The problem of sexual harassment and the violation of personal boundaries remains a problem in the U.S. military setting. Therefore, revisiting the existing ethical standards should be deemed as the first step toward managing the problem of sexual violence in the target setting. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to examine the issue of sexual harassment in the U.S. military by analyzing the existing ethical provisions and locating the possible sources of the problem.
The situation with sexual violence in the U.S. military has aggravated significantly over the past few years. While sexual violence toward men has remained quite low, the cases of sexual violence toward women in the army have increased drastically, as the recent statistical data shows (Philipps). Due to the lack of efficacy of the current system and the resulting reluctance among women serving in the army to report about the threats of sexual harassment, the existing code of ethics (SHARP) and the approach toward promoting standards of behavior in the U.S. military have to be reconsidered.
Sexual Harassment in the Army
Among the key factors that lead to sexual harassment in the U.S. Army, one should mention the lack of ethical values and principles that would set tangible boundaries. Although the issue in question is addressed in the Army Regulation guide, direct guidelines for preventing the problem from taking place and meeting the needs of vulnerable groups and victims are not clear. Thus, establishing clear guidelines should be seen as a priority.
In addition, one should mention the current approach toward training the troops as the possible source of the problem. With the reinforcement of gender roles and the enhancement of gender stereotypes, the foundation for the development of attitudes and behaviors attributed to the phenomenon of toxic masculinity is laid (Stander and Thompson 22). As a result, the notion of respect toward personal boundaries of women in the military is eroded, which leads to cases of sexual harassment and violence toward women in the army.
While eradicating sexual violence and harassment from the context of the U.S. Army may currently seem barely possible, there are several tools that could reduce the risks of the phenomenon to a considerable degree. Revisiting SHARP to educate U.S. troops is the first step to be taken toward the intended improvement. Specifically, the role of a commander in addressing a case of sexual harassment has to be increased to reduce the risks. Currently, the role of a commander is restricted mostly to the functions of a support system, the main one being maintaining “EO assistance lines to provide advice and information on unlawful discrimination and sexual harassment” (“Army Command Policy” 52). While the specified task is critical to support victims, strategies for risk mitigation also have to be reinforced. In addition, safety has to be provided to women reporting instances of sexual harassment and violence.
Conclusion
The present situation with sexual violence and harassment in the army remains drastic for the U.S. Combined with the outdated SHARP system of ethics and moral standards in the U.S. Army, the lack of a strong moral compass and leadership that will encourage equality-based relationships creates the breeding ground for the reinforcement of gender stereotypes and violation of personal rights. Therefore, a framework that will allow reporting the cases of sexual violence without the fear of retaliation from perpetrators will help to manage the problem at hand and reduce the degree of threat to which victims are subjected. As a result, the problem of sexual harassment and violence in the American military setting will be addressed.
Stander, Valerie A., and Cynthia J. Thomsen. “Sexual Harassment and Assault in the US Military: A Review of Policy and Research Trends.” Military Medicine, vol. 181, suppl. 1, 2016, pp. 20-27.
Danticat writes about the 1937 massacre of Haitians by a Dominican dictator, Refael Trujillo (3). Between October 2nd and 4th the Dominican Republic solders under the political influence of prominent landowners slaughtered approximately 15,000 – 20,000 immigrants from Haiti at the massacre river (Danticat, 3).
The reason for massacre was to force out the squatters and make way for the big landowners to take over. The next year, the two governments come to an agreement of settling the matter without international court proceedings. The Dominican Republic agreed to pay $750,000 but paid only $500,000, which translated to approximately $25 for every victim to overrule need for justice.
The massacre river that was once a swallow of bodies is today a place full of life, peace and habitual routine. The Haitians’ tale is part of global history as a remembrance of Haitian community, as well as correlation to the global denotations or results of such massacre. Danticat (11) presents the case of Haiti not only as a Haitian community problem but also as a global concern especially in relation to the military projects.
There are therefore various facts that stand out from the massacre. This paper forms a critical analysis of racial discourses and the delimiting factors on military projects. The paper aims to advance understanding on effects of discrimination through analysis of the relationship between military men and women as well as between military and civilians. What really subjects soldiers to racial, cultural or ethnic hatred and thus negatively affect military projects?
Historical Analysis the Haitians’ Massacre
The Dominican Republic army used tactics to cover up their tracks from possible prosecutions. For instance, the murder of victims using machetes, bayonets, pitchforks, smashing children’s heads on walls, forcing some to jump over cliffs and drowning others. They avoided using firearms and this meant that it was not easy to trace back the murderers (Danticat 13). The agreement between the two governments shows the complicity of the Haitian government to cover-up the massacre thus ensuring denial of justice to victims.
These are clear indications of racial discontents within the military and the vast effects on overall performance as well as project development for their units. Since time in history, particularly in a close reference to Haitians’ massacre in 1937, racial and ethical discriminations seem to be an element in the daily military contracts.
General Analysis of the Army
The appointment of army personnel occurs through assignment of duty and analysis of specialty, rather than general selection of personnel. However, the assignment procedure is certainly not an arbitral procedure, therefore the appointment frequently occur based on chance. The assignment to duties is deliberate procedure, based on expertise and proficiency, without considering a soldier’s ethnic or racial background.
The military argument is that, when personnel are in ranks, then assignment of duties is likely to occur within a particular hold up basis. The military personnel often express interest and preferences for duties and work locations as they advance through the ranks and experience. The army’s requirements ought to be the main force over appointments. This is not possible because performance and allocation of duties as well as advancement of rank have very high influences to appointments.
Common Sources of Racial Discourses in the Army
War or inhuman acts such as the Haitian’s massacre starts due to negative administrative assertions. Racial discourses or affirmations by administrative units in the military catalyze its emergence. Discrimination is part of political fight or strategy to gain power and authority and these influences are common within the military as evidenced during the 1937 Haiti massacre (Niebuhr 32).
Good examples are military affirmations indicating that war starts because of violation of resolutions, such as being in possession of weapons of mass destruction. Fight for peace is also another issue that fuels inhumanity since some governments feel the need for ensuring favourable conditions and run into unsuccessful endeavours to promote dialogue for peace. This subsequently degenerates to threats, and eventually to war.
Military personnel react pro-actively and make the most of all in its power to enhance racial hostility either against external forces or within themselves. However, power of command controls conflicts that lack logical or solid reasons and proof for justification. In most cases, racial discourses results to negative effects on human lives by depriving military men and women the most essential needs and respect for civilization. Some of the cases occur through political instigation in favour of a certain category of people.
The main reason why racial segregation or racial talks are not justified is due to the negative effects on human rights for instance, most conflicts among these great military compatriots is due to haste by administrators such as the political figures in the government. Racial indifferences within military setting are the foundation for work-based conflicts and in some cases deaths, thus depriving many families their special members whom are responsible for love and basic provisions.
Other than fatalities, many casualties who are immediate family providers may end up depending on others in different ways due to physical, mental and psychological injuries caused by racial-related wars. Such conditions increase pressure on the coalition governments, particularly on the military projects for instance, when those assigned are of conflicting views.
Cost of Racial Discourses within the Work Setting
Racial discrimination causes high dependence humanitarian aid and reconstruction assistances and primarily leads to compromise on human dignity (Sifry and Cerf 27). Humanitarian crisis during racial conflict are very high. Loss of human life such as the Haiti massacres is attributable to greed, fright between the rich and the poor. In line with Sifry and Cerf (27), racial war distracts the non-governmental organizations plans for humanitarian assistance due to the uncertainty during and after such conflicts.
Poverty is one of the main effects associable to human racial-related discordances. Basic needs such as medicines, shelter, hygiene facilities and food therefore remain scarce during wars. There are fears over shortage of basic assistance even among the solders. Casualty reports confirm the fears, as the numbers of victims are overwhelming during that period.
Effects on Education and Healthcare
Racial discrimination causes people especially women and children to vacate their home and settle in displacement camps due to need for safety. This remains a permanent scar to the society and leads to diversification of resources to cater for the affected. Regardless of some humanitarian assistance from well-wishers, there is often refusal to offer physical assistance in settling of victims. People lack comfort to attend school and access health services.
The military is responsible for provision of some health care services and education programmes. Racial discourses leads to poor or lack of proper governance and this means that the affected sectors are not able to cater for the indispensable needs. Innocent children end up suffering from something they rarely understand and furthermore such racial conflicts causes psychological suffering of their naive minds.
