Category: Military

The Origins: WWII Endings and the Inception of the Cold War

Soon after WWII ended, the Cold War transpired. It would not be fair to say that one nation was particularly at fault since many say that the Cold War was inevitable, as the Soviet Union was for communism, and we were not. The two countries both wanted to prove to one another that one was more economically and politically superior. Though it may have been documented as a frightful era to those living during that period, the Cold War led to many significant outcomes like the race to space, a sprout in creativity, and lastly, the race to the “arms bomb.”

In 1945, one major war ended, and the Cold War commenced soon after. Though many history textbooks explain that the Cold War began in 1945 and ended in 1991, many historians will argue with the point that the Cold War originated during World War 2. (WWII) Stalin’s distrust of the United States and Britain, growing as they refused to invade Europe, opened up a second front against the Nazis. Some people may even surmise by saying that the overall decision to drop the first atomic bomb on Japan was to intimidate the Soviets. This did not necessarily go as planned because the Soviets were only then motivated to create their own powerful bomb, which they did and successfully worked on in 1949.

Soon after the surrender of Germany, the discomfort of the alliances from Britain, America, and the Soviet Union became noticeable, causing the alliance to collapse. By 1948 the Soviet Union had placed communist-leaning governments in Eastern European countries that the USSR had seized control of from the Nazis during the war. This incident caused America and Britain to worry about communism spreading to the western part of Europe and possibly becoming worldwide. In 1949, the United States, Canada, and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

The Space Race: A Cosmic Competition of Superpowers

The race to space was actually one of the more prominent things that came from the Cold War. During this time, two Great Powers, called the Soviet Union and the United States, emerged after World War II. These two great powers competed to send people, animals, satellites, and different types of technology into space. Much of the Cold War related to the space race, which started when the Soviet Socialist Republics, or the USSR for short, launched the first Satellite, Sputnik, on October 4, 1957.

Only a few years later, the USSR sent the first man into space. Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit the Earth, naturally becoming the first cosmonaut. Inevitably, this created panic and uneasiness in America. It had become very clear just how far the Soviets had come scientifically and culturally. So, just how did America respond to all of this? Well, John F. Kennedy publicly came out with the bold statement: “to land a man on the moon before the decade is out.”

In 1958, the U.S. sent Explorer 1, designed by the U.S. Army under the supervision of Werhner von Braun. In the same year, Dwight Eisenhower publicly signed an order starting the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (NASA) This federal organization’s main objective was dedicated to space exploration. On July 16, 1969, U.S. astronauts Edwin Aldrin, Neil Armstrong, and Michael Collins set off into space on the Apollo 11 mission. After landing successfully on the moon on July 20, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon. His famous quote still impacts people to this day, “One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” Though Kennedy was not able to see his vision of landing a man on the moon, his determination to do so played a significant role in the United States of America winning the race to space.

The Arms Race: Atomic Dominance in a Tense World

After WWII, the best way to treat the threat of the Soviet Union was by implanting a strategy called “Containment.” The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unparalleled buildup in the United States. In particular, American officials encouraged the development of atomic weapons, like the ones that had discontinued World War II. This started the race for the “arms bomb.” The Soviets decided to test an atomic bomb on their own. President Truman responded by saying “that we would build an even more detrimental bomb called the hydrogen bomb, or even cooler, the “super bomb.” All this talk about atomic bombs caused the stakes to be high during the Cold War.

The first Hydrogen bomb was dropped on Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands, and this clearly showed how powerful the atomic age could be. This bomb created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a massive hole in the ocean floor, and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan.

Cultural Renaissance: Cold War-Inspired Creativity and Entertainment

The Cold War created a sprout in creativity in many around the United States. During this era, many movies, comic books, and shows were even based on events that were happening. Movies were coming out left and right about atomic wars and possible nuclear strikes. This only heightened the fear that many Americans had about being annihilated at any time.

On the brighter side, many popular and well-liked comic book and movie characters were inspired by the Cold War. Spider-Man, Superman, the Hulk, and a few other superheroes are just a few that may cross a few minds. Spider-Man and the Hulk both have something to do with radiation, which played a critical role during the atomic age. These things may not have appeared significant to some people at that time, but they have inspired many other people to create better entertainment for the future.

References

1. Gaddis, J. L. (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press.
2. Zubok, V. (2009). A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev. The University of North Carolina Press.
3. Brzezinski, Z. (1993). The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century. Scribner.

Introduction

After the US defeated Iraq and succeeded in removing Sadaam Hussein from power, they continued to stay in the country in order to ensure that peace prevails in the country and ensure that innocent people have their human rights observed without being killed for not adhering to the dictatorial and unfair demands of the Hussein government.

The US government has assisted in ensuring that the conflict between the Sunis and the Shiites is under control to avoid eruption of any civil war as the two communities were divided in deciding who should take over the government leadership after the Hussein removal from power. Immediate withdrawal of the US troops from the country would have caused a severe civil war between the ethnic communities who have been in conflict for a long time. Therefore, the US troops have attempted to maintain peace and order in Iraq by avoiding the eruption of the predicted civil war that would devastate the economy and its people negatively and adversely.

Main body

Secondly, the US has been committed in creating a better relationship with Iraq people by training and living together with Iraq soldiers in order for them to attain the necessary military techniques to maintain law and order in the country. This was done with the help of Arizona National Guard Military Police that has been set up in the country to enhance good relations with Iraq people to reduce the increasing cases of terrorism against the US due to their belief that the Americans are the greatest enemy of the world as they consider them against the Muslims.

Thirdly, the US government has spent billions of their money in assisting rebuilding Iraq after the war. Considering that peace I the country has not completely been achieved, it would make no sense for the US troops to leave Iraq something that might lead to destruction of the facilities and buildings built. Therefore, their presence can be explained as an attempt to protect what they are trying and assisted to rebuild or put up. In addition, the US assists them with food relief, education programs and even grants to put up beneficial projects.

However, this reason should not the basis that the US troops will use to continue staying in Iraq rather they should assist in making the transition of leadership more peaceful and democratic to avoid people from one community feeling left out something that would lead to a civil war. It is rather contradicting that the US troops remain Iraq even after assisting form a government to rule the people. What the US government ought to understand is that Iraq is an autonomous and sovereign state and therefore they should be allowed to rule themselves and make their own decisions.

