assumed? Most philosophers have attempted to answer this questions but Hegel stands out in affirming a theoretical stand on this concept. He upholds the concept of subjectivism as opposed to skepticism.

According to his school of thought, for one to understand the form that has been assumed by the world, certain cognitive structures and characteristics need to be considered. His interpretation of the world focuses on the idealist form. He approaches the fundamental aspect of knowledge by grasping the reality of existence as it is and not by merely applying the notion of formalism as proposed by Kant.

He views this notion as being empty. His criticism towards Kants philosophy is therefore evident in this argument. He contends that Kants philosophy gives a simple intuition in an attempt to describe the correlation between nature and society. Hegel asserts that his concept of idealism requires a subject to assume an identity of both thought and being in order to acquire an understanding of the world. This reasoning capacity possessed by the subject creates an innate knowledge that is known as absolute idealism.

He also asserts that to achieve reason and knowledge, it is imperative to connect both the theoretical and practical aspects of understanding. It is not in doubt that most philosophers fail to understand Hegels philosophy of idealism. This paper will therefore bring to fore the premises upon which Hegels philosophy need to be upheld based on his Phenomenology of mind argument.

The Objectivity In Upholding Hegels Philosophy

In his Phenomenology of mind, Hegel brings out the connection between infinite and finite. He further uses this connection to explain his concept of logical science. It is in this school of thought that an understanding defining both nature and spirit is culminated through what Hegel calls human reason.

This is what Hegel refers to as the philosophy of right. Hegel goes ahead to create an interrelationship between the subjects through a mutual recognition. This concept seeks to verify the quest for human reason in a bid to understand their subjective existence within an object. Further, according to his school of thought, he takes a different approach from his predecessors by emphasizing the need to understand the notions of reality and practicability.

The philosophy of Hegel brings to fore three basic themes purporting that all subjects exist through reason and that all cohorts are as a result of thought. The first theme is idealism. According to Hegel, the purpose of integrating the philosophical query and knowledge is to generate an idea.

His argument creates an implication that various concepts and phenomena need to be explained and that explanation is given in form of science. He therefore equates philosophy to science. In his justification, he elucidates the importance of creating a valuable hierarchy of things that justifies the origin of every object and subject. It is this argument that brings to fore the concept of teleological explanation that develops the idealism approach.

The second theme that is imminent in this philosophy is identity. According to Hegel, any living thing is as a result of live spirit. The realism in an object or subject is attributed to the growth of spirit or thought hence creating an identity.

Hegels philosophy of identity should however be distinguished from Schellings philosophy. This is because, the philosophical concept to define identity adopted by Hegel is more complex and better articulated than that of Schelling.

The last theme is the concept of identity of being on the one hand, and thought in the teleological growth on the other. This school of thought argues that if the object based on the progression of thought and philosophy is characterized by this progression, then it can be inferred that philosophy is the scientific principle in the development of reason. It can also be taken as the theory of development or cognition of spirit.

Based on the above main theories apparent in Hegels school of thought, he distinguishes himself from his other predecessors. First, his philosophical approach premise itself on the idealism of spirit. Secondly, he articulates more on the philosophy of identity than any of his predecessor. Third, he adopts an optimistic approach towards his concept of teleological development and lastly, he expounds on a more elaborative definition on the concept of reason.

Hegel also shifts from the formalism concept adopted by Kant and seeks to answer the question of philosophy by adopting a more concrete concept. He criticizes Kants approach as being merely simple and too formal hence referring to it as empty. His concrete concept brings identity into cognition hence acting as a solid premise to explain the process of being.

The process is what Hegel calls dialect and it more or less focuses on three main stages of being. The being in the first stage acquires instant identity which transforms into the second stage of self-alienation and finally the amalgamation of coherent totality.

Response to Hegels Argument

It is not in doubt that Hegels argument has created a spark in the philosophical field. This is due to his take on the idea of idealism and his attempt to delineate himself from the transcendental idealism proposed by Kant. It should be noted that the definition of transcendental idealism is not precise and its significance has elucidated a number of differing opinions. It is for this reason that Hegel views himself as the absolute idealist.

It is arguable that the interpretation of his approach result to Hegel being deemed as a realist. This is attributed to the fact that his argument assumes an objective nature that distinguishes it from other works. It is for this reason that the concept of idealism by Hegel deserves a unique applause through his logical and flawless argument that is subjugated by basic idealistic philosophy. Hegel has taken to modify the philosophies proposed by Kant to bring to fore an intelligent approach towards the concept of idealism.

It is not in doubt that Hegel seeks to detach himself from Kants philosophy of idealism. Although he acknowledges Kant as one of the most significant German philosopher, he declines to acclaim his impetus works towards idealism. According to him, Kants idea of idealism adopts a finite nature hence lacking a clear passage that leads to absolute idealism. He therefore terms Kants formalism approach as being empty and meaningless.

Further, his phenomenology argument plays an integral role in the field of philosophy. According to his school of thought, the concept of phenomenology is governed by a scientific exposition. He focuses on three aspects in his argument being science, consciousness and experience as the key determinate to the process of gaining an identity of being. In his argument, he insists that the three aspects should be interlinked in order to achieve a successful process.

This is interpreted to mean that in order to come up with a determinate of an object, the process needs to assume a scientific exploration. This is important for purposes of defining the experience derived from conscience in order to come up with a clear comprehension. The process therefore creates a clear understanding of dialect concept. This argument is therefore premised on the fact that the determinate of an identity should be derived from the experiences that defines its consciousness hence resulting to a consciousness object.

It is therefore essential to argue that the approach taken by Hegel to define the concept of dialect relies solely on the assumption of phenomenology. His concept of dialect outlines the diverse stages of experience of consciousness based on different attitudes that the particular consciousness assumes on the object. The dialect therefore depends on the principle of it being defined by different consciousness.