Compromised security
Compromise on security is one of the critical effects of racial conflicts or discourses on military projects and is a big challenge. The racial discourses in the military camps halts major operations due to broken trust.
This cause worries over security since protection by the involved parties may compromise work-related collaborations. The compromise of social security pervades the human working environment. This causes low working morale, difficulties of finding trained or retrained workers and disrupted training or supervision when undertaking military projects.
Compromised security also affects activities especially during combat. For instance, when required to maintain teamwork and team strategies in the fields such as the war-torn areas, the social opposition may compromise confidentiality and lead to weak coordination or poor communication among personnel.
A co-officer may give up on others due to rivalry brought about by racial discourses among soldiers. Those emotionally effected individuals or the discriminated parties may find other possible payback mechanisms for instance, exposing fellow soldiers’ to opponent attacks.
Compromised human rights
The biggest effect of racial discourses on projects is denial of various human rights. Most military projects in majority of the countries especially areas involved in wars fail due to racial divisions. First, the situation causes financial segregation owing to the fact that decision makers may try to favour certain groups over others in the same base camp.
Seniority therefore prohibit equal access to resources in what is supposedly a teamwork activity thus compromising on success of projects. The racial reasoning also compromises provision of the basic needs such as health care and eventually there are shifts from the normal form of equal provisions, to categorized care. This adversely compromises military project.
Disrupted health surveillance and compromised public health programs negatively hinders humanity, for instance favour on usage of health resources like clinics, referral systems and vehicles. Additional, racial discourses affect the communication logistics. It may also lead to poor equipments maintenance procedures during projects. Finally, it is evident that majority of the adversely affected projects results from prejudice against the essential basic human resources such as sanitation, food security, water and power.
Majority of the military projects are concern with restoration of peace and order. The projects are important especially when humanitarian needs are in consideration. Racial discourses are the main barriers to restoration of understanding. Provision of human needs for such peace-related projects mainly depends on a nation’s infrastructure.
Generally, war activities such as the Massacre of Haitians by the Dominican Republic soldiers caused compromise on communication, which is the main support for humanity and human rights (Danticat 13). After such war activities, it is not easy to enforce peace since effects of insecurity shifts focus towards individual involvements and personal acts.
In most instances, racial talks or discriminatory acts brings in the negative influences on employment such lack of job satisfaction thus affecting majority of the projects, which are often group assignments. According to Chancellor (71), one in every ten soldier’s experience, racial discourse or their family suffer from similar discriminatory acts.
Effects of Military Discourses to Consumer Projects
Some of the military projects relate to local consumer markets. The discrimination reasoning within the military camps extends to the non-military personnel. The local consumer may thus face discrimination during interaction or transactions with the military. The military has extensive orders that prohibit racial talks and discrimination.
The desegregation policies work extensively well within the military bases, but rather slowly off the barracks. Some of the communication policies within the military base guards against discrimination that relate to job specifications, training opportunities and schooling or training within the base. On the other hand, state laws fight against any formal or informal state of segregation.
Racial discourse or segregation gets support from soldiers’ reluctance to implement their rule while off the base, arguing that the policies are not applicable outside barracks. Lack of proper reinforcement of rules is certainly a setback to majority of these projects outside of the military settings.
The civil right leaders increase the pressure to fight against off-base discriminatory acts and emphasize the need for enhanced troop morals during the off-base projects. Discourse within the community causes members to respond in a less partisan manner to assist such project completion.
The high-ranking officers have powers to respond to discriminatory practices that may affect projects both outside and inside the military base settings. They have to encourage immediate control of situations that may get out of hand and affect military projects or those of the neighbouring communities. These officers have to ensure that all projects that promote racial discourses or discrimination face immediate rejection or possible termination.
Today, there is no need to have project termination approvals from the secretary of defence; the commander has power to terminate any discriminatory acts (Chancellor 71). According to Chancellor (71), sociologists’ estimates indicate existence of less racial segregation in the military due to influences by the commanders and the locals’ activists.
Considering that there is low individual’s propensity, to report discriminatory behaviours in the workplace, it depends with the amount of discrimination and individual’s tolerance to such behaviours as racial discourses within the work setting. Solder’s propensity will also depend on the nature and frequency of contacts with workmates. A person who lives off base is likely to react very differently, compared to the single personnel who live with others within the base.
Racial discourse mainly occurs due to cultural diversity. Diversity boosts individuals’ competitive abilities and neutralizes the racial situation within the workforce. Unlike the early days when soldiers’ appointment was confined to policies, the current job market is full of challenges.
In order to enhance good services when tackling a project, there is need for a universally acceptable strategy such as appointment of culturally diversified personnel. The engagement enables today’s soldiers to know that different cultures demand for different opinions.
Racial discourses prevent understanding of concepts and importance of working in a multi-cultural setting. A culturally diverse group is rich in knowledge due to inclusion of people from various countries thus has enough chances of enhancing project achievements (King and Stivers 81).
Soldiers’ garrisons having ethnically diverse personnel can easily serve a wide base of clients without discrimination and with a great deal effort considering the ease for workers to relate with each other and with clients. This kind of situation would have prevented the Haiti’s 1937 massacre.
There is a wide and equally diverse and well-balanced pool of knowledge created by diverse cultures in the workplace. Knowledge is power to gain experience, creativity, customer support or participation, lasting results and eventually long-term high profit margins (King and Stivers 81).
Discrimination acts and lack of acceptance are the barriers to enhancing cultural diversity in the workplace. People from different background still have personal feeling that hinders this form of development. Society with such people can be the main source of social conflicts, group-work failures, fall of operations and eventually poor economic growth. The discrimination issue can therefore be a negative aspect if it lacks proper control measures.
Consequences Related to Racial Denounces at the Workplace
Implementation and acceptance of culturally diverse community in military barracks requires subsequent strategic planning. Execution or change in management must entail inspiration through infusion or integration of different aspects such as those involving diversification into project procedures or requirements.
Cultural acceptance ought to apply from the top executives, who should show commitment and importance of diversity. Having the soldiers to understand significance of diversity from the word go reduces any possibilities of racial conflicts.
Fostering cultural diversity at the workplace
The top officials must engage in upbeat measure of solving racial-related conflicts by regularly emphasising on cultural benefits to the military. Cultural commitment to diversity requires legal gazetting with the external regulator body to emphasize on the consequences regarding those racial conflicts that break the project rules. In relation to King and Stivers’ writing (82), a corporation need to have programs for performing prior training to employees on how to deal with counterparts from different cultural setting.
Arguably, it is impossible for employees to grasp various complex cultural nuances in one sitting, therefore the need for them to be careful on issues regarding stereotyping, language differences, time differences and individual versus collective racial mind-set, as a measure of avoiding or resolving diversity related conflicts.
Conclusion
Promotion of cultural differences in the workplace ought to take place before commencement of hiring. This means that commanders should include need and importance of stressing diversity in the recruitment plan. In line with King and Stivers (82), discovery of strengths or benefits of an action occur well prior to proper planning.
These calls for the management to be responsive over recognizing respecting and capitalizing on various positive aspects regarding ethnic, race and gender difference. There is need for soldiers to note that even outside the work setting, they can find exposure from various cultural practices.
According to King and Stivers (82), a good system capitalizes on the employees strengths while minimizing on their weaknesses. The differences between employees’ culture should therefore entail proper usage, to strengthen understanding and enhance stronger bonds through team works as a measure to capture and workout global projects.
Militaries ought to understand that diversity is something more than mare moral obligation. It is a necessity for enhancing growth opportunities and avoiding inhuman activities such as those experienced during the Haiti massacre by the Dominican Republic Soldiers.
Works Cited
Chancellor, Schroeder. Remarks on anti-war Stance as Saddam Crumbles. Mexico City: Agence France-Presse, 2003. Print.
Danticat, Edwidge. The Farming of Bones: A novel. (Vol, 3), New York: Soho Press, 1998. Print.
King, Cheryl, and Stivers Camilla. Government Is Us: Public Administration in an Anti-Government Era. California: Sage Publications, 1998. Print.
Niebuhr, Reinhold. Moral man and immoral society: a study in ethics and politics. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. Print.
Sifry, Micah, and Cerf Christopher. Iraq War Reader: History, Documents. New York: OpinionsSimon & Schuster publishers, 2007. Print.