Secondly, the reason for Iraq attack by the US was never justified rather it seems that like the war was instigated by the US interest to control the Iraq for its resources such as crude oil. This is mainly because before the war the Iraq people never anyone grants or assistance only after the war erupted that the normal operations of the nation were consequently disrupted making them vulnerable for US assistance. Therefore, the presence of the US I Iraq is mainly because of their own created fear that the Iraq people could be a threat to the world security as well as their efforts to control the Iraq resources for their personal benefits.

Conclusion

I believe that whatever changes that the US is undertaking in Iraq, they contributed much to their destruction during the war. For instance, they destroyed the Iraq buildings and facilities in their bid to win the war and take over Iraq. Therefore, there is no miracle they are doing to Iraq people rather they should leave Iraq people leave as autonomous and sovereign state because their presence makes Iraq a colony. In addition, the presence of Americans has been the major cause of the killings of the 3604 US troops otherwise the Iraq people would not be angered by the Americans and start revenging by bombing soldiers and even the innocent Iraq themselves.

References

Obama again denies change of Iraq stance, 2008 CNNpolitics.

Stephen Biddle, “Iraq: Can We Guard What We’ve Gained?” London: McGraw-Hill publishers, 2007.

Karen J. DeYoung and Thomas E. Ricks, “As British Leave, Basra Deteriorates,” 2007.

The art of war is a versatile thing with points on direct and fast actions. This idea is incorporated in all wars that happened on earth in history. Conflicts may occur due to different reasons. It can be ambitions, interests, or pretenses about territory or ethnic groups of people. Carl von Clausewitz was a great theorist of war. Living in the epoch of Enlightenment with its philosophical background Clausewitz found out the principal approaches in war. Theoretical and empirical explanations of fog and friction are taken into account by him. Carl von Clausewitz’s major points should be used for today’s practice of warfare with a special approach toward the computer age of warfare. In modern times fog and friction of war are not obsolete, and their presence in warfare proves the theory of Clausewitz due to multiple examples of war tactics of today.

Thus, in the theory of Carl von Clausewitz illustrated in his major work On War there are several points as of war realities. First, the author gives the classification of war in its types, namely limited and unlimited. Also, Clausewitz suggested two theories to be used in war tactics, such as fog and friction theories (Howard & Paret, 1976). In this prospect, Clausewitz pointed out that the fog considers the ambiguity of information in real war and possible mistakes due to a loss of right identification and uncertainty according to the enemy numbers, intent, abilities, and tactics (Howard & Paret, 1976). One of the examples shows such tactics in World War II when the army of the USSR met the opposing fascist army when the war came to an end. The tactics were concerned with the use of powerful projectors. They made the enemy blind and uncertain in their actions. They were greatly surprised, and this became a deterrent force so that the army of Marshal Zhukov could deliver a fatal blow to fascists. During the Cold War, the intelligence services of the US and the USSR widely used fog of war utilizing disinformation.

Another theory implements the use of tactics that can terminate the enemy in real war using unexpectedness or irregularity (Clausewitz & Graham, 1873). The main principle of war is to destruct the powers of the enemy (Parker, 2005). Clausewitz points out accordingly in his work: “Everything in war is very simple, but the simplest thing is difficult.” (Clausewitz & Graham, 1873, p. 119).

In other words, it is a concise description of reality effects looking at ideas and intentions in war (Clausewitz & Graham, 1873). Here human factor of debilitation and fatigue is taken into account. Desert Storm operation in 1991 is a great example of when the friction of war took place. In tactical, strategic, and operational levels this operation could not shorten the friction and even new technologies could not help (Watts, 1996). Earlier the idea of Blitzkrieg was taken by fascists, to capture the territory of the USSR based on friction of war.

Fog and friction are modern today, notwithstanding the use of computers and other high technologies in warfare. The thing is that the terror organizations widely use such tactics by Clausewitz. It is helpful for them in using information technologies for the provision of fog and friction of war. Humanity cannot eliminate the effects of “fog and friction” in war using technological innovations. Needless to say, future wars will still apply toward Clausewitzian theoretical base. It seems that “fog and friction” will always dominate in war tactics.

The reality is that the military’s application of technology has usually created its fog and friction. Advances in technology expand the battlefield, transform the relationship between time and space and create new demands on command and control (Chapman, 2003, p. 18).

When looking at the operation in Tora Bora and the loss of Osama Binladin one can conclude that in the technological era theory of Clausewitz did not lose its significance in warfare. Furthermore, it will help one of the sides to fight and possibly win with a fewer number of soldiers and equipment. The complexity of many operations at the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first showed that the total reduction of fog and friction in war is impossible (Alberts, Garstka, Hayes, and Signori, 2001).

Another case of uncertainty in fog and friction shows the issue with Pat Tillman, the former football player, who was shot mistakenly by an American soldier in Afghanistan (The Washington Post, 2004). War in Iraq since 2003 also proved that the digital era cannot fully reduce fog and friction. Collateral damage in Iraq is a theme of great discussion when many innocents were killed due to uncertainty about the right direction of the enemies’ positions. Fog decreases the level of information clarity among strategic features of efforts maintained by the government; friction is observed in internal relations of agencies nationwide (The Strategist, 2007). In 1983 Korean Air Flight 007 was by mistake defined by the Soviet army forces from a military base in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky as a military aircraft intentionally looking for some information (Korean Air Flight 007: Encyclopedia, 2009). The aircraft was crashed with 240 passengers and 29 members of the crew aboard. “Fog and friction” caused such an accident. Though, one cannot but agree with the uncertainty and unexpectedness of such an event.