The Theoretical Observation Of The Argument

The theoretical observation of Hegels argument can be viewed at various aspects. The first aspect that is brought to fore is in regards to infinity, reality and spirit. Hegel adopts the science of logic to define what he refers to as the genuine notion of infinity. He attempts to distinguish between the true and bogus notion of infinite.

The bogus notion is equated to finite. According to Hegel, an attempt to distance infinite from the finite only results in limiting the notion of infinity. Hegel tests our understanding of infinite whereby what is brought to the fore is the fact that the two notions should be demarcated so as to achieve the two determinates. Hegel however errs this theoretical approach on the basis that it relies on the belief of mutual exclusion.

This may result to finitising the infinite hence arriving at a fake notion of infinity and purging the notion of finite as its limit. The fake outset of infinity is not what he considers as the infinite of reason. While on the one hand he attempts to integrate the two notions, he calls for the two to be distinguished from each other. Consequently, in overriding Kants philosophy of the two worlds dichotomy, Hegel continues to put to test our understanding of the correlation between the finite and infinite.

He further contends that the two notions are dependent on each other hence being self-transcending. From this argument, an analysis can be drawn from his definition of reality and ideality based on his science of logic. His contention that idealism is comprised of an ideal finite is interpreted to connote that the finite possess something concealed in potentiality.

Also, when he argues that the concept of philosophy is based on idealism, it is interpreted to mean that potentiality is the solution. In essence, the spirit, which is the greater infinite, is dependent upon the lesser infinite, nature. Based on the above argument, Hegels contention that equates the spirit to idealism is valued. In other words, nature is idealized by the spirit in so far as the self-transcending is concerned.

The other aspect that can explain the theoretical observation is in regards to definition, expression and transcendence. To understand Hegels argument, it is better to dwell on how most things are often defined. All definitions, it is argued, rely on the dichotomy of words. Hegel takes a different approach. In his phenomenology of spirit, he examines the concept through the notion of self-consciousness.

In his argument, he contends that humans are able to learn more about themselves based on their relationships and continues to equate self-consciousness to desire. He asserts that self-definition should be taken as a consummation of self acceptance as opposed to a restraint against each other. What Hegel contends here is that definition is based on the freedom of self-transcendence.

Significance Of The Argument

It is not in doubt that Hegels work has been considered difficult in comprehension. However, he still remains the most influential philosopher of all times and his works continue to be acknowledged and appreciated. One significance of the above argument is his new inception of coming up with a new way of thinking which he terms as speculative reasoning.

This helps to overcome the boundaries created by applying both the common sense and traditional reasoning in an attempt to understand the philosophical tribulations. By doing so, he brings to fore a better relationship between thought and reality. He lays down a theoretical procedure that instigates the ultra-basic concepts. Unlike other philosophers, he formulates comprehensible formulae in his concepts of inception of beings and object.

Another notable significance is his will to identify the pressure and disagreements visible in the modern philosophy. His argument tends to interpret the contradicting philosophies by terming his theory as an absolute idea. He therefore succeeds in creating absolute idealism which he derived from Kants transcendental idealism.

His argument has also been appreciated by the philosophers as it appreciates the history of philosophy. He does this by acknowledging that all subjects that exist in an object are defined by their past. According to him, for one to understand the character of another being, it is important to comprehend the culture to which he comes from and it is from the history of this culture that gives all the answers.

His argument has also been appreciated in both the political and social arena. He adopts the concept of idealism to define his kind of society. Although his argument does not clearly bring out his ultimate idea of freedom, it is apparent that his argument takes a different approach from the proponents of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. He also brings to light the importance of every being to possess an absolute mind in order to acquire a superior consciousness.

Conclusion

The Phenomenology of mind is considered to be one of the greatest works done by Hegel. His critique to Kants work on formalism has been put to test but it is not in dispute that he has indeed formulated his theory in a more articulate manner. His notion of creating an ideal model is based on logical science.

His central purpose in this work is to establish a determinate being through positive means as opposed to negation of self-consciousness. This is implied to mean that he upholds the notion of freedom to act as a justification to our fundamental beliefs in matters of equality and reason.

Examination of body and mind by Benedict Spinoza

Benedict de Spinoza is a very significant philosopher of the post-Cartesian period. He made crucial contributions in all classifications of philosophy. Benedict de Spinozas writings are equivalent to those of Jewish nationalism, Hobbes, Machiavelli, stoicism and Descartes.

On careful examination of his writings about the body and mind, one finds out that they are rich with a lot of metaphysics which is related to theories of the body and mind together with their specific consequences. Benedict argues that every finite extension is supported by a corresponding mode of finite and they are very close. His arguments emphasize the point that it is the body that creates the mind.

He further argues that as much as bodies are similar they create very different minds. He says that the mind is an external symptom of our bodies. This symptom is different because it is a reflection of the diverse microbodies that exist within the main body. He continues to say that different bodies have different abilities which are also a reflection of how our bodies are different internally. Spinoza is simply saying that if the mind is very flexible so that it can be influenced then thoughts that come out of it are likely to be flexible. According to him, different bodies have varying abilities to be able to carry out many different activities at the same time. Similarly, different bodies have different capabilities of sustaining pressure of numerous things being carried out on them at the same time. A combination of both is what leads to a mind of strong ability.

The strength of the mind produced by the body according to Spinoza can be assessed by looking at its ability to sustain several things being carried out on it at similar periods or its ability to carry out numerous activities at once. This is his formula for determining an enlightened mind. This ability of the body to sustain many things or carry out many things is enhanced by complicated microbodies which exist in the whole body. The mind of humans is an external expression of various bodies through thoughts. Micro bodies in the main body also influence our thoughts. Minds with the ability to match complex microbodies in comparison to those of the human body have the potential to conceptualize regular patterns in their thoughts.