Demonstration is one of the frequent ways of exhibiting discontent on a pressing issue and dealing with controversial issues since time immemorial. Demonstrations give individuals contradictory perspectives on the objectives of the demonstration. Many are the times when the core purpose of the demonstration is not conveyed and the aftermath brings tribulations to the parties involved (He 98). For instance, when there are political conspiracies, demonstrators are manipulated to rebel against the government or a political party. We are currently faced with students’ demonstrations in our towns marching across the streets in the name of democracy.
As any other group of citizens, students may want to express their dissatisfaction on various issues. Some demonstrations that are held are not carried out in a civilized manner. These kinds of demonstrations may jeopardize the country’s economic, social and political stability (Beja 34). However, to tactically terminate students’ demonstrations, the paper advocates for the use of military forces. In addition, I would urge the indecisive party officials to consider this approach as the ideal way to end students’ demonstrations for the following reasons.
Ulterior motives by some demonstrators
A student demonstration can have additional parties in the demonstrations. The members of the public who are not necessarily students can join in the movement in the name of struggle for democracy. In our case, the students are demonstrating against the political party which is the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In the recent student demonstration at the Tiananmen Square, it has been noted that a group of tiny handful people has emerged and is taking advantage of the situation at hand. They are fabricating some rumors to attack the Party and the government at large (Lizhi 15). People’s minds have been contaminated with all sorts of lies and this has led to a state of confusion amongst the citizens.
Manipulation of the demonstrators
Small portion of the demonstrators has been noticeably seen manipulating the students through financial assistance to demonstrators as a way of expressing their support. The once democratic demonstration by the students was turned into a political based demonstration with no civilization. As we are all aware, the ruling party has put a lot of efforts to harmonize the country and as a result, the economy has a recommendable rise. The government and the Party have tolerated some of the slogans being used by the students long enough as a way of consideration of the profound anguish of the students. However, with such attitude, a lot is at stake and it is time for the party to handle the inciters (Lizhi 22). The military force should be sent to stamp out the demonstration. They are trained and can tactfully deal with the students. We should be able to distinguish right from wrong at this level and as we can see this demonstration is being held in the wrong way. Inciters have brought a differing objective of the demonstration and the only way to handle them is by handing over to the military to terminate the demonstration for the good of our country (Janet et al., 45).
Spectrum of threats
Demonstrations mostly come along with a spectrum of threats attached. In our case, the students’ demonstration can threaten the social stability and also the political stability. During demonstrations, the young people can be aggressive and therefore vandalizing public and public property. The use of brutality is also common which leads to injuries as students in demonstration can do the unthinkable to see their needs are met. As for the political rivals, they will make the most of the demonstration and threaten subversion (Louisa 23). Breaching of laws and the constitution will be the order of the day and with no peace we will lose track of our country’s growth and development. The reflection of such unwanted demonstrations will be rejection by the outside world in terms of multilateral affairs. The investors will be scared away as they will feel insecure to invest in a politically unstable country. Therefore, it is wise to have the military solve demonstration by students since a peaceful deal with students is normally ineffective (Weinberger, par 6).
Social order
A country with no social order is as good as obsolete. Students demonstrating settle for nothing less till their demands are met. However, for a solution to be found between the students and the government for instance there must be social order. The riots and boycotts are some of the domino effects of the demonstrations. Absence of social order leads to increment of criminal activities, rebellion and anti-social behavior (Jonathan 65). The turmoil caused is reflected from declining economic growth and collapsing of the education sector. To get back to the track and harmonize the citizens, the small proportion causing havoc should be dealt with by the arms of the government through the soldiers who would do anything to see that peace prevails in their country. The seemed to be division amongst the army which if it persist the situation will worsen eventually. The trusted military forces should be given the mandate to control. Under such conditions, the ideal way to eradicate the issue is deployment of the armed forces (Lizhi 36).
Overcoming subversion
Students can be inconsolable when expressing dissatisfaction in their education needs or any other need they want met. Those in the frontline of the protest in one way or another cause tumult and are in the support of the reformers who even financially support them. Others with malicious objectives will want to overthrow our government by just fabricating rumors about the ruling political party hence pulling down our efforts to harmonize the country. For this reason I advise on sending the troops to clear the air before damage beyond our repair happens. If there are political issues to be addressed to the government, they should be made peacefully without demonstrating on the streets. Otherwise, we will be forced to send the military forces to bring to an end to the demonstrations (Janet Chen 34).
Conclusion
We have a responsibility as the party leaders to protect and implement the rules of our land (Janet Chen 35). The citizens who go against them should be castigated accordingly as the constitution states. Making the decision of allowing the military force to handle the demonstrating students is therefore ideal as it ensures that those polluting our student’s minds do not prevail at any level. Our military forces are well trained and can handle the rebellious ones by using techniques that will ensure the innocent and the guilty ones are filtered (Beja 65). I would therefore, urge the entire panel to consider wisely using the troops to handle the demos. Let us not forget that the soldiers we are giving this job are our brothers and sisters who are kind hearted and always want the best of our country.
Works Cited
Beja, Jean. The Impact of China’s 1989 Tiananmen Massacre. London: Routledge, 2010.
He, Rowena Xiaoqing. “Tienanmen Voices; Voices of the Struggle for Democracy in China.” Journal of East Asia Studies 159 (2014): 98-99.
Janet Chen, Pei-Kai Cheng and Michael Lestz. The Search for the Modern China. London: Routledge, 2013.
Jonathan.D.Spence. The Search for the Modern China. Third Edition. New York: W.W.Norton and Company, 2013.
Lizhi, Fang. Chinese Amnesia. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1990.
Louisa, Lim. The People’s Republic of Amnesia: Tiananmen Revisited. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
The question of whether women should be in the military or not is debatable and many arguments can be presented both, in its favor or against it and this paper presents such arguments in a precise manner. The paper starts with a historical background on the presence of women in the military and how they evolved through various traditional roles to their current roles over their time spent in the military domain. The paper also looks briefly at the military status of women in different countries and moves on to discuss the U.S. military policies related to the subject. Different statistics and surveys have been presented, followed by an argument presenting both sides of the issue and finally a conclusion, which is based on my personal opinion.
Introduction
Men and women are two separate genders that together make this world go round. Both have their roles and jobs to perform, they have their characteristics as part of their nature which define their core personalities and help them perform their tasks in a particular manner. Men are the stronger gender and are designated to play the stronger roles in life, both mentally and physically whereas women are the fairer sex who is not as strong as men and therefore differences exist between both by many different means. In earlier days, the roles for both genders were well defined but now the boundaries are growing blurred with time, this is also valid for the different professions that they adopt.
Typically, the women were formerly more likely meant to be teachers or doctors because of their caring nature, and men were more likely destined to be engineers or pilots because of their low emotional involvement with tasks but now things are not that way any longer. Now, women and men both perform a variety of tasks and the presence of both genders is equally visible in different professions. This provision of equal opportunities for both genders has been further promoted by laws against discrimination and practices that encourage diversity. Besides, there is a call by women for their liberty and empowerment. Today, women are very much a part of the world where once only men prevailed and they are trying their best to fulfill the demands of their new roles. Yet, there are some roles and professions that prefer to continue with the traditional genders that were meant for them because of different reasons which make that particular gender more preferable and one such profession and role that remains to be decided is that of women in the military.
Background of women in American military
Women have been assisting in the military even before World War I but chiefly as nurses and aids except for a few who were directly involved in the operations of the battles. In World War I, the first enlisted women served as operators of radio and telephone, clerks and translators. The first time when women became members of the regular military was in World War II when each service had its own women’s corps under the direct supervision of female officers; Women’s Army Corps (WACs) was the first of these units enlisting 400,000 women to work in different jobs so that men could be freed to fight. After the Women’s Services Integration Act of 1948, a lasting place for women was established in every branch of the military but still restricted promotions were given to female officers and there was a ban on women from not only taking part in jobs of ground combat but also from appearing on most Naval ships and Air Force aircraft (“CRF”, 2000).
With time, more jobs opened in the military for women, together with some jobs in combat. The first female cadets entered service academies in 1976 and soon, female officers began commanding men. In 1978, the Women’s Army was dissolved as a result of the assimilation of women into the regular Army through the provision of various non-combat roles (“CRM”, 1997). This was followed in 1993 by lifting of bans that were in place to prevent women from serving aboard Navy warships and combat aircraft in action. Today, women have 92 percent of all career fields available to them in the military except for positions in infantry and tank combat units (“CRF”, 2000).