The idea of computer age warfare is vital today. This approach can resolve the problem of fog in war and the possible uncertainty of it. The implementation of new technologies powered by computers and last innovations in warfare appliances can stimulate obtaining of higher results as of sharpness of enemy’s positions identification with less number of human resources. Among such technological decisions are Network Centric Warfare Command Center (NCW) and Mission Command Center (MCC) (Information Age Warfare Quarterly, 2006). It is helpful to achieve better accuracy by controlling the actions of military forces. Such centers play a great role in terms of “enabling commanders to plug and play sensors, shooters, command, and control, and support capabilities into task-organized combat packages” (Information Age Warfare Quarterly, 2006, p. 9). Thus, increased accuracy and survivability along with customized attacks are the priorities of suchlike centers (Information Age Warfare Quarterly, 2006). In the case of identification of enemy using innovative centers, there is a threat of “fog” appearance in terms of distracting and falsifying signals from the center. Such radio wave uncertainty is a significant hazard that should be improved with proper means of technical decisions to make signals from the center genuine and protected.

Thus, the theoretical base provided by Carl von Clausewitz is widely expressed in present days. It is apparent when looking at the warfare relationships and principles, which are determined in most of today’s armies. Though, the words and statements of Clausewitz are not obsolete for contemporary realities concerned with high technologies and fast growth of the scientific innovations in the military field. Moreover, the theoretical framework of Clausewitz for the modern armies represents the so-called “skeleton” in terms of the right designs of war tactics under various circumstances. Today the theory of “fog and friction” is an instrument that causes impendence of human losses. Technical innovations are designed to decrease in some respect the level of fog and friction of war, but, unfortunately, this problem cannot be resolved.

Reference

1. Alberts, D. S., Garstka, J. J., Hayes, R. E., and Signori, D. A. (2001). Understanding Information Age Warfare. Web.
2. Chapman, G. (2003). An Introduction to the Revolution in Military Affairs. Austin: LBJ School of Public Affairs, University of Texas at Austin.
3. Clausewitz, C. V., and Graham, J. J. (1873). On war. Washington: Plain Label Books.
4. Cohen, W. A. (2005). Secrets of special OPS leadership: dare the impossible, achieve the extraordinary. New York: AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn.
5. Howard, M., and Paret, P. (1976). Clausewitz, Carl von. On War, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
6. Information Age Warfare Quarterly. (2006). Volume 1, Number 2.
7. Issues of Doctrine in the War on Terror. (2007). The Strategist.
8. Korean Air Flight 007: Encyclopedia. (2009).
9. Parker, G. (2005) The Cambridge history of warfare. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. Tillman Killed by ‘Friendly Fire’; Probe Cites Error Platoon Mates. (2004). Washington: The Washington Post.
11. Watts, B. D. (1996). Clausewitzian Friction and Future of War. McNair Paper 52.

Introduction

The agriculture and economy in Afghanistan was being destroyed and its people were starving due to lack of food and an effective economy. This was backed by a lack of education and rule of the Islami law of ‘shriyat’ imposed by the Taliban rule. There was mass production of opium and this crop was exchanged with other countries in return for weapons while the people in absence of food died of starvation or joined the Taliban. Then the incident of 9/11 took place. A mass military operation was mobilized. It concentrated on amending the country’s infrastructures, re-establishing law and order in the country and helping the people in creating a proper government. This was called Operation Enduring Freedom. On the other hand, Iraqi operation had the biggest special operation forces since the great Vietnam War in the last century. A significant number of special operation forces were present in northern Iraq, where they worked alongside the Kurdish fighters to end the reign of Saddam Hussein. This was Operation Iraqi Freedom. In southern Iraq, these special operation forces helped the conventional forces in their work. However, it was to be seen whether the US army was unprepared for both the occasions.

It has been said for some time that the US military department is not yet ready in case there is a disastrous assault on the country. Some reports say that they do not even have the proper training or equipment required to handle such situations. Very few army units are completely combat-ready, and are prepared to go into warfare. The army commanders have been criticized as it has been said that they have not properly developed thorough response plans to be used when their homeland is under attack. (Hiro, 2004) It has been argued that the Pentagon should make the National Guards and the Reserves a fundamental part of the US military department. They have been under-funded and over-tasked for a long time and need the resources to train using modern day equipments so that they can carry out serious missions. It has been recommended that the US defense department should utilize USA’s citizen soldiers in order to make a complete operational force, which is fully equipped, trained and very ready to fight for the nation in case of a crisis and as a result help the active troops in the mission. (Baum, 2004) Nevertheless, the central allegation is that the U.S. Military is Unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities. However, a close look at the development would definitely show that the allegation is the result of blowing the issue out of proportion and there should be no reason the US force, or the NCOs, be held responsible. But this cannot overshadow the fact that the army was unprepared for the operations. The two operations, Operation Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom would prove this allegation right.

Operation Enduring Freedom

After September 11, 2001, subsequent to the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon bracing up its defenses against international terrorism became America’s central concern. It declared war on Afghanistan to flush out Al Qaeda and achieved a quasi success in the process. Once these immediate threats were defused, the nation was faced with a few alternatives in relation to its foreign policy, which it needed to choose to best extenuate the threats of further terrorist attacks against the nation.

However, it should be noted that this operation was made in a hurry and as a result, the troops were not trained in the context of local custom, hostile forces, logistics and cultural education. It was a drastic and immediate measure and logically, in this case, there was bound to be lack of preparation and thus the troops were found to be unprepared.

Some analysts argue that democracy in the Middle East will elevate Islamists, including radicals, who will use democratic institutions to gain power but then implement their autocratic agenda. Democracy can also lead to instability. In short, things may get worse before they get better, which may be bad news for the US. Many however believe that in the long run increased democratic governance or the break up of static autocracies will lead to a better outcome than the status quo even if the emerging governments initially oppose U.S. policies. Some furthermore argue that any type of somewhat democratic government would find more common ground with the U.S. than the existing ones even if rapprochement was gradual and difficult. As for the troops, this region and custom that is non-democratic in nature completely alien in approach and acclimatization needs time. However, time was a luxury that was definitely not available in this context.