According to Spinoza, a sense of perception is not a comprehensive judgment of a persons body. This is because the sense of perception is not direct (Williams, p. 349).

Ethics and mind-body correlations by Nicolas Malebranche

Nicolas Malebranches writings receive two classifications; they have been classified as French Oratorian as well as the philosophy of nationalism. His writings are founded on Descartes and St. Augustine. His most celebrated works are about the vision in God as well as occasionalism.

On ethics and correlations, he took Descartes approach towards problems of the mind and body after having criticized it. He openly argues that nobody can come up with a conclusive idea of the mind and its abilities. Therefore, there is no point in trying to create a transparent view of the mind and its nature. He is quoted saying that when he goes through self-analysis of his capabilities and faculties, he always gets inner feedback. He says that he thinks and gets a sense of awareness of himself, but he does not get what comprises his thoughts, sensations, pain and passions, neither does he get feedback of how his soul connects with these qualities (Kim, p. 52).

This makes him conclude that he is not his light and his natural mind is very difficult to understand. He says that his mind cannot act on his body neither can his body influence his mind.

He agrees that the only force that can comprehensively control his life is God. According to Malebranche, God is the main controller and causer of change in the world. God even causes the movement of his arms when he lifts them.

His approach to mind and body correlations is therefore that of occasionalism. This perspective puts God in control of everything including our mind and body. The perspective maintains that our mind and body are not separated. The changes we see are Gods creation. These Gods creations are standard and orderly because Gods work is orderly and sequential. The laws according to Malebranche are made with an intention of Gods orderliness to make the universe a better place.

His dialogues of metaphysics are purely religious and put a lot of emphasis on God. He says that people acquire knowledge by analyzing ideas and that all ideas come from God. Ideas of knowledge are Godly and are organized by our thoughts. These ideas are independent.

His celebrated achievement was the explanation he gave on how a divine idea could be applied to address practical issues in corporeal perception of the mind. He urges people to perceive all things through God because he is the author of ideas into our minds to enable us to know the external world.

Nicolas Malebranches perspective towards body and mind is therefore motivated by his religion; Christianity. His works are similar to the teachings of the scripture which puts God as the sole controller of everything. His writings could also have been motivated by his career as a priest.

The Incorporeal Mind by Rene Descartes

He is referred to as the father of modern philosophy. He is celebrated for originating the idea of cogito ergo sum (translated to mean I think therefore I am).

His writings are based on philosophical scepticism. This is a perspective that requires that the philosopher doubts certain beliefs and knowledge to be able to carry out objective research. Scientists and philosophers have adopted his methodology and this has made them doubt the existence of God and humans.

His principle of the dualism of the intangible perceives the mind and the soul as different. He gives an example that if a limb is removed from the body, the mind does not suffer the effect of the missing limb. By applying the principle, he separates the physical and the metaphysical. This has helped scientists and philosophers to study the world without being biased by the supernatural question (Nadler, p. 89).

Descartes impact on philosophy and science rocked the world before and after his death. He agreed that mans nature is a composition of the mind and body. The two sides of humanity often mislead and lead to errors in thoughts. The intellects responsibility is to correct this biasness.

Bibliography

1. Kim, Joseph. Philosophy of the Mind, Cambridge MA: West View Publishers, 1998. Print.
2. Nadler, Steven. The Cambridge Companion to Malebranche, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print.
3. Williams, D. Lay. Spinoza and General Will, the Journal of Politics, 72 (2001): 341-356. Print.

• Self-regulated learning is crucial for a child since it shapes his/her success in school and beyond.
• Children, therefore, should learn much more than a set of facts and skills.
• This can be made possible by helping them master a set of mental tools, known as Tools of the Mind.
• Tools of the Mind has its origin in Lev Vygotsky, a famous Russian psychologist.
• Vygotsky believed that these tools of the mind extend an individuals mental abilities to solve problems and creatively formulate solutions in the present world.
• Lev Vygotskys theory has been applied to education.
• He argues that failure to use mental tools will result in childrens learning being largely controlled by the environment through conditioning.
• Tools of the mind empower children to master and recall in a highly selective manner.
• It helps in the transformation of childrens cognitive, social, physical, and emotional behaviors.
• Children, with time, will operate at a higher mental state.
• They are allowed to learn using the Vygotskian approach.
• The approach advocates the teaching of children to acquire the tools of their culture.
• The major emphasis of the theory is on helping children master the tools of their culture.
• Vygotskys theory emphasizes the mastery of cultural tools by the children.
• The theory advocates for the need of children to acquire the first tools of the mind through useful interactions.
• The concept emphasized in the Vygotskys approach is the level at which a child performs an activity, either assisted or not. This is known as the Zone of Proximal Development, abbreviated ZPD.
• Of much interest are the childs skills and understandings contained within a childs ZPD.
• These could emerge only if the child engages in interactions with other children or in alternative supportive environments.

Tools of the Mind as a Curriculum

• It is designed to provide a strong base for preschool and kindergarten children to succeed in school and beyond.
• The program enhances childrens intentional and self-regulated learning.
• The child is helped by the teacher to make transition from performing with assistance to independent performance at a higher level.
• The children are empowered to regulate their own social, emotional, and cognitive behaviors as well as influence those of others using mental tools as they interact.
• It is the best for teaching early childhood education.

This paper is based on Mark Twains famous essay called The Lowest Animal. The well known American writer and author of great novels about the adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn have demonstrated a new side of himself in this essay. Twain is known for his sharp philosophical mind and clever ironical humor. His works are loved and admired by people all over the world; both children and adults read his books and enjoy them.

The Lowest Animal Is different from other works of Mark Twain. It appeared after the death of the author in 1910 to show Mark Twains readers that the writer had a darker side (Nordquist, par. 1). The essay was written as a reaction to a conflict between Muslims and Christians in Crete, the abuse of morals and judgment.