Current role of women in U.S. military
Today, the women in the military are playing important roles like serving patients in the form of doctors, looking after legal matters as lawyers, flying aircraft as pilots, operating heavy equipment, controlling air traffic, serving military police, and many others except that it has not been this way forever. According to Gen. Wilma L. Vaught, a retired Air Force Brig., it took women over 220 years and many efforts by women to arrive at their present plateau in military service. The professions for women have evolved from those related to cooking, laundering, and nursing without any rank, to stronger and masculine ones like ranked officials, operators of heavy equipment, administrators, etc. (Williams, 1998).
In the U.S. military, the capabilities of women are utilized and integrated through providing them support roles and tasks in the required services. Although there are no laws to prohibit women from serving “in combat” but there are ones to do so from assigning women permanently in Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force to ships and aircraft occupied in a combat mission. In absence of laws, Army and other services have adopted policies that further restrict the part that women may play in the military (“Eserver”, 2005).
Women and military in different countries
In the UK, there is a policy that restricts women soldiers from taking part in frontline combat roles and this ban will stay in effect despite a two-year-long review on the issue of women serving in infantry or tank crews. This policy will not put the combat effectiveness at risk by bringing women as members of all-male combat-fighting units and starting an irresponsible experiment, as said by some of the top military officials (“BBC”, 2002).
Other countries have also an increased number of women and job opportunities for them in the military. For example:
On combat ships, seagoing positions were opened to women of the British Royal Navy in January 1990
Most of the NATO nations except Italy and Spain do not exclude women from the military but instead have either no combat exclusion laws or policies or statutory restrictions with selected policies.
Canada and Denmark train women as fighter pilots.
Japan’s Self-Defense Forces are served by approximately 6,000 women in support roles (“Eserver”, 2005)
Statistics and surveys
More than 229,000 women are serving in military services on active duty. The percentage of women taking part in U.S. military personnel has increased, the available statistics show that there was an increase of 6.9% from 1973 to 1980and a further increase of 2.3% in the next eight years. Amongst these women, 15 percent are officers and it is the same ratio for military men overall (“Eserver”, 2005).
Besides, the legislations and policies in place, public opinion surveys also verify that the U.S. citizens encourage the participation of women in the military sturdily but not in direct, ground, hand-to-hand combat. The last survey regarding ‘attitudes concerning women in the military was conducted in 1982 by National Opinion Research Center (NORC) and the results of the survey demonstrated a vigorous public approval of the presence of women in the military where maintenance or increase in proportion was desired by Eighty-four percent of the respondents, 81 percent considered the augmented attendance of women had not reduced efficiency of the military and merely 35 percent favored hand-to-hand combat for women. The survey also showed tremendous support for women to serve in traditionally female jobs like nursing which exposes them to battle (“Eserver”, 2005).
A survey of the current armed forces personnel showed that ‘79 percent of enlisted women and 73 percent of officers thought women should be allowed to volunteer for combat roles’ but when it came to volunteering for combat arms, it was denied by ‘70 percent enlisted women, 79 percent non-commissioned officers, and 71 percent commissioned officers’. In response to another question asking for the similarity between standards of combat readiness for both men and women, 52 percent of men wanted the standards to be similar while 81 percent of women wanted them to be diverse (“CRM”, 1997).
Policies related to women in the military
Currently, there are different policies in action that limit the role of women in frontline combat yet they are present in visible numbers in the military because of other alternative jobs available. A brief review of the major segments of the military concerning the presence of women and current policies is given below:
Army
‘active-duty women: 86000 (11 percent of the active-duty force)
Jobs currently open to women: 52 percent ‘
Women are excluded from positions where it is obvious to have daily involvement in direct combat, as a part of the policy of the Army, even though no statute overtly bars their assignment in the Army (“Eserver”, 2005).
Navy
‘active-duty women: 57000 (10 percent of the active-duty force)
Jobs currently open to women: 59 percent ‘
The statute and Navy policy both restrict the job assignments for Navy women by prohibiting them from serving on combat ships or flying combat aircraft; though they may be assigned temporarily to combat ships or to Navy auxiliary ships, training ships, or civilian contract ships (“Eserver”, 2005).
Air Force
‘active-duty women: 77000 (14 percent of the active-duty force)
Jobs currently open to women: 97 percent ‘
The statute prohibits women from serving in aircraft busy with a combat mission except when they are professionals like doctors, dentists, chaplains, and other similar ones (“Eserver”, 2005).
The presence of women can be seen almost everywhere in the current U.S. military where they perform diverse roles like flying aircraft, driving trucks through insecure areas, hauling automatic weapons to more traditional ones like nurses and doctors. The only place where they have been barred by law to be present is in units where the job is going out and embracing the enemy in combat like the infantry and artillery batteries. But today, there exists only a thin line between jobs that are combat and non-combat, where an absence of a front line may result in any unit get involved in a firefight any second, especially in a place like Iraq (Pessin, 2005).
The policies enacted by the Department Of Defense are not meant to protect women from all warfare, but only to restrict their exposure to a lesser level than direct combat. At certain times, even the non-combat positions may be closed to women based on the risk of exposure to direct combat, hostile fire, or capture. Another thing that is used to determine combat position is the type, degree, and duration of risk to evaluate if it is equal to or greater than that experienced by related combat units (of similar land, sea, or air type) in a similar situation (“NHC”, 2008).
Arguments
“They endured the same living conditions, duties, and responsibilities …. They performed professionally and without friction or special consideration.”
US Marine Officer
Women are found in the military in different roles, yet, the argument continues over what they should do and what they should not.
It has been argued by Elaine Donnelly, a former adviser to President Bush that restrictions regarding the position of women in combat roles are important as this exposes them to the risk of enemy rape and sexual abuse, thus providing an unequal opportunity to survive. This is true that the threat of sexual assault diminishes every woman’s life, no matter where she is but restricting them from professional opportunities in the military is less likely to reduce the international epidemic of violence against them (Ackmann, 2003).
The U.S. Army has been accused by some people of going beyond the rules or even breaking them by placing women in such units where they have to venture out on patrol and then face fair chances of coming across enemy ambushes. For some people like Ms.Donelly, the issue of military women in combat is not only about physical strength but also about ethics and law (Pessin, 2005).
Americans are a civilized nation and therefore according to Ms. Donelly “Civilized nations do not subject women to combat violence. We sometimes don’t have a choice about sending young men into war, but we do have a choice about young women. And we decided as a commission, in the majority, to say that, ‘No, violence against women, we do not endorse that. We support women in the military, but we don’t have to submit them to direct violence in combat.’” (Pessin, 2005)
Though it has been admitted by male military officers that women have performed as well and with a great amount of commitment in the army and in a situation where they have been exposed to combat positions (Pessin, 2005).
When women die in large numbers as in situations like war and people are more sensitive and overwhelmingly sad about this issue as compared to the death of men and the reason being that women are child-bearers- the carrier of life. Just like they are not allowed to play a rough game like football, similarly, they are not encouraged to join in combats.
Most people are concerned with protecting the life of females except for radical feminists who are incumbent upon achieving a utopian dream of women standing in place of men; a woman in a military uniform fighting in the war field is considered an ultimate vision. Bringing women in the military wearing uniforms exposes them to unnecessary risk as they might be at any point exposed to combat situations (Pawlik, 2003).
Thus, several arguments can be gathered on the matter related to serving women in the military but amongst all the arguments, one thing is apparent and that is women should serve in the military the debatable portion of this is only whether they should take part in frontline combats or not. Most of the arguments, surveys, and statistics support the military policy of barring women from the frontline combat positions because of many reasons like their fragile physical structure which carries with it the ability to give birth, the attraction of men towards them which may result in distraction and hence reduced effectiveness on the battle-fields. Besides women are also exposed to the risk of sexual assault and harassment because of their gender; all these things naturally make women stand at a disadvantage as compared to men when it comes to frontline combat on battlefields.
Conclusion
We have seen how the roles of women have evolved in the military from the First World War to this day, from their roles as nurses or attendants to those of drivers, communicators, instructors, and many more. The woman is a gender that deserves equal rights as that of men and for this right, they have struggled and come a long way; they have taken over many masculine roles and are no longer limited to being housewives or mothers only.
In my opinion, there are certain roles that nature has assigned to both genders, and those roles are meant specifically to be performed by them for example, women are meant to rear and nurture children and no man can be as good at it as them, similarly, men can physically perform tough jobs and most of the women cant match their strength. Women deserve to be respected by the opposite gender and not vice versa which may happen on the battlefields. Women indeed have remarkable strength and patience that sometimes even a man can’t match with but they have alternate options available to channel their strength rather than go and combat on the battlefields. Combating with the enemies should be left to men and women should support them through other jobs in the military but going to frontline combat is not an option, no matter how strong they might be.