History helps us to identify ourselves, recognize who we are and be acquainted with the origin where we come from. We over and over again shrink back from hearing about our chronological times of yore for the reason that so much of it is excruciating. The Jihadist networks are dejected perception that perplexes disapproval of Islam as a religion and stigmatization of those who have faith in it. These Jihadist networks have given rise to a new term called Islamophobe, a myth or a kind of racism obfuscates bias in opposition to Muslims with disparagement of Islam and that it is used to quieten detractors and Muslim reformers. Terrorism, especially Islamic terrorism lately has been regarded as the most outrageous menace of the civilized and modern world with the instrumentation of the different organized terrorist institutions or Jihadist networks spread all over the globe. The Islamic fundamentalist groups or organizations like Al-Qaeda are operating at merciless precision against the whole of western civilization. These are new concepts and these are not taught in military trainings. In this context, the troops are surely unprepared but the main reason behind this was lack of training time.

However, the NCO (non-commissioned officer) has always played a major role in the history of the Armed forces. They have led the soldiers in various battles and have trained them in times of peace. In the Operation Enduring Freedom, when the Taliban rule had taken over the people of Afghanistan and they were dying of hunger and suffering from illiteracy, the NCOs assisted in providing charitable food and various other resources to the people of the region. They also helped in various civic projects, like repairing and building new roads, hospitals, orphanages and schools for the people. They also helped improve the life of the people there by providing them with clean dinking water and helped in carrying and distributing the relief supplies among the people. (Rotberg, 2003)

Thus, it can be stated that the incidents took place in a sudden burst and the army or the political authorities were unable to predict this. It can be stated that if anyone or any authority was to be blamed it should be targeted towards intelligence departments and not the army. It is true, that the army did a commendable job given the situation and they should not take any blame for the outcome. Thus, it is obvious that the allegation that the U.S. Military is Unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities holds little truth.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Operation Iraqi Freedom was launched with a goal, which was the removal of Saddam Hussein and destroying his ability to use any weapon of annihilation or mass destruction (WMD) and stop them from falling into the hands of the terrorists. Before the Iraqi war these WMD was taken as a major and forthcoming threat for the security of USA and its associate countries. (Baum, 2004) In the first quarter of 2003, US and UK soldiers consisting of over 40 cruise strikes, missiles and various other aircrafts, started to carry out different military operations within the state of Iraq in order to remove weapons located in Iraq. They were also ordered to overthrow the Iraqi regime from its power. President Bush announced to the people of US that military operations had began in Iraq in order to disarm it, set its people free and protect the world from the various dangers posed on it. (Halberstam, 2002) Thus, it can never be established that the U.S. Military is Unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities.

The various objectives of Operation Iraqi Freedom were to end the dreadful rule of Saddam Hussein. Secondly, to completely discover, separate and finally remove weapons of annihilation from Iraq. Its third objective was to locate arrest and finally chase away the terrorists from Iraq. Its forth objective was to obtain information associated with the various terrorist networks in the country and about the global network providing weapons of annihilation. Its fifth objective was to stop the various sanctions provided and offer charitable support needed by the citizens of Iraq. Its last objective was to develop certain conditions, which would help the formation of a self-representative government in Iraq. (Chan, 2006) All the objectives were fulfilled other than the WMD search as there was none in reality. Thus, again it is proved that the U.S. Military is not Unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities and in fact they are quite successful in this case.

However, this operation had the biggest special operation forces since the great Vietnam War in the last century. Although the majority of the forces were from the US, Australia and the UK also provided their forces. A significant number of special operation forces were present in northern Iraq, where they worked alongside the Kurdish fighters to end the reign of Saddam Hussein. These special operation forces attacked a number of areas, as if command headquarters, airfields and places where weapons of annihilation were kept. In southern Iraq, these special operation forces helped the conventional forces in their work. (Chesterman, 2004) All these operations and missions needed a high amount of preparation and their successes prove beyond arguments that the amount of preparations present in their action. As it is often said, their actions proved for themselves.

However, another major development of this mission is most likely going to be the end of US-Iraqi Status of Forces-like Agreement (SOFA). Its purpose is to launch a legal basis so that US military forces can be present in Iraq after the existing UN authorization ends this year. The restraints, which have been laid down by SOFA will have an effect on the manner in which US military operations are carried on in Iraq. Its short-term objectives are to determine how much help does Iraq require from the US in personal assistance and funds, the best way to assemble on present security issues, help the government in its working and also to promote its independence, continuously modify the formation of the Iraqi Security Forces, help in their training and establish standards so that the number of US troops in Iraq can be lessened. (Mazarr, 2007) This proves the success and effectiveness of the US army’s presence and their preparation for all situations and the major kudos goes to the NCOs present in the peacekeeping and actions.

Its long-term objectives include considering the policies and strategies of Iraq so as to clarify the long term US objectives related to Iraq and help to shape a better and more conventional mutual relationship in the future with Iraq. It also aims towards defining the US policies of Iranian involvement in the country and evaluating the significance of the Operation Iraqi Freedom so that the information gathered from the mission is helpful to the US military in the future and for the US government. However, it is well established that the U.S. Military is unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities.

Conclusion

The final element in the entire preparation is standing in the battleground and fighting for the country. This requires a person to be strategically, physically and mentally ready for a combat mission. A good leader is also needed whose job is to organize the various operations related to the combat. The two main reasons due to which the US military is unprepared are lack of proper ammunition and terrible leadership. Lack of proper training coupled with inadequate and scarce ammunition has created a situation where the soldiers are unable to fight properly and thus eventually loose their life while defending their country.

The USA has been in a number of crises and has come out of it very well. Not everything can be planned and we need to keep a positive view for the things happening around us. After the 9/11 attacks, the military and the emergency services did a magnificent task at handling the situation and keeping the environment calm. Civilians are not fully aware of the military logistics and we assume that the military is completely intact and when deployed can make anything possible. However, this is not so as they do not have a magic wand to cure everything unjust in this world and the unpreparedness is an element that should be looked after by the strategic brains. Nevertheless, the bottom-line of this argument holds its position and it should be mentioned again that the U.S. Military is unprepared at the Outbreak of Hostilities and it is well adjustable in any situation to handle any, location, and state of affairs or pressure. The instances they are found unprepared are the times when the logistics and cultural aspects of the foreign regions are completely alien. Thus, the arguments about being unprepared are true though, once circumstances were taken into consideration, then it would appear the troops performed quite well and a good amount of courage had to be presented for not always being prepared for hostilities.