Humans minds are impressive and dangerous, they make us stand out in the world of animals and they also make us worse than animals in some aspects (DI).

1. Unfortunately, the only power able to stop humans from doing bad things in their mind.
2. The human mind is considered much more powerful than the minds of all other animals, yet this mind is what encourages us to do the worst things.
3. The human mind is the source of the best decisions and achievements as well as the most horrifying disasters.

Knowing what is wrong is not enough to stay away from making mistakes. I am talking not only about accidents; I mean actual bad choices like lying, cheating, hurting, taking revenge, punishing, and offending. However, why do so many people pleasure themselves in taking revenge? Every single one of us is aware that doing this is wrong and bad, and it is going to hurt someone, yet we still do it.

We are self-centered; we are allowing ourselves to judge and decide what is fair and what is not. Indeed, humans can harbor insults or offenses and then wait (D) for the best chance to take revenge. We do unnecessary things we could simply avoid doing just because it is pleasant for us to see someone else suffer. This is just one of many peculiarities of the human mind.

Avoiding the temptations and leading a proper forgiving and peaceful lifestyle is considered extremely difficult; this is why only a few people choose to walk this path. We call them monks. They live in groups or alone far away from the rest of society, restricted by many laws and rules; they avoid penetrating the society in order not to obtain the wrong morals by mistake.

Some monks punish themselves and create artificial difficulties and sufferings for their bodies and minds to train themselves to be more resistant. This example is perfect for demonstrating (D) that even the most religious people are unable to control their human minds fully and avoid letting their emotions take over.

Animals are widely considered a more primitive form of life than humans. Their brains are less developed, their range of emotions is smaller, and their thinking is very simple. However, in most cases, animals make right choices simply because their minds are not bothered by the huge range of confusions and temptations humans can feel. In the animal world, everything is simple; there are no mid tones (C).

When there is a fight  there is no unnecessary cruelty, animals kill to eat or because they protect themselves. Humans kill for multiple reasons  for power, for fame, for authority, for revenge, and of course, for pleasure. The human world is complicated and multi-layered (IC).

As soon as someone invented a form of cheating  others have to adjust and avoid becoming the victims of the cheater (DC), they come up with a more skillful way to cheat. Faulty development of one mind leads to the faulty development of the surrounding minds in response. This has been going on for centuries.

Human minds are brilliant. The human brain is the only organ that studies, changes, and analyzes itself (Sirota, par. 2). There are so many features that distinguish our minds from the minds of animals: humor, appreciation of beauty, self-consciousness, awareness of death, the meaning of life. Furthermore, the development of scheming minds has probably become the main force of the human mind evolution.

We had to become flexible (C) and inventive to survive not only in nature but in our society. The human mind games (C) were turning more and more complicated and cruel, civilization appeared thousands of years ago, but civilized ways of co-existence are still hard to maintain.

This paper was written to make the readers realize that there is no explanation of the ways human mind operates (Schleifer, par. 2). Evolution has no answers. However, our brilliant flexible minds are strong enough to rise above all the lower desires and temptations; they are skilled enough to judge between true values and faulty values.

If we are so embarrassed to be compared to the lowest animals, why do we still behave in the same way? A persistent tone of this paper works to encourage the thought process of a reader. It is aimed at bringing awareness of our strengths and weaknesses.

Works Cited

Nordquist, R. The Lowest Animal, by Mark Twain: the cat is innocent, man is not. 2014.

Sirota, D. How Can the Brain Understand Itself?2013.

Schleifer, B. G. Human Mind vs. Animal Brain: Why So Different? 2014. Web.

The set of ideas of Rene Descartes is commonly called Cartesian philosophy; the name comes from his Latin name Renatus Cartesius. One of the problems of this philosophy continues to be debated today since it is not specifically scientific, but methodological in its nature. In the history of natural sciences, it was called a psychophysical problem, and since the end of the nineteenth century, it has been considered a psychophysiological problem. The essence of this problem can be expressed in the form of a question: how do physiological and mental processes relate?

Descartes recognized that the machine of the body and the consciousness is occupied with its own thoughts, ideas, and desires, and they are independent entities or substances (Lawhead, 2015). Rene Descartes was faced with the need to explain how the mind and body coexist in an integral person. The solution he proposed was psychophysical interaction; according to the principle of psychophysical interaction, physiological and mental processes directly affect each other. The body affects the soul, awakening passions in it in sensory perceptions and emotions. The soul, having thinking and will, affects the body, forcing this machine to work and change its course.

I accept Cartesian Dualism and agree that humans are both a mind and a body. Descartes was looking for an organ in the body with which these incompatible substances could still interact. He proposed considering the pineal gland, or epiphysis as such an organ (Lawhead, 2015). This gland, perceiving the movement of animal spirits, is capable of influencing, in turn, to influence their purely mechanical flow through vibrations. Descartes admitted that the soul could change its direction without creating new activities, just as a rider controls a horse.

I also think that a person has an organ with which the soul and body interact; for example, the heart can be such an organ. Proof of this can be found in the stories of patients who have had a transplant of this vital organ. Sometime after the surgical intervention, it turned out that the specific personality traits of the patients changed. Based on this, it can be concluded that human mental qualities or character are not the results of brain activities but also of the heart. Moreover, during a heart transplant, this cellular memory, which a soul can be called, passes to another person. Therefore, I believe that the mind-body problem can be solved with a more thorough analysis of the relationship of a persons feelings and thoughts with specific organs, for example, with the heart.

The human soul is radically different from the human body and does not depend on it. It can continue to exist even without the physical, material shell that people call their flesh. Nevertheless, there is such a close connection between the physical form and the soul, as if there is an interpenetration. The mind, or soul, cannot be located in any particular part of the organism. The causal connection between these two worlds is carried out through specific organs, for example, through a tiny gland called the pineal body or through the heart. Philosophers still do not have a scientific theory that would explain how subjective psychological reality is connected with objective physical and biological reality. Consequently, the idea of a non-physical soul will continue to be discussed as a scientific hypothesis that may well be recognized as reliable.