References
Ackmann, M. 2003, ‘Restricting Women’s Military Role Hurts All’, Newsday.com, Web.
BBC 2002, ‘Should women be allowed to serve in combat?’ Web.
CRF 2000, ‘EQUAL OPPORTUNITY IN THE MILITARY’, Bill of Rights in Action, Web.
CRM 1997, ‘Women in the Military’, Issues Tearing Our Nation’s Fabric, Web.
Eserver 2005, ‘Facts About Women in the Military, 1980-1990’, Web.
NHC 2008, ‘Women in U.S. Military during Desert Shield/Desert Storm’, Web.
Pawlik, A. 2003, ‘ Jessica Lynch:Proof that women should not be in the military’, Web.
Pessin, A. 2005, ‘Role of Women in US Military Gets Renewed Debate’, Web.
Williams, R. 1998, ‘Military Women Take 200-Year Trek Toward Respect, Parity’, Web.
As a military social worker, my task is to provide appropriate support and introduce clear interventions with the help of which military personnel, their families, and other dependents may solve their personal and professional problems and avoid conflicts or other negative outcomes. In military couples, many distinctive strengths and challenges may influence their relationships and the distribution of roles and responsibilities (Bakhurst, Loew, McGuire, Halford, & Markman, 2016). The case of Michael Johnson is not easy because several details remain to be unclear, and recent observations require certain explanations.
Certain aspects have to be clarified before some interventions may be offered in this case. Michael Johnson is a new person in the Explosive Ordinance Disposal (EOD) School. No observations and personal judgments can be used in this case. The experience of the sailor and the report the FAP (a previous place of Michael’s work) employees are the only materials offered. At this moment, Michael is accused by his wife of physical abuse.
Still, no factual information is given. No physical signs and damage were proved. Besides, it was assumed that Michael left her wife and their two children (aged four and six years) with $100 cash and no other opportunities to pay bills. Still, no clear evidence was given at the moment of the sailor’s assessment. Fourteen months ago, Michael and Amanda faced a similar abuse problem the result of which was Michael’s visits to a special violence treatment course.
Amanda declined her participation. No explanation of why she did not want to continue her participation in the program was given. It could happen that there was Amanda’s fault in physical abuse as well.
The task of a military social worker is not to accuse one person, but to understand the relationships in a family, identify a problem, and clarify what solutions may be given. During a meeting, Michael behaves quietly. Still, he is not afraid to demonstrate his anger and dissatisfaction with his wife’s allegations. He introduces enough information to prove his intentions to improve his life and focus on career and training.
Michael also mentions that Amanda’s behavior may be explained by the presence of another guy in her life. Though being depressed and anxious, Michael declines his suicidal and homicidal intentions. He does not use alcohol to solve his problems. The use of facts and clear statements are the strengths in the case. Still, during this conversation, Michael does not mention his intentions to save his family and improve his relations with his wife.
There is a need to clarify if the man is obsessed with his training and care only. It is necessary to focus on his relations with his children and the portion of attention he can devote them to. Finally, the main challenge is to understand the nature of all conflicts and the presence of real facts that can be used to prove or disprove the husband’s and wife’s activities.
At the moment of communication with Michael, the main intervention that seems to be appropriate is the discussion of recent family problems, relations, and traditions. Such information should help to create a general image of a family. It is necessary to understand if Michael wants to be with his family, or his career is everything that matters. Another suggestion is cooperation with the wife, children, and other friends of this family. Even if the husband is the one who abuses the wife, there is a chance that the wife provides enough reasons for such action. Therefore, the situation in this family has to be investigated thoroughly, and both, Michael and Amanda, have to participate in the course.
Reference
Bakhurst, M.G., Loew, B., McGuire, A.C., Halford, W.K., & Markman, H.J. (2016). Relationship education for military couples: Recommendations for best practice. Family Process, 56(2), 302-316.
Transitioning from military to civilian life is an arduous process that has challenges to integrate into society, even if the individual is not experiencing severe psychological issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder. The transition experiences barriers in the aspect of incompatibility between military and civilian cultures. The military maintains a specific culture regarding values, traditions, ethos, and organizational aspects that are rarely seen in the relaxed life of a civilian (Cathcart, 2017). The lack of routine and structure in civilian life often becomes disorienting for military members that have been indoctrinated to rigid schedules and regulations. Although military experience is valuable, and most veterans have no regrets, there are inherent problems with broader life skills. Veterans do not have the capabilities to adjust to civilian life leading to unemployment, personal life problems, and financial issues (University of Southern California Staff, 2017).
In the case of CPL Cooper, it is evident that, like many veterans, he experienced the rapid transition into civilian life without preparation or knowledge of available resources. This is common for veterans, especially those who entered the military at a young age and have been discharged without a job, place to live, or understanding of fundamental social and economic concepts. This is a matter of structural challenges, which was evident in Cooper’s attempt at a management training program where the lack of discipline and adherence to policies caused frustration. Some of the questions for Cooper would be to determine his level of comfort working in a civilian environment and his determination to address critical issues. It would be helpful to examine his military service records to evaluate skills and abilities. Furthermore, as part of the reintegration process, it might be important to discuss if the corporal is experiencing any psychological issues or symptoms of mental disorders.
The culture within the military, emphasizing mental strength, often makes veterans feel uncomfortable seeking help or discussing personal issues. To create a comfortable environment, trust and rapport should be established with the client. This is done by ensuring that an office environment is a place of safety and confidentiality. It may be helpful to let a veteran know that as a social worker specializing in working with members of the armed forces, one understands the struggles that he may be facing. It is necessary to emphasize the utmost respect for the client. It is important to emphasize that the Vet Center and any other veteran program or clinic exist for the sole purpose of helping veterans transition to civilian life and provide any manner of support required for their wellbeing.
In providing help to CPL Cooper, it is critical to use a strength-based approach in order to empower the client and find the appropriate resources for help. Strengths can be categorized into motor, cognitive, and emotional or behavioral functions. Veterans may have superior organizational or attentive skills. Emotional strengths include factors such as resilience and stability. Regarding employment, companies often find the strength of military culture, such as cohesion and mission, to be helpful for efficiency and growth, rather than limitations in the workplace (Rubin, Weiss, & Coll, 2013).
A social worker can help CPL Cooper by directing him to appropriate resources which he is eligible for as a veteran. Furthermore, a social worker can provide counseling, referrals, assistance in applying for VA benefits and help with finding employment. CPL Cooper meets the requirements for VA basic eligibility as he was in the service for four years. Disability care can be determined within 12 months of discharge, which applies to this case as well. Depending on his evaluation, Cooper may also be eligible for compensation due to service-connected disability and the Transition Assistance Program. Overall, as a social worker, one should seek to understand the client’s perspective and cultural transition in order to competently aid with reintegration into society and provide resources that can resolve critical issues in his life.
The major problem of the given case study is that Brittany, who may come to my office in the Family Support Center, will have to deal not only with the consequences of her husband’s traumatic brain injury but also with her psychological problems, mostly connected with the relationships with her parents. Since the brain injury that Brandon received was classified as mild, its effects are unlikely to be profound. He will not be left in a prolonged unresponsive state and will not demonstrate any non-typical behavior. Neither will he need any long-term rehabilitation therapy to return to his normal state. Yet, the consequences of his being at war can still be dramatic for Brittany as their family relationships can be deeply affected by her fear of the change.
Test Question
Thus, the major counseling goal is to convince her that, even though her husband is likely to return rather different from what she remembers of him, it is not connected with any clinical distortions of his brain. The counselor must make her understand that Brandon needs psychological support on her behalf. Moreover, since the woman has childhood issues that make her think that alcohol-addiction is one of the expected outcomes for her husband (since her father drank a lot having returned from the war), it is also necessary to explain to her that this assumed outcome is grounded but preventable.
Thus, in this case, it seems that Cognitive Behavioral Therapy will be the most suitable for helping Brittany deal with her current state of mind. The approach has been selected because its major underlying idea is that our deep thoughts cause our feelings and emotions. This implies that external events do not play such an important role as they are typically supposed to (Dobson & Dobson, 2016). In the case with Brittany, it does not matter to her, how severe the injury of her husband is–she is still afraid of the fact that the situation from her childhood may repeat in her own family. She does not need logical arguments to persuade her out of this idea. What she needs is some assistance to change the way she views the situation.