References

Baum, Matthew A; 2004; How Public Opinion Constrains the Use of Force: The Case of Operation Enduring Freedom; Presidential Studies Quarterly; 34(2), 187-226

Chan, Steve & William Safran; 2006; Public Opinion as a Constraint against War: Democracies’ Responses to Operation Iraqi Freedom; Foreign Policy Analysis; 2(2), 137-156

Chesterman, Simon; 2004; Occupation as Liberation: International Humanitarian Law and Regime Change; Ethics & International Affairs; 18 (3), 51-64

Halberstam, David; 2002; War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton, and the Generals; Simon & Schuster

Robinson, Piers; 2004; Operations and the Illusion of a News Media Driven Intervention; Political Studies; 49(5), 941-956

Hiro, Dilip; 2004; Secrets and Lies: Operation Iraqi Freedom and After; Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nation Books

Mazarr, Michael J; 2007; The Iraq War and Agenda Setting; Foreign Policy Analysis; 3(1), 1-23

Rotberg, Robert; 2003; State Failure and State Weakness in a Time of Terror; Brookings Institution Press

Effectiveness

Desired Behavior. TA stops making raids on the local population, including abduction, robbery, rapes, and death threats in the wild border territories of Uganda, South Sudan, DRC, and CAR.

What degree of power, control, or authority does the TA have regarding the targeted behavior?

The TA continues to abduct residents, determining their future fate as new TA members, posing a threat to their lives and health. The defection campaign aimed at the TA commandment will eliminate the danger that TA poses to the local population and reduce the current number of 100 TA fighters to a minimum. Besides, the defection campaign aimed at informing abductees about escape opportunities will help save their lives.

What restrictions affect the TA regarding the targeted behavior?

TA’s leader does not have much control over his fighters since 20 of them – 1/5 of the total number have gone ‘rogue’ and are no longer in contact with the leader. The remaining TA is spread between five or six groups who are constantly moving in the DRC, CAR, and Sudan. They use radio sets to communicate, so there is no direct control of the leader over the rest of the TA fighters. Therefore, the main restrictions for targeted behavior are fear of retaliation from the Ugandan government. The TA fighters can be afraid to face the court and be charged with human rights violations.

If the TA takes the desired action, what is the overall effect on the SPO?

If the TA fighters adhere to the calls from their family members on the radio broadcasts held in the framework of the defection campaign, they will leave the TA. Then, the TA’s reduced numbers will no longer allow them to raid local villages and kidnap residents.

Rating. Four (highly effective).

Conditions

Causes

External (Situations & Events): Political

TA emerged in 1987 due to offensive military action by the Ugandan government against civilians in the Acholi region of northern Uganda.

TA initially allied with the Rwandan Liberation Army (ALIR) and other factions that fought in the Congo with the RCD.

TA received the Sudanese government’s support in revenge for Uganda’s support for the Sudanese rebels, the People’s Liberation Movement/Sudan Army.

Most strategic and tactical decisions were made in Sudan (Indoctrinate the Heart to Impunity 2016).

In 1994, the Sudanese government helped TA survive by providing a haven for the settlement, land, building materials, hospitals, and medicines to treat sexually transmitted infections; the goal was to allow the TA to systematize the incursions into Uganda from Sudan.

Sudan also provided weapons, ammunition, and mines, reinforcing TA terror.

Economic

Most of the rebels came from the northern region of Acholi, as this region has traditionally employed people to join the Ugandan army. The regions of the north are historically poorer than the southern ones, so the population was ready to link their lives with the war to improve living conditions.

Social/Cultural

TA activities have continued since 1987 and created social and cultural preconditions for even greater brutality.

The official version of the reasons for TA activity was the struggle for the people’s rights in the Acholi region; however, this region has experienced tremendous TA violence.

The TA had no popular support due to the brutality of its actions, and therefore very few rebels volunteered to join the ranks of the TA; most of the TA were kidnapped child soldiers.

Physical Environment

The geography of the region and the blurring of borders between states allowed TA to conduct its activities successfully. The TA moved across the vast savannah territory of Central Africa, between Uganda and Sudan, which provided refuge for the TA and prohibited the crossing of the border for pursuers. The region is sparsely populated, wildlife is a threat to humans, and there are no means of transport, including roads or landing sites. The pursuers consisted of a Special Forces squad, and capturing an armed militia group was a challenging task.

Governmental rules in Central Africa ended in settlements and did not extend to the territory described above, including South Sudan, DRC, and CAR.

Since states did not receive severe damage from TA actions that only attacked local rural civilians, governments only “acknowledged the inconvenience” that was not enough to devote resources to a full fight against TA.

Continuous movement between states was the TA’s main survival tactic that failed Operation Iron Fist in 2002.

Military

In 2002, following US political pressure on Sudan, Uganda launched Operation Iron Fist. The operation was unsuccessful – the TA moved from northern Uganda to Sudan and began to take revenge on the civilian population, attacking communities in the north, local officials, and humanitarian convoys. The number of kidnapped children rose to 30,000 by 2004.

In 2008, Uganda attacked the TA units in Congo again, prompting TA’s movement into the DRC, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic. The TA attacked local civilians for the next three years. However, the TA’s goal was now more survival than revenge.

Desertion campaigns and operations by the Ugandan armed forces in the TA territory were successful, reducing the number of insurgents from 800 to 200 from 2010 to 2015.

In 2011, 100 US Army Special Forces were deployed in Central Africa to support the Ugandan Armed Forces in the fight against TA, which played a decisive role in the maximum reduction in TA.

In 2011, US Special Forces provided enhanced logistics and intelligence capabilities to pursue TA.

In 2012, under the auspices of the African Union, Ugandan and Congolese military forces united under the auspices of the African Union to fight TA, to form the African Union Regional Task Force (AURTF) with the participation of US troops, which provided air support and radio broadcasts calling for desertion. It allowed weakening TA significantly. By 2015 it had reduced to 100 armed men and 50-80 women and children.

In January-March 2016, 300 abductions of TA were recorded in the CAR and DRC, two times more than in 2015.