Reference

Lawhead, W. F. (2015). The voyage of discovery: A historical introduction to philosophy. In S. Milewski (Ed.), Descartes mind and body dualism (pp. 256-258). Stamford, USA: Cengage Learning.

Introduction

Descartes philosophy is called dualistic, which implies the equality of the material and the ideal but allows the existence of these two phenomena separately from each other. In one of his main theses devoted to the study of the interaction between the mind and body, the philosopher, while comparing bodily and spiritual substances, speaks of their opposition (Thibaut, 2018). Descartes deals with the question of what is true in the content of the mind, in other words, in representations: ideas, affects, and judgments. He speaks of the complete difference between the mind and body, which implies that the body is divisible and the mind is not because the activity of the latter cannot be explained by mechanical principles (Dika, 2020). In his explanations, Descartes offers an adequate solution to the mind-body problem. The argument that the connection of the body and mind is an empirical fact given to a person in everyday experience is logical, and their difference is directly determined in the act of philosophical reflection.

The Problem and Solution

To solve the mind-body problem, Descartes sorts out the content of consciousness in order for clarity and distinctness. In the mind of a thinking subject, in addition to the idea of oneself, there are ideas about inanimate bodies, other living beings, people, and God. According to Dika (2020), the conception of oneself is clear and distinct and, therefore, true. Ideas about other living beings can be formed from available experience. Descartes guarantees the truth of the original principle as clear and distinct knowledge by the existence of God, who has put the natural light of reason into humans (Dika, 2020). Self-consciousness in Descartes is not closed on itself but is open to God, acting as a source of the objective significance of human thinking.

This proof, which can be called epistemological, is decisive for the entire system of the philosopher. As Urban (2018) argues, according to Descartes, the mind is a thinking thing, unextended, indivisible, capable of knowing the truth and striving for it, and also endowed with absolute free will. The body, conversely, is an extended and non-thinking thing; moreover, it acts automatically (Urban, 2018). Thus, Descartes believes that the human is indeed separate from the body and can exist independently of it. Theoretically, there can be no connection between these two substances, but in actual experience, a person is their inseparable unity.

Cogito is Descartes first reliable judgment and, at the same time, the first object directly given to the mind  a thinking substance. It is open to people directly, while the existence of the other substance, material, is given indirectly (Urban, 2018). Descartes views a substance as a thing that needs nothing but itself to exist. Analyzing this position provides the idea that only God can be called a substance. Among created things, the philosopher conventionally calls substances only those that need divine assistance for their existence. The thinking substance as an attribute is unextended and, therefore, indivisible. The substance of the body has an extension in length, width, and depth; thus, it is divisible into parts, has a figure, movement, and a certain arrangement of parts. Only these qualities are really inherent in bodily substance, and all the rest, including color, taste, smell, warmth, and others, Descartes calls secondary. Such features owe their existence to the impact of primary qualities on the body.

Ideas inherent in the thinking substance from the very beginning and not acquired through experience are innate. These include the idea of God as an all-perfect being, the ideas of numbers and figures, as well as some general concepts, or axioms (Macbeth, 2017). These eternal truths are the embodiment of the natural light of the mind. Thus, Descartes draws a clear distinction between the concepts of mind and body and argues for clear differences between their functions, which is one of the main premises of his theory of transcendental idealism. The concept of substantial or Cartesian dualism proposed by him formed the basis of the philosophers works, who proved his ideas empirically.

Criticism Against Cartesian Substance Dualism and Descartes Responses

Despite his rationale for dualism in the theory of body and mind, Descartes faced objections from some other philosophers who refuted his concept. For instance, as cited in Dong (2020), Thomas Hobbes argued that the nature of the identity between thought and thinking did not allow applying a similar interpretation algorithm to other phenomena or states. According to him, Descartes identifies the subject and its abilities, and only a material subject is capable of thinking since thinking itself cannot think because this is an endless contradiction (Dong, 2020). To this, Descartes replies that he understands thinking precisely as a substance and not as an action, but this substance is spiritual and by no means material (Bardin, 2019).

After all, as Dong (2020) remarks, a substance is not learned directly but only through its accident, and if two substances have different accidents, they should be separated. A spiritual substance has such accidents as cognition, desire, fantasy, and some others, united under the name of thinking, while material substance has magnitude, form, and movement, united under the name of the extension.

This is how Descartes responds to Hobbes objection: if the attributes of two substances are absolutely different, it is impossible to mix these substances in thought. Otherwise, a person goes against the rule of clarity and distinctness in thinking. Such an understanding of the thinking substance provides a place for freedom; as cited in Dong (2019), people comprehend their mind independently of the body, which means that consciousness and body are different. In addition, people comprehend their will like the ability of the soul to act and think freely, which means that the will is really free. Moreover, only the soul as a finite substance can have free will since freedom is where there is a choice, and a choice is where there is something else outside the subject.

One of the most pointed arguments against Descartes theory was made by Gilbert Ryle. He challenged the dualistic concept of the body and mind, arguing that it was based on a category error (Nnaemeka & Chukwunenye, 2018). In addition, as cited in Christofidou (2018), in Ryles view, behaviorism was a much more accurate approach reflecting the motives of actions. The main claim was that, from the standpoint of science, physical action required a physical cause.

However, since, according to Descartes, the mind and body are completely different entities, their interaction becomes impossible. For the creator of the theory of dualism, there was no other rational way to answer these objections than to resort to the principle of divine intervention (Nnaemeka & Chukwunenye, 2018). Nevertheless, the concept of dualism did not receive full recognition among all philosophers without exception, although Descartes ideas formed the basis of many cause-and-effect concepts.