As far as the actual utilization of the approach is concerned, I would start with identifying negative thoughts and emotions of the patient. I would try to identify the key fears of the woman and their origin. Secondly, I will analyze which of her fears are grounded (in her current relationships with her husband) and which appeared owing to her negative childhood experiences. After that, I will try to teach Brittany to manage her panic and separate what she knows about the condition from what she feels about it. When she learns to cope with her current state, the next step will be to teach her to overcome difficulties that may arise when her husband returns home. Even if his trauma does not affect his physical capabilities, it is quite probable that the nature of their relationships will change since his participation in battles could have made him aloof and restrained in emotional expression. It is highly important to explain to Brittany that this reaction is not connected with the fact that he is disappointed in their marriage. She may think so since for a long time she lacked parental love and career satisfaction. Placing too much emphasis on the marriage may make her hypersensitive.
As for the interview questions that I will ask, the major two will be:
Do you still have any grudges against your parents? If yes, what are they?
What makes your husband so different you from all the other people you met before?
Reference
Dobson, D., & Dobson, K. S. (2016). Evidence-based practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
Sex trade and human trafficking in South Korea have been major issues of concern in the country since 1947 when American forces overpowered the Japanese who were control the Korea. Despite the fact the American personnel provided security for the Koreans, it emerged that they promoted prostitution and related practices that violated human rights. The paper seeks to explore sex trade in South Korea, particularly in and around the United States Military bases. It will identify and explicate examples of interaction among criminal groups and how to explain that behavior including theories related to biological, psychological, and sociological theories.
Body
In spite of the fact that prostitution and human trafficking is illegal in most countries, these practices are taking place and if recent statistics are anything to go by, fighting these crimes would not be easy. In South Korea, prostitution is a full fledged illegal business with billions of dollars changing hands annually (Mendelson, 2006). Although there was a considerable decline in the number of prostitutes nationally, sex trade in and around U.S military bases has been on the increase since 1947. The famous U.S military bases in South Korea include; Camp Casey and Camp Stanley. Cases of prostitution have been witnessed largely around these and other military camps over the past 5 decades (Hughes & Ellerman, 2007). Initially, following agreement between the Korean government and the American military, the prostitutes were registered after undergoing medical checkup in order to ensure that the military personnel were protected from sexually transmitted diseases. The South Korean government initially took the measures in order to keep the American forces within their country and offer security. This was due to the threat posed by North Korean counterparts.
According to reports released in 2003 by the Korean Institute of Criminology and the Korean Feminist Association, hundreds of thousands of women in the country are involved in the sex trade (Kloer, 2009). The reports also pointed out that over 300,000 young men in their 20s participated in the sex industry by visiting prostitutes on a daily basis, with about 20% of them paying for sex at least once every week(Mendelson, 2006). A legislation by the government in 2004 prohibited human (women) trafficking in South Korea, a move that saw victims punished accordingly. During subsequent years, many were arrested and prosecuted in courts. The Ministry of Gender Equality went to the extremes of offering incentives to companies who were able to convince their male employees not participate in prostitution. This was one of the policies developed by the government to tackle the problem of sex trade.
The United States has the largest military presence in other parts of the world, especially in countries that have experienced war or those that are perceived to pose threats to world stability. The primary objective of setting military camps in these regions is to ensure that peace prevails. However, the presence of these bases has been associated with immoral practices like prostitution and human trafficking (Kloer, 2009). American soldiers have been in South Korea for the last 65 years. Just like in other countries where U.S. military have established bases, the camps in South Korea have attracted both forced and voluntary prostitution and many women in the country have fallen victim. Several brothels have been established around these bases. Many concerns have been raised and the Pentagon moved to address this issue by drafting a policy that sought to tackle sex trafficking in U.S military camps. The policy drafted in 2004 targeted the bases where American soldiers, airmen, as well as sailors had pitched camp, especially in South Korea (Mendelson, 2006). The policy outlined measures that would be taken against any military personnel caught going to the brothel or “massage parlor”. The personnel promoting prostitution, according to the policy, should be subject to court martial (Hughes & Ellerman, 2007).
The enforcement of this policy, however, has been questioned since no major sanctions have been given despite the vise being on the rise over the years. It is clear that the policy has not been effective in reducing the rate of prostitution in South Korea, especially around American military bases. The ever increasing levels of prostitution and human trafficking remain a major concern both for the U.S government and the international community (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2009). Attempts to fight this ill practice have in the recent past been intensified by the South Korean government. The most astonishing fact, however, is that the crackdown by the Korean government has not affected the U.S. military camps. This double-standard in implementing government policies has contributed directly to the increase in the number of brothels around the American military bases and thus prostitution and human trafficking in the country (Kloer, 2009). American soldiers are always expected to exercise honor, serve with dignity and strength. The behavior associated with their camps, however, goes contrary to these expectations. This indicates that the military personnel are abusive rather than protective, especially when it comes to women and prostitution.
According to reliable sources, women and young girls in South Korea are forced into sex in the brothels, most of which are located around the U.S. military bases (Hughes & Ellerman, 2007). Due to the damage on reputation this habit had on the American personnel, the Pentagon decided to prohibit any uniformed personnel appearing in the brothels. This measure, however, did not prevent all officers from visiting the brothels and “massage parlors”. Most of these personnel regard the women and young girls as sexual objects and this is the spirit that needs to be dealt with accordingly by enforcing the policy fully. This is because incidents of sexual harassment, assault, as well as rape of female personnel in the military have been reported (Mendelson, 2006). The need to create awareness for the respect of women among U.S male military personnel has never been as urgent as it is now given the increasing sex trafficking around their camps, especially in the Korean republic. Campaigns to inculcate a culture of using masculinity for the protection of women are being directed to the military personnel so as to alleviate this crisis (Hughes & Ellerman, 2007).
Sex trade is considered a criminal activity and should be regarded just the same way human trafficking is. The Korean government is trying its best to stop prostitution but the use of force may prove difficult (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2009). The most important thing for the government and criminologists is to understand the causes of crime. Given the unsuccessful fight of prostitution in and around U.S military bases by the Korean government, the U.S Congress introduced a bill seeking to check sex trade and human trafficking in these specific places (Glick & Miller, 2007). Understanding crime has been a complex and challenging task. Basically all crimes have elements of human behavior and this is the perspective from which the concept of crime should be looked from.
Many theories have been advanced by researchers in this field that can help in understanding why people act and behave the way they do. A crime can be defined as any act or behavior which is out of the normative way of carrying oneself (Glick & Miller, 2007). Questions that may need to be answered in any criminal investigation are; the evidence necessary to support the assertion of a cause of behavior and what the inference from the evidence can be drawn as well as the method of doing so? Sex related crimes like prostitution and sex trafficking should also be analyzed from this perspective.
Understanding why the prostitutes and the men who pay for sex behave the way they do is important in addressing this crisis. There is a strong relationship between criminology, philosophy and legal issues (Kloer, 2009). Philosophy is needed to explain the concept of free will and self determinism as well as the cause and effect of crime. Legal concepts of responsibility and reasonable person are also closely associated with the former. The need to understand how different fields relate and how they can be used to understand crime causation is therefore paramount.
Biological theories in criminology help in understanding physiological, neurological, biochemical and genetic factors that may contribute to the development of criminal behavior (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2009). It has also emerged that there is a strong relationship between an individual’s biology and the surrounding environment like school, family, peer groups and the society at large as advocated by sociological theories of crime. Examples of sociological theories of crime include; social learning, strain and control. Sociologists are, however, not dependent on their own understanding but also rely on the biological and psychological perspectives to explain criminal behavior. Moreover, psychological theories explain criminal behavior in the social environment using the role of family background and influence of individual differences and traits (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2009). This theory examines factors that motivate, influence decision-making, as well as the learning process and how they can used to explain criminal behavior. Prostitution as a behavior can be explained using these theories of understanding behavior in relation to crime. Other theories that can be used to explain criminal behavior are economic and political theories. However, it is also important to understand the role of legal interpretation of criminal behavior which are guided by preset laws and applied by the courts after determining a given allegation of crime.