Recently, the desertion of adult Ugandan men from the TA has slowed down, with six deserting in 2014-2015 and three in 2016.

By 2015, 13,000 TA members had been amnestied in Uganda, although the remaining 200-300 militants continued to attack in the DRC, South Sudan, and the CAR.

Internal (Values, Attitudes, Beliefs)

Values

TA members stated that the goal of their struggle is to create a government based on the ten commandments of the Bible.

However, TA’s principal value is physical survival since, for the sake of survival, they violate all existing laws, norms of ethics, and morality.

Attitudes

TA has negative attitudes towards the current government of Uganda.

There is evidence that the TA is exceptionally loyal to Sudan’s government (Indoctrinate the Heart to Impunity 2016).

Beliefs

Judging by their actions, TA has no beliefs other than belief in the right of the strongest and their victory.

TA is ready to achieve victory at any cost, using brainwashing techniques, spreading superstition, and intoxicating abducted new members with drugs (Indoctrinate the Heart to Impunity 2016).

The TA urged child soldiers to put cross before each battle and to anoint their weapons and bodies with shea butter so that the Holy Spirit will protect them.

TA committed so many murders that they do not consider them to be something sinful.

The TA forced kidnapped children to kill other children, their brothers or sisters, their parents, thus performing a “rite of initiation” .

Effects

Positive Consequences

Today, most Acholi admit that the source of TA power is Sudan’s government, not the spirits.

Negative Consequences

TA actions displaced about 2 million people who had to live in refugee camps.

TA killed 60,000 to 100,000 people, according to UN report.

The violence included the kidnapping of children, turning children into soldiers, forcing girls to choose husbands among TA, forcing children to kill their parents and siblings as an initiation rite, sexual slavery of women, and rape. The TA also sometimes cut off the lips, ears, and noses of locals.

TA actions led to the complete economic desolation of the northern regions.

The psychological trauma of TA victims is hardly curable.

TA sold or gifted children, mostly girls, to arms dealers in Sudan.

In 2004, 40,000 children were forced to move to Gulu town every night to find a haven to sleep; in the morning, they returned home and went to school.

TA mainly attacked their tribe, the Acholi, in the northern and eastern regions of Uganda; this led to forced displacement of the population to refugee camps and voluntary flight to cities; 90% of Northern Uganda’s population has been displaced.

The TA kidnapped at least 25,000 children, and their army was 80% of children.

People living in refugee camps have lost everything – home, livelihood, and culture.

Suicide rates were extremely high in refugee camps.

There have been cases of brainwashed children being forced to chop off the ears, noses, lips, and fingers of other children suspected of fighting on the side of the Ugandan army.

About 1000 people per week died in refugee camps.

In 2018, 27 abductions of children and 124 civilians by TA were recorded in South Sudan, DRC, and CAR.

Secondary consequences

Sudan and several tribes of South Sudan have started to provide material support to TA again.

TA used elephant poaching to obtain ivory to fund its activities. Poaching took place in Garamba, a national park in the DRC. TA sold tusks for weapons and supplies in the CAR, trading with Arab businesspeople and Sudanese military officers; TA received cash, food, weapons, ammunition, and medicine in return.

Northern and Eastern Uganda have a poverty rate of 84%, compared with 19.7% in the rest of the country.

Amnestied ex-TA combatants are stigmatized by fellow citizens and unable to reintegrate among the surviving Acholi (Akello 2019).

TA activities destroyed the region’s economy; therefore, there is a need for government programs to improve the skills of vulnerable groups of the population (Abaho 2019).

An entire generation of children was born and raised in refugee camps (Ojok 2018).

Vulnerabilities

Motives

Since TA’s main motive is survival, they are only supported by political groups interested in the war.

TA activities may coincide with the motives of criminals engaged in human trafficking.

Lack of motivation helped effectively implement the US campaign to promote desertion.

Demographics

Today, TA consists of 100 male fighters and 50-70 women and children.

TA is continually moving across South Sudan, DRC, and CAR.

Psychographics

TA includes fighters and abducted victims. Fighters use any means and cruelty to intimidate and control kidnapped children and women.

The desertion campaign helped destroy the TA core of 400 men, reducing their number to 100.

References

Abaco, Anne, Solomon Asiimwe, and Micheal Mawa. “The LRA and Its Costs on Economic Security in Gulu District, Northern Uganda.” Open Journal of Social Sciences 7, no. 11 (2019): 133-146.

Akello, Grace. “Reintegration of Amnestied LRA Ex-Combatants and Survivors’ Resistance Acts in Acholiland, Northern Uganda.” International Journal of Transitional Justice 13, no. 2 (2019): 249-267.

Ojok, Donnas. “The legacy of LRA conflict continues to disempower women in rural Northern Uganda.” Africa at LSE (2018).

Introduction

During the fall of Suharto in Indonesia, the military played a significant role as both the silent enforcer and active peace maker. This was triggered by the implementation of the dual function of the military in other unrelated fields.

In most countries, the military is expected to be neutral in intervention in political issues. In Indonesia, the military has so much political powers. Suharto heavily relied on the military in cultivating support in his leadership. The military had excessive political powers. This undermined its security functions.

The military’s informal functions during extreme internal political conflicts

• Guarding state sovereignty against internal factional politics between political parties.
• Involvement in the cabinet matters.
• Organizational relations between the military and the Golkar party to cultivate legitimacy.

Before the year 1998, the military still had extreme powers in Indonesia. It had a number of informal functions during extreme internal political conflicts. The military was intensively involved in the cabinet matters. For instance, some of the military staff were appointed in cabinet.

Guarding state sovereignty against internal fractional politics between political parties

During the reign of Suharto, the military was used in guiding the sovereignty of the state by protecting the ruling party against fractional politics. Suharto used the influence of the military to exercise dictatorship.

During the Suharto’s ruling, the military was a very influential tool used in development of political parties. The military played a major role in protecting the ruling party from losing to other parties. In other words, the military was biased towards the ruling party. It played a major role in guarding the ruling party.

Organizational relations between the military and the Golkar party to cultivate legitimacy

The military was impartial and was more inclined to the Golkar party and therefore undermining democracy.