Conclusion

Despite the counterarguments presented, Descartes concept of the mind and body offers empirical justifications that are revealed through philosophical reflection. Involving the divine principle as one of the main incentives explaining the motives for specific actions corresponds to the ideas of Descartes contemporaries about the spirituality of any behavioral motives. The idea of  Cartesian dualism, which became the basis of Descartes theory, received its recognition due to clear justifications regarding thinking and its participation in human development.

References

Bardin, A. (2019). Materialism and right reason in Hobbess political treatises: A troubled foundation for civil science. History of Political Thought, 40(1), 85-110.

Christofidou, A. (2018). Descartes dualism versus behaviourism. Behavior and Philosophy, 46, 63-99.

Dika, T. R. (2020). The origins of Cartesian dualism. Journal of the American Philosophical Association, 6(3), 335-352. Web.

Dong, H. (2020). Hobbess model of refraction and derivation of the sine law. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 75(3), 323-348.

Macbeth, D. (2017). Descartes on the creation of the eternal truths. Acta Baltica Historiae et Philosophiae Scientiarum, 5(1), 5-27.

Nnaemeka, C. J., & Chukwunenye, D. G. (2018). Concept of mind in Gilbert Ryle: A philosophical examination, Elixir Philosophy, 119(2018), 51152-51161.

Thibaut, F. (2018). The mind-body Cartesian dualism and psychiatry. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 20(1), 3.

Urban, E. (2018). On matters of mind and body: Regarding Descartes. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 63(2), 228-240. Web.

The connection between body and mind has been the subject of philosophical debates for centuries, and even with the advent of the new era of information technology, there has still been no consensus regarding the correlation between the two. Although the proponents of the theory concerning the absence of influence of the body on the human mind provide rather strong support for their conclusions, the idea of the body affecting the key mental processes still seems more legitimate; moreover, it seems that the two exist not as the subordinate and the dominant elements, but the components of a single entity, which have a mutually strong influence on each other.

The study conducted by Riekki, Lindeman and Lipsanen (2013) shows that the effects, which the body has on the human mind, are linked directly to the beliefs that make the basis for the culture of a specific ethnic or national group. Particularly, the research has shown that there are strong dualistic relationships between the mind and the body of the research participants. Moreover, the study results have indicated that there is a strong link between the ontological confusions and paranormal beliefs and religiosity (Riekki, 2013, p. 112), which defines the dependence of the mind and the body on each other.

While Riekki et al. (2013) are inclined to assume that the effect of the mind on the human body is stronger than the impact of the latter on the mental processes, the study still shows that the correlations between the two are basically equal.

Another study, which addresses the subject matter, the article by Schaefer, Krampe, Lindenberger and Baltes (2008) shows that a major difficulty in completing the balance-task, i.e., the exercise in the control of the body over the mind in adults, could be observed. Hence, the prioritization of mental tasks could be observed among the adults, which shows that the control of mind over body is highly characteristic of the latter.

A set of experiments carried out by Gray has shown that the morality principles, which one has been raised according to and which are acceptable in the society in question, has shown that the so-called mind mindset triggers a reduction in the perception of the moral agents (Gray, Knobe, Sheskin & Bloom, 2011, p. 9). Despite the fact that the outcomes of the research indicate that the mind is more susceptible to the signals that the body sends, resulting in the objectification (Gray et al., 2011, p. 12) of men and women, the research also displays that the mind frame, which has been set once, prevents from a quick shift in the perception of the signals sent by the body. Therefore, the effects of the two on each other can be considered equally strng and, thus, reciprocal.

Although the arguments regarding the impact, which the human body has on the mind, traditionally revolve around the idea of supremacy of one over the other, the concept of balance between the two seems the most adequate means of viewing the problem. Since the sensual experiences shape the emotional responses, the influence of the body on the mind is obvious; however, as the morality issues still determine the behavioral patterns in most people, the effects of mind on the body are also evident. Hence, the idea of the two elements affecting each other mutually can be viewed as the most reasonable way of resolving the dilemma.

Reference List

Gray, K., Knobe, J., Sheskin, M. & Bloom, P. (2011). More than a body: Mind perception and the nature of objectification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 12071220. Web.

Riekki, T., Lindeman, M. & Lipsanen, J. (2013). Conceptions about the mind-body problem and their relations to afterlife beliefs, paranormal beliefs, religiosity, and ontological confusions. Advances in Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 112120. Web.

Schaefer, S., Krampe, R. T., Lindenberger, U. & Baltes, P. B. (2008). Age differences between children and young adults in the dynamics of dual-task prioritization: Body (balance) versus mind (memory). Developmental Psychology, 44(3), 747757. Web.

Introduction

The conventional perception of mind and body according to the western philosophy is based on dualism (Nagel, 1998, p. 338; Gallagher, 2005, p.9). This idea originated from the ancient philosophers like Aristotle and Plato who regarded a complete human soul as the one which is aware of the worlds order (Hans, 2000, p. 7; Jean & Lamm, 2006, p. 1147). A complete being is a universal concept, in that it describes the global objective categories. Human reasoning is the ability of the human mind to utilize some part of the universal reason, and therefore is intangible and separate from the body (Stephen, 2006, p.15).

Phenomenologists argue that human body is a living process that incorporates a complex array of psychological and physical processes. In other words, human body is a body-mind and not just a simple body. They describe human body as a field in which numerous physical and mental forces work together and modify each other (Visker, 2008). Buddhists and traditional Indian philosophy explains that human body (body-mind) is ultimate and disregards any self beyond it. According to the two, body-mind is essential for liberation (Deacon, 2002, p. 89; Stephen, 2006, p. 365).