Conclusion
The research paper has explored the issue of sex trade in South Korea, specifically in and around the U.S Military bases. It has highlighted the trend of prostitution and sex trafficking since 1947 when Korea was freed from the Japanese rule. It is evident from the paper that the fight against prostitution especially around the U.S military camps has not been easy due to a number of factors. Measures that have been taken by both the American as well as the South Korean governments to tackle the crisis have been discussed extensively. The challenges faced by the Korean government, particularly in 1948, in the fight against sex trafficking have been highlighted. The need to understand criminal behavior using biological, sociological, and psychological theories has also been discussed. It can be concluded, therefore, that the fight against prostitution especially in and around U.S. military bases calls for a change in culture and perception of military personnel towards women, concerted efforts from U.S government and strict implementation of set policies by the Korean government.
References
Glick, L. & Miller, J. M. (2007). Criminology (2nd ed). Des Moines, IA: Allyn & Bacon.
Hughes, M. D. & Ellerman, D. P. (2007). Modern-Day violence: The U.S. Military bases and prostitution. SAGES.
Kirk, G. & Okazawa-Rey, M. (2009). Women’s lives: understanding multicultural perspectives. Loose-leaf Law Plc.
Kloer, A. P. (2009). The fight against prostitution: U.S military in South Korea. McGraw-Hill Plc.
Mendelson, S. E. (2006). Bases and brothels: peacekeepers and human trafficking in South Korea (2nd ed). CSIS.
The military is tasked with protecting a nation at all costs. However, what soldiers go through is the opposite of the expected. In a security department, no one would expect sexual harassment and hazing. Recent reports have shown that sexual assault and harassment are real. As outlined in the Case-Ex Video Vignette Video, the army officers usually face many challenges while joining the platoon. Sexual harassment and hazing have been an order of the day. Therefore, the paper will identify some of the issues soldiers go through as they join the platoon using the SPC Wright case study. The case study will identify the strategies for curbing the spread of this vice to the latter. The role of ethical leadership in curbing the vice will also be explored. The military has several cases of sexual harassment and hazing. The study on sexual assault and hazing is widely covered in various studies. As revealed in the Case-Ex Video Vignette video, issues of sexual harassment and hazing are realities in the military. Recent reports have indicated that despite the current efforts made by the army commanders to update various policies, these cases have not been reduced. One aspect that has been deteriorating the situation among various sources is the lack of courage to report. In most cases, victims of sexual harassment find it embarrassing to report their incidences to their leaders for fear that they will be harassed more.
The perpetrators keep intimidating victims of rape over losing their lives if they dare to report the incident. Therefore, estimating the severity of these issues has been challenging. However, in the video, SPC Wright uses a different approach to try and offer a solution to the issue affecting the military (Case-Ex Video Vignette). Even though SPC wright was a victim, he chose to stand firm, report the incident, and create a conducive environment for the oncoming soldiers. New soldiers need to build some resilience, build strong relationships, and develop a good character over competence. This culture of harassing young officers will cease to exist.
The integrity of soldiers is questioned by how the platoon welcomed SPC Wright. The harassment and the assault they went through with his roommate are inhumane. However, this appears to be a typical way of welcoming soldiers into the platoon. Initially, one would think of this as mere stories occurring in other areas (Case-Ex Video Vignette). But watching the video, the integrity and the respect accorded to soldiers are highly questioned. As SPC wright puts it, hazing and sexual harassment need to be fixed in the platoon as they endanger the lives of many young and innocent soldiers. SPC chose to build a strong bond with his roommate and vowed to end the situation, especially for the incoming generation. One of the means that they use to enhance this is building their characters so that commanders would listen to them and be part of the urgently needed solution to fix the situations in the platoon.
A lot of resilience is needed for such behaviors to be eliminated among soldiers. SC Wright took a lot of time to build his resilience to remain an officer. The first treatment was good enough to guarantee him an evacuation. However, if resilience is undeveloped among soldiers, no one will stand firm and end these vices affecting the trust accorded to the officers (Case-Ex Video Vignette). The situation was getting worse as even SC Wright and his colleagues were suicidal following the treatment they were going through in the platoon. Unless soldiers, especially the victims, stand firm and battle together, the situation could efficiently run out of hand. SC Wright needed a person who was a bit stronger in spirituality to keep going as he was getting suicidal too. He had to develop strong relationships with friends to share his worries. This was key in avoiding the extreme effects of being suicidal.
Building strong relationships among soldiers can curb the effects of hazing and sexual harassment among soldiers. Such relationships will be vital in instilling some ethical form of leadership among soldiers. Experts claim that ethical leadership is a two-way process where the leaders and the subordinates work together to ensure that some ethical concepts are instilled mango the parties. Such leadership can be enhanced through effective communication, re-enforcement, and involving all the parties in making decisions (Barnes & Doty, 2010). Such aspects of leadership are scarce in the platoon, and the vices seem to have been going on for a long time. However, suppose soldiers can build a strong relationship with each other and adopt ethical leadership. In that case, the issues affecting the integrity of the soldiers in the platoon will be fixed once and for all. Cases of military personnel committing suicide and engaging in other immoral activities will significantly reduce as the officers will deliberate their efforts to their duties by adopting all aspects of ethical leadership.
Reporting cases of hazing and harassment must go hand in hand with the art of developing good character over competence. SC Wright and his roommate had to develop some good characters to gather the courage to report events behind the scenes. If the soldiers had compromising behaviors, it would be difficult even for them to get the sense of curbing the effects of these vices on the future (Barnes & Doty, 2010). The art of being good soldiers was the first step toward changing the culture that was negatively affecting the integrity of soldiers in the platoon. This was key as it was easier for others to enumerate them. After developing such characters, SC Wrights could instill such characters in the incoming generation.
It was easier to identify the character of SC Wright as he was good among other soldiers. Therefore, reporting such cases was easier as his leaders believed in everything he said. He was turning out to be a good mentor. This move provided him with an excellent platform for reporting the incident to the relevant authorities and initiating corrective action to change the situation. The aspect means that if the soldiers are proactive enough to develop good characters over their competence, it will be easier to dissociate with some of these vices and prevent the art from carrying over to the next generation. It starts with changing one’s character, and the soldiers will soon embrace a good culture that is not linked to hazing and sexual assault.
Leadership is vital in curbing these vices among soldiers and other personnel. For instance, if SC Wright could have reported the cases to unethical leaders, the situation could have escalated as there would be no actions taken to curb the situation. Ethical leadership is vital as it allows soldiers to lead by example, create a positive environment, and develop others (Barnes & Doty, 2010). SC wright had to develop some good characters from his leaders and, in the long run, work on creating a conducive environment for the incoming generation. SC wright built a strong relationship with his fellow soldiers and was a mentor in the long run. This was a good way of developing others to have a culture that would curb the vice.
Experts claim that good leaders always leave a legitimate legacy for their behaviors. Unless leaders develop good manners, curbing vices in society can be overwhelming. Similarly, if SC Wright has compromised deeds, getting the sense of reporting some of the vices happening behind the scenes would remain a nightmare. Another aspect worth noting is that ethical leadership ought to trickle down from the top of any organization to the front lines (Barnes & Doty, 2010). This was the reason behind some of the changes made in the platoon. Working with ethically upright leaders is critical as it guarantees the subordinate staff’s protection at all costs. SC Wright had to be assured of his security after reporting the matter. The soldiers were guarded as leaking such information would harm more than good.
In a nutshell, curbing vices such as hazing and sexual harassment in the platoon and society requires soldiers who would build some resilience and relationships with each other. Such moves will be critical in developing a good character over competence, and in the long run, immoral activities within the society will be a thing of the past. Another aspect worth noting is that embracing a positive culture in society calls for ethically upright leaders. Consequently, ethical leadership is a two-way process that requires both the subordinates and the leaders to be upright and help each other in curbing vices that negatively affect their integrity band character. A lot of effort is required to create such an environment in a society where people gather. However, if leaders are strong and ethical, their characters will trickle down to the entire society, and the future generations will be ethically upright. If SC wright can mentor more soldiers and help them develop some good characters, curbing hazing and sexual harassment issues in the platoon will be easier.
References
Barnes, C. M., & Doty, J. (2010). What does contemporary science say about ethical leadership? Military Review, 90(5), 90-93. Web.
Case-Ex Video Vignette: The Effects of Hazing and Sexual Assault on the Army Profession. Web.
Bidimensional Acculturation Model (BAM): an acculturation model; reviews one’s relationships with receiving and heritage cultures (Berry, 1997).
Empowerment Theory (ET): an umbrella term; incorporates theories that focus on social hierarchies and inequalities (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2011).
Phenomenology: a theoretical framework and approach to inquiry; centers around the investigation of lived experiences (Robbins et al., 2011).