During this period, the military was biased towards one political party which is Golkar. This party benefited from the favor from the military over other parties. This violated the issue of democracy because the party did not mind much about fulfilling the needs of the people because it had the military which significantly contributed to its success (Bhakti, Yanuarti and Nurhasim 2009.).

Members of the military filled the positions of which they lost control after Suharto’s fall

• Cabinet.
• Embassy.
• Seats in the DPR (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat-House of Representatives).
• Mayers Governors.
• Regional political involvement.

The staff members of the military were given positions which did not match their roles. For instance, appointment in the cabinet was not in line with the military duties. The military was also involved in regional politics which was aimed at winning people’s support. Other unique positions includes governor and Mayer’s positions.

The military had social and political authorities at the district, sub-district and regional levels which were weakened after 1998

During this period, the military had political powers at different regional levels. For instance, there were district and sub-district levels. This was used as a political tool to win more political control rather than defence. This undermined the defence purpose of the military.

Although the military had already gasped a significant influence in the political arena, this power was dissolved after the fall of Suharto in 1998. After his fall, many changes were made which were directed towards minimization of the influence of the military in politics. This has promoted democracy in the government operations.

Involvement in the cabinet matters

According to Bhakti (2002), the military was extensively involved in the third, fourth, fifth and sixth cabinets. This is contrary to arrangement in other countries like Australia where the military is expected to be neutral. The involvement of the military in the politics decreased with time. However, this remained till the fall of Suharto. Conversely, during the 2004 election, there was no member of military was appointed in the cabinet.

In most countries, the military is supposed to carry out security functions without interruptions through politics. This is aimed at maintaining efficiency and effectiveness in its operations.

The involvement of the military in the politics decreased with time. However, this remained till the fall of Suharto. However, during the 2004 election, there was no member of military was appointed in the cabinet.

Role of the Military in Indonesia

• Maintaining:
  • Security together with the people and related state bodies.
  • Order.
  • Defence.

As already indicated, the role of the military in Indonesia was of great importance. However, the involvement f the military in politics significantly undermined the performance of the military. According to Ufen (2006), in order to have a high performing military force, the military must refrain from engagement in politics. Due to involvement of military in politics during this time, the Indonesian military became more professional; in politics and less professional in providing defence in the country.

Impacts of Pervasive role of military in Indonesia

• Lack of democratic life in Indonesia.
• Corruption.
• Violation of basic rights (Beeson 2010).

Soon after the fall of Suharto, many people rose against the involvement of the military in politics. This was because of the adverse effects the socio-political role of the military had on the people. The defence competence of the military was violated because the military professional spent more time seeking political influence rather than dealing with critical defence issues. Democracy was also affected because the military was obviously biased through political orientation (Vatikiotis 2004).

Discussion questions

• To what extent has the military been involved in politics past Suharto’s era?
• What were the advantages of the military involvement in politics before Suharto’s fall?
• How successful is the process of neutralizing the involvement of military in politics?
• What are the main obstacles facing the government in an effort to neutralize the military involvement in politics in Indonesia?
• What were the main factors that contributed to Suharto’s fall even with the support of the military?

From this discussion, there are a number of issues which emanates. After the Suharto’s fall in 1998, some aspects of military involvement in politics can still be detected. For instance, through regional divisions.

Reference List

Beeson, M. 2010. Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia and the Philippines. Web.

Bhakti, I. 2002. The Transition to Democracy in Indonesia: Some Outstanding Problems. Web.

Bhakti, I., Yanuarti, S. and Nurhasim, M. 2009. Military Politics, Ethnicity and Conflict in Indonesia. CRISE WORKING PAPER No. 62.

Ufen, A. 2006. Political Parties in Post-Suharto Indonesia: Between politikaliran and ’Philippinisation’. Web.

Vatikiotis, M . 2004. Indonesian Politics under Suharto: The Rise and fall of the New Order. New York: Routledge.

The commander’s intent is the goal that is to be achieved through the execution of the mission. In other words, the commander’s intent specifies the end state of the battleground in terms of the commander’s own forces, the enemy forces, and the territory. The commander’s intent can also clarify the purpose of the operation and the enemy’s intentions and vulnerabilities. The aim of formulating a clear commander’s intent prior to the mission is to allow for room for maneuver if subordinate leaders encounter obstacles preventing them from following the initial plan. Thus, subordinate leaders’ initiative is highly encouraged since it ensures that the commander’s intent is likely to be fulfilled even when the circumstances are different from expected.

An example of the commander’s intent can be identified in the article “US Marines in Grenada 1983” by Lieutenant Colonel Spector. President Ronald Reagan, also serving as the Commander-in-Chief, announced an operation that was intended to “restore order and democracy” and “safeguard the lives of approximately 1,000 American citizens” on the island of Grenada (Spector, 1987, p. 1). Hence, the commander’s intent contained information about the purpose of the mission and the desired end state of the enemy force and the terrain. The purpose was to evacuate American citizens (mainly medical students) from Grenada and restore the democratic order violated by the Grenadian People’s Revolutionary Army (PRA). Due to the second purpose, the commander’s intent also implied that the enemy force – PRA – should be defeated with the least possible collateral damage.

Subordinate leaders’ following the commander’s intent led to the success of Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada. The US and foreign students were evacuated from Grenada, and the order on the island was restored. The commander’s intent also encouraged the US forces to choose the attack methods that would avoid inflicting significant collateral damage (Spector, 1987). Furthermore, the desired results were achieved with relatively few victims among the US forces, the PRA, and civilians.

Reference

Spector, R. H. (1987). U.S. marines in Grenada 1983. History and Museums Division Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps.

Mutual trust is a concept that is especially important for military action. In mission command, it pertains to principles of understanding and security that extend to different part of command. In particular, mutual trust means that the different commanders, officers and generals of the military are competent in their respective areas of operation. An assuredness of competence allows personnel to relegate different tasks among each others, plan and coordinate efforts between different people and achieve results.