Describing the Cartesian picture of human beings

The philosophy of Descartes (philosophy of mind) postulates that mind and body are two separate entities. It provides the account of knowledge, freedom of action, morality and conduct of life (Cottingham, 1998, p. 6). Descartes explains that the requisite type of moral vision was a result of religious metaphysics. He claims that human understand and control themselves through the divine power of reasoning. The equivalent power of reasoning enables the human to recognize what is objectively positive. It is through the generosity of God that individuals can marshal their will to pursue what is good (Van Cleve, 1979, p.9; Cottingham, 1998, p. 7).

Descartes provides a substantial argument for the existence of two separate entities: the mind (referred to as thinking things) and the body (referred to as extended things). He doubts the ability of the existence of the body but is very much certain of the existence of the mind. Through his meditations he tried to prove the existence of the mind without the body. He proposes that there exists a material substance of which the body is the mode and several immaterial substances similar to human and Gods mind (Cottingham, 1998, p. 8).

Analysis of Michel Foucaults ideas regarding power and subjectivity

Michael Foucault challenged these universal perceptions regarding the spectrum of human science. Foucaults work is based on how power relations have conditioned, invested and produced definite human experiences. These experiences include punishment, sexuality, insanity, illness, and effects of truth in reality (Foucault 1975, p. 4). Foucault explained the different modes through which culture and human beings are transformed into subjects. These modes include: the modes of inquiry which objectifies the speaking subject (for instance the linguistic mode); economic mode and biological mode (the simple fact of being a live) (Nagel, 1998, p. 339).

Foucault wrote numerous topics which had no connection with each other. However, his works centered on the struggle of individuals against powers in the society. He was concerned about the tools of power and reasons why individuals obey the rules of the society. Foucault explained that the body is not subject to afflictions but to the forces of discipline and power. He argued that individuals under continuous surveillance and regulations in ways that are often restrained and thereby ostensibly invisible, results in conformation and approval of such systems (Deacon, 2002, p. 103).

Foucault emphasized on the body as the object and target of power. He employed the concept of docility (where analyzed and manipulated body are bonded together) to demonstrate how individuals within their bodies are subjected to surveillance and regulations. He states that a docile body can be subjected, utilized, transformed, and enhanced. He further states that the docile bodies can be enfolded, partitioned, and classified so as to maintain order and discipline (Stephen, 2006, p. 367; Gallagher, 2005, p. 15).

Mechanisms of power can not be separated from mechanisms of exploitation and domination. The modern states have incorporated some old techniques of power into their system. The existing powers ignore individuals and favors interest of the mass, or a section of the population, unlike the earliest powers which favored individuals. The exercise of power is not only a relationship between individuals, but also actions that modifies others. Power only exists when it is enforced by an individual upon others. Power does not act directly or straight away on others but on their actions (Deacon 2002, p. 87; Foucault, 1975, p. 7).

The account presented in the subject and power paints a picture of power in power functions by configuring a turf of possible action in which a subject must adhere to. The configuration of the field, nonetheless, does not mean external oppression by power itself (Deacon, 2002, p. 104). Foucault asserts that power functions by steering the actions of a basically free subject, but always with an option that the subject can traverse the field in novel and innovative ways. In other words, the scrutiny of power in the subject and power highlights the positive aspect of power in which the subject is able to exercise his/her fundamental rights. Foucault explains that resistance to power should not be misunderstood in terms of agonistic force relations, but in terms of an innovative traversing of the field of probable actions (Deacon, 2002, p. 105).

Conclusion

The secure metaphysical underpinning for ethics accounts for more than anything else in Descartes philosophy. This philosophy explains that serenity of the human soul is within the reach of everybody. Descartes distinction of body and mind has left many questions unanswered relating to how the two entities interact and the accurate nature of union between the body and the mind evidently present in human beings. On the other hand, Michael Foucault challenged these universal perceptions regarding the spectrum of human science. Foucaults work is based on how power relations have conditioned, invested and produced definite human experiences. These experiences include: punishment, sexuality, insanity, illness, and effects of truth in reality. Foucault mainly focused on the idea of individual struggle from power and discipline.

References

Cottingham, J. (1998) Cartesian Reflections: Essay on Descartes Philosophy. New York: Oxford Press.

Deacon, R. (2002) An analytics of power relations: Foucault on the history of discipline. History of the Human Sciences, 15 (1), pp. 89-117.

Foucault, M. (1975) Discipline and Punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Vintage books.

Gallagher, S. (2005) How the body shapes the mind. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hans, J. (2000) The Phenomenon of Life: Toward a Philosophical Biology. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

Jean, D., & Lamm, C. (2006) Human empathy through the lens of social neuroscience. The Scientific World Journal, 6, pp.1146-1163.

Nagel, T. (1998) Conceiving the impossible and mind-body problem. Philosophy Journal, 73, pp.337-352.

Stephen, R. (2006) Bergson and the holographic theory of mind. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 5(3), pp.365-394.

Van Cleve, J. (1979) Foundationalism, Epistemic Principles, and the Cartesian Circle. The philosophical Review, 88 (1), pp.55-91.

Visker, R. (2008) Michel Foucalt, Philosopher? A Note on Genealogy and Archeology, 5, pp. 9-18.

Introduction

Oliver Sachs thesis is based on the neuroscience sensory areas of the brain. Through his interactions with several blind people and reading their memoirs he has come to the conclusion that there is a rich interconnectedness and interactions of the sensory organs of the brain.

One cannot really explain that anything in life is purely visual and that another object is purely auditory. The sensory modalities therefore cannot be considered in isolation at all. The blind people have the ability to build highly descriptive visual images from the information that they receive from other sensory organs such as speech and sound. Language can cause a blind person to visualize and describe landscapes so beautifully yet he has never seen the place.

A blind person can describe landscapes with colors so beautifully that a sighted person even wonders who between the two of them is blind. He therefore concludes that visual capabilities are not simply dependent on the physical eyes. The mind of an individual has an eye which is capable of generating and holding images. Both the sighted and the blind have visual capabilities though they are different. The title of the essay, Minds Eye is therefore very appropriately used by Sachs in writing down his findings of his research.