Transitioning: a process; moving from one status to another (Blackburn, 2016; Kelly, 2016).
Veteran Migrants (VMs): former service members who stay in the country they served, which is different from their country of origin (Chishti, Rose, & Yale-Loehr, 2019).
This presentation contains an overview of three theories and models that can be applied to a specific problem. The presentation will discuss the problem and demonstrate the value that the three theories can offer a study that is focused on it. This slide showcases the key terms, including the three theories and the primary definitions of the problem that is being discussed. The presentation will review the usefulness of BMA, ET, and phenomenology for the transitioning processes that VMs experience as they go from military life to civilian life and adapt to living in a new country.
Statement & Significance of the Problem
The military as a migration mechanism (Chishti et al., 2019):
orare (roughly 760,000 people in total);
osocially important (the lack of human resources in the military).
The population of VMs, especially Latino VMs, is not very large; over the entirety of the US history, about 760,000 people migrated to the country this way. However, VMs satisfy the demand of the US military for human resources, and they are a vulnerable group. As reported by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe [OSCE] (2018) and the US Department of Veterans Affairs [DVA] (2018), transitioning can be rather difficult, especially if no appropriate supports are offered to migrants or veterans. For VMs, the dual transition must be characterized by dual challenges, but an overview of relevant literature demonstrates that the topic is barely covered, especially for Latino VMs.
Significance of the Problem & Goals
To determine the needs of migrants and veterans;
To understand their interaction in Latino VMs;
To determine unique Latino VM needs and improve social services aimed at them.
Therefore, such research needs to be provided, which explains the importance of reviewing relevant theories. Such inquiry would be beneficial for determining the needs of migrants and veterans, as well as the combined needs of VMs. This way, the research would produce data on Latino VM experiences and needs, which would be useful for the services that are provided to that population.
Phenomenology: Assumptions/Concepts
Positivism-critical: focus on subjectivity and social constructionism (Robbins et al., 2011).
The value of subjective views and experiences.
Introducing different perspectives (Nicola, 2017).
Phenomenology is a framework that has been created to critique positivism with its focus on objectivity. Consequently, it is concerned with subjectivity and humans’ ability to develop social constructs that are not objective phenomena. As a research framework, phenomenology is concerned with experiences and perspectives; they are considered important for critiquing social constructs and preventing one view from being a dominant one.
Phenomenology: Application
Used for methodology development and analysis (interpretation); practice-oriented.
The experiences of migrants (Ballysingh, 2019; DeRose, 2018; Nicola, 2017).
The experiences of veterans (Daniels, 2017).
Benefits: engaging and empowering; can give voice; can provide insights into needs.
Drawbacks: rather broad.
Over time, phenomenology has been used to guide studies that considered the experiences of migrants and veterans, even though no such works for Latino VMs or simply VMs were encountered. The theory’s primary benefits are that it can engage the studied population and offer them the opportunity to voice their concerns; they can be considered the primary and most important source of information on their needs, which is crucial for social work. However, phenomenology is not especially specific, which calls for its augmentation with more specific models.
BMA: Assumptions/Concepts
Heritage Culture (HC) – the culture of the country of origin.
Receiving Culture (RC) – the culture of the country of migration.
Four outcomes based on one’s interaction with both (Berry, 1997).
BMA by Berry (1997) suggests that acculturation and its outcomes are defined by an individual’s interaction with the culture of the country of origin (alternatively termed heritage culture) and that of their migration country (receiving culture). With four possible outcomes, BMA does not take into account the change in acculturation outcomes over time, but it is still a rather nuanced approach to the topic (Robbins et al., 2011).
BMA: Application
Used to guide analysis and methodology development in migrant studies (Meca et al., 2017).
Can be applied to veterans (military and civilian culture) (Daniels, 2017; Pease, Billera, & Gerard, 2015).
Benefits: specific; relatively nuanced (Robbins et al., 2011).
Drawbacks: narrow; does not include time; does not presuppose looking at intersections between two different types of cultural transitioning.
BMA, logically, has been applied to migrants (and even Latino migrants) in research (Meca et al., 2017). While an article that would use it to frame a study on veterans was not found, articles that discuss military culture and transitioning from it do exist (Daniels, 2017; Pease et al., 2015). Therefore, BMA is applicable and usable, and it can produce a nuanced framework for discussing VM acculturation. However, it cannot be used for anything else, and it is not exactly meant for analyzing the dual process of transitioning through more than two cultures, which means that it cannot describe Latino VMs’ experiences in diverse detail.
ET: Assumptions/Concepts
Reviews social interactions in terms of hierarchies, stratification, and oppression (Robbins et al., 2011).
The possibility of different modes of oppression interacting.
ET is not just one theory; rather, it incorporates many theories that center around the questions of hierarchies and oppression. According to ET, social hierarchies tend to determine one’s access to resources, which results in inequalities and systemic oppression (Robbins et al., 2011). Also, ET posits that oppression can exist in different modes (for instance, based on race, orientation, and so on) and that their intersections form new oppression patterns that deserve to be investigated on their own.
ET: Application
Used to guide data collection and analysis for migrants (Ballysingh, 2019).
Can be used for migrants and veterans (different types of inequalities) (Alarcón et al., 2016; DVA, 2018).
Benefits: practice-oriented; all-encompassing; can offer a framework for intersections of statuses (e.g., VMs).
Drawbacks: rather broad (more specific versions can be chosen); focuses on disparities.
In recent studies, ET has been used to discuss the empowerment of migrant Latino students (Ballysingh, 2019), but ET is suitable for Latino VMs as well. The fact that migrants are a minority is self-evident (Alarcón et al., 2016); also, disparities can be found between the US veterans and the general population (DVA, 2018). Since the model can describe the intersections of oppression, it is especially relevant for VMs. Also, it is a practice-oriented, broad approach, which can be viewed as a benefit. Alternatively, the broadness can be an issue since it prevents a generalized ET from offering more detailed insights, but it is possible to choose a more specific form of ET. Also, the factors of VMs’ experiences that are not disparity-related are of little interest to ET. In other words, there are limitations to ET’s application, but it is still a valuable framework.
An important observation is that the main assumptions of the three theories are not in contradiction. It can be proposed that phenomenology is aligned with ET because of its interest in the voices that are disempowered, and BMA is attached to ET because acculturation typically occurs in a minority group. As an example, an article by Nicola (2017) involved the concepts of both ET and phenomenology in a study of undocumented Latino immigrants, pointing out the importance of introducing immigrants’ own perspectives on the topic. No other articles, especially ones dedicated to Latino VMs, were found to illustrate the possibility, but this slide offers an example of research topics that are guided by more than one theory.
Phenomenology.
Conclusions
Theories with strengths and drawbacks;
Can complement/mitigate issues in each other;
Have been only rarely applied to veterans/migrants;
Not applied to Latino VMs;
Not enough for VMs (even in combination);
VMs need a specific model.
To summarize, the three presented theories have their own strengths and drawbacks, which enables them to complement each other, especially as long as a broader, less specific framework is used together with a more specific model. In addition, the sources that would directly apply any of the theories to veterans or migrants are not very numerous, and no such sources were found for Latino VMs, which is not surprising given the general scarcity of such literature. Finally, it cannot be said that the presented models introduce a framework that would be sufficient for describing VM and Latino VM experiences in detail. Basically, phenomenology is too broad for details, ET views the topic from one (if rather broad) angle, and BMA is specific but cannot be applied to topics outside of it. As a result, the primary recommendation on the problem-related research is to develop a new integrated model for Latino VMs.
References
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Ballysingh, T. (2019). The varied college pathways of Latino young adults: A narrative study of empowerment theory. Professional School Counseling, 23(1). Web.
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Meca, A., Cobb, C., Xie, D., Schwartz, S., Allen, C., & Hunter, R. (2017). Exploring adaptive acculturation approaches among undocumented Latinos: A test of Berry’s model. The Counseling Psychologist, 45(8), 1115-1140. Web.
Nicola, W. (2017). Living “illegally”: On the phenomenology of an undocumented immigrant. Clinical Social Work Journal, 45(4), 293-300. Web.
Pease, J. L., Billera, M., & Gerard, G. (2015). Military culture and the transition to civilian life: Suicide risk and other considerations. Social Work, 61(1), 83-86.
Robbins, S. P., Chatterjee, P., & Canda, E. R. (2011). Contemporary human behavior theory (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
US Department of Veterans Affairs. (2018). The military to civilian transition 2018. Web.