The blind and sighted people therefore according to Sachs both use their visual senses. He had believed previously that the brains of the people who had lost visual or hearing capabilities had gone through an adjustment process. For blind people, the visual capabilities had been reallocated or transferred to other sensory capabilities such as sound and smell. Blind people had heightened sound and smell capabilities.

This was demonstrated by the interaction Sachs had with Dennis Shulman, a clinical psychologist. Dennis had become very alert after becoming completely blind. He could recognize patients by their smells. He could also sense the moods that a patient was in when he or she came to see him.

He would immediately sense when the person became tense or anxious. He had realized that sighted people relied too much on visual appearances of an individual yet it was so easy for an individual to camouflage and present a fake picture of his character and his feelings. He felt that the smells and the sounds of people revealed much clearly peoples depths in who they actually were.

It was with this view of reallocation of the brain sensory organs that Sachs approached the study on adjustment after blindness in adults. However his view changed after the study. He interacts with several blind people who have different experiences in adjusting to life after blindness.

Oliver read the memoirs of John Hull who had lost vision in his left eye gradually from the ages of thirteen to seventeen. The right eye became completely blind at forty eight. It had started becoming weaker from the time he was thirty five. Hull lost his visual memories and imagery. Concepts such as the appearances of people and objects were no longer applicable to him (Hull, 1992, pg 23). He started to rely more on other senses especially hearing.

Oliver proposes that the reason for this could be that his blindness was gradual.
Zoltan Torrey, on the hand, a psychologist who had lost his sight immediately through an accident had different experiences from Hull. He had been advised to switch from visual to an auditory mode of adjustment however he refused to do that (Torrey, 2004, pg 45).

Instead he worked to develop the inner eye and sharpen his visual imagery as much as possible. He is skilled in generating and manipulating images in his mind. He constructed a visual image world in his mind that resembled the real world so much such that he was able to even do repairs of his roof in the middle of the night. Oliver Sachs suggests that the visual abilities of Torrey were possible due to the rich childhood that he had.

While growing up, Torrey grew up in an intellectual environment of writers and artists. His father, a film studio owner, brought him scripts regularly to read when he came home from work. From a young age he learnt to work his imagination by visualizing stories, plots and characters. When he became blind he decided to hold on to light and visual sight as much as possible.

Oliver Sachs also interacted with SabriyeTenberken, a blind woman who had different experiences after becoming blind. While Hull and Torrey had been concerned with their mental adaptation after loss of sight, Sabriye had acquired great passion to help blind people after becoming blind.

She had travelled all over Tibet establishing schools for the blind and providing systems for the integration of these graduates back into the community. The people of Tibet generally do not treat the blind people well. They lack equal opportunities to excel in academics and professional careers.

For Sabriye, she had impaired eyesight from birth. Till the age of twelve, she could make shapes of people and landscapes. Twenty years after losing her sight completely,

she has strong pictorial and synesthetic abilities. She has the ability to give deep verbal descriptions of landscapes. Her descriptions are so vivid they even astonish her listeners. She still possesses her visual memories. Oliver Sachs writes that her visual prowess can be traced to the fact that when she was as young as age five she had been fond of painting and colors.

Her attraction to colors is so intense that words and figures can represented in her mind in connection with specific color shades. The number four to Sabriye is represented as gold.
At the end of the day Sachs finds that the way an individual will life his life after being blind may depend on such factors such as the age total blindness occurred, whether the blindness was gradual or immediate and the experiences the individual had gone through prior to the blindness.

The common factor among the blind people was that the cornea was more sensitive to signals from the other senses after the person become blind. The question though is the role of sight senses in the lives of the individual. Sachs summarizes his view on his interactions with the blind people by saying that Torreys visual prowess was due to his upbringing. Torrey was visually inclined from the time he was young.

He could come up with highly visual stories whose plot was based on the scripts his father brought him to read. Torrey as an individual was already skilled in visual imagery and manipulation of the imagery even before he lost his sight (Sachs, 2010, pg 55)
Sachs in explaining why other blind people had different experiences from Hull says that

SabriyeTenberken had several physiological factors different from Hull. From the time Sabriye was young, she was attracted to painting and the different colors that artists used. Even before she became blind, her brain was able to look at letters and numbers and associate them with certain shapes and colors. Her visual cortex already had a great relationship or connectivity with language and sound. When such an individual as Sabriye goes blind, the visual imagery will continue and even in several cases be heightened (Sachs, 2010, pg 55 )

After reviewing the three experiences, Oliver Sachs concludes that there is no such term as a typical blind experience. He met Dennis Shulman, a clinical psychoanalyst who thirty five years later after gradually losing his sight in his teens had different experiences from Hull.

Shulman viewed the world from a visual standpoint. He has visual images of his wife and kids though he has never seen them. He even saw his Braille notes which he used for lecturing as visual images. An elderly woman, Arlene Gordon, who is seventy years old had strong visual images. She could see her hands when she moved them about. While listening to audio books she felt like the spoken words were actually printed

Finally, Oliver Sachs He compares the accounts of the blind people in his essay and is struck by how different the experiences are when it comes to visual images and memories. Hull had no visual memories or images, over time they had disappeared. Torrey had determined to concentrate on visual imagery in his life daily and it had paid off. Sabriye was blessed highly with visual imagery. Sachs therefore supports his thesis or argument well. There is a high interconnectedness in the sensory organs of the brain.

Works Cited

Hull, John. Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness. New York: Vintage
publishers.1992. Print.

Sachs, Oliver. The Minds Eye. New York: Knopf publishers. 2010. Print.

Torrey, Zoltan. Out of Darkness. Australia : Pan Macmillan publishers. 2004. Print.