Mutual trust is vital in organizing military operations, where interaction between the mission control and its subordinates plays a central role. Similarly, trust between larger entities also has influence on the success of combat missions. In the case of launching operation Urgent Fury, the cooperation and mutual trust between the US and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States were chiefly responsible. Between the two parties, both held certain power, responsibility, and had access to information the other did not possess (“U.S. Marines in Grenada,” 1983). For the sake of cooperation, bonds of mutual trust were established. The US worked under a belief that the threat to the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States is legitimate, and their intervention is a necessary aid to protecting the balance of the region. On their side, the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, in turn, believed that the US was sufficiently prepared to handle the mission. It was necessary for both parties to be capable of fulfilling their parts of the interaction, as methods for maintaining mutual trust. In this operation and many others in the future, the continued maintenance of a two-way trust relationship is a requirement for success.

Reference

U.S. Marines in Grenada. (1983). Home. Web.

It is important to note that the statement that times of great tragedy such as war, genocide and disaster bring out both the best of us and the worst of us is true. The book “The Lucifer Effect” states that “a basic duality exists in the human condition of detachment versus saturation, of cynical suspicion versus engagement” (Zimbardo 444). This sentence correlates with the current events in Ukraine, because the state needs the help of partners in order to win the war. Some countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Poland and Lithuania are helping Ukraine by providing food, clothing for people who are homeless (Allison para 2). At the same time, they are trying to provide a lot of military assistance for Ukrainian soldiers to defeat the enemy.

Although, there are countries that have not yet recognized that Russia started the war against Ukraine, such as Iran. Moreover, Iran supplies weapons to Russia, i.e. drones that kill civilians in Ukraine. There is an example when these drones crash into residential buildings and kill civilians and such cases are constant (Danylov para 3). Thus, during the war, the states demonstrated what principles and values they adhere to.

Moreover, some states do not name Putin as an aggressor and do not take sides in this war. For example, China does not help Ukraine and constantly negotiates with Russia. Although the Chinese leader condemns the war, he does not call Russia the aggressor, which confirms the fundamental duality of detachment versus saturation, and cynical suspicion versus involvement (Danylov para 4). Hence, the time of adverse events can demonstrate which people and states can provide assistance and act firmly and which are not capable of this.

Works Cited

Allison, George. “What Military Aid has Britain Given to Ukraine?” UK Defence Journal, Web.

Oleg, Danylov. “Shahed 136 – A Nasty Enemy UAV that Terrorizes Ukrainians.” Mezha, Web.

Zimbardo, Philip. The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil. Random House, 2011.

The Crusades were armed expeditions of the peoples of the Christian West organized by the Church and the Papacy of Western Europe to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslims and subjugate these lands. Historians distinguish eight crusades of 1095-1270, and there were many companies under the auspices of the church, but none of them was as successful as the First Crusade. It was indeed a violent time when people have undergone numerous threats. Kings, emperors, European nobility, as well as thousands of knights and ordinary soldiers participated in the campaigns. Even though all stakeholders had different attitudes and goals to the Crusades, all this significantly affected the participants and led to numerous deaths, broken destinies, destroyed lands and a waste of resources.

From the beginning of their military campaigns, the Crusaders attacked not only Muslims but also fought battles in the Middle East. The first campaign began with mass beatings of Jews in northern France and Germany: some were merely killed, while others were offered a choice of death or conversion to Christianity. Once the Muslim visited the crusader’s state where all the mosques were shifted to churches, the streets and roads were crowded, and the air was filled with impiousness and disbelief (Allen and Amt 110). Therefore, those who experienced invasion felt vulnerable and had no choice but to give up to the intruders.

The first crusade had a set of political, religious, and violent ideas that later became the driving force of subsequent campaigns. The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos wanted to enlist military support to repel the Seljuq who fled to the territory of Byzantium in Asia Minor. When the Turks captured Jerusalem (from the Arabs, who lost the city more than a century ago) in 1087, this served as another reason for active actions on the part of Western Europe. Pope Urban II responded to the request of the Byzantine emperor (Kirshner and Morrison 159). He wanted to strengthen the position of the papacy and become the undisputed head of the Christian Church, including in the Orthodox East. Meanwhile, all the soldiers who went on that campaign have sworn an oath to the Pope to protect Christians and their faith; as a reward, they would receive absolution of all sins which instilled hope in them.

The ideals of chivalry and the just cause were one of the motivators of the Crusades. There was also pressure from peers and family, thirst for freedom and wealth, obtaining lands and titles, as well as the opportunity to travel. However, many warriors had less optimistic plans: they were forced to obey their master; some wanted to get rid of debts, persecution, and feudal dependence, while others simply wanted to live with dignity without starving (Kirshner and Morrison). This prompted the recruits to join many crusades and fight for their rulers.

During all the crusades, kings and nobles were ready to provide financial support. For instance, “Pope Eugenius III had authorized to mortgage their fiefs to monasteries in order to finance the Second Crusade” (Allen and Amt 108). Other elites viewed crusades as a way to expand their influence, so they wanted to sacrifice their current possessions to gain even more. Joubert of La-Ferté-Sur-Aube has given all he possessed to either die during the crusade or enjoy the new lordship after the victory (Allen and Amt 109; Cole and Symes). Hence, the nobles viewed these affairs as long-term investments that could provide them with more profitable opportunities and expand their lands in case they won.

Even clergy members were among the major stakeholders of the crusades. They actively participated in the discussion of financial issues and were interested in them more than in the matters of Jesus Christ. Clergy people were the ones to pay the crusade entry fees and could lead the troops. Their interest was to expand the influence of Christianity and convert as many people as possible (Allen and Amt 84). As a result, they participated in several crusades during the rules of Godfrey and Baldwin.

Moreover, the knight who fought constant battles has suffered a lot. They claimed that the war raged by the spiritual strength caused worse consequences and was against spirituality (Clairvaux 34). The knights stated that “the death which he inflicts is Christ’s gain, and death that he suffers is his own” (Clairvaux 39). The statement implied that there were many sufferings they had to encounter either while killing in self-defense or vengeance.

In conclusion, the crusades had a tremendous impact on history. In addition to the bloody losses and destruction, the campaigns were treated differently by its participants. All elites, eastern Europeans, and crusaders have dramatically suffered from the conflicts. While kings and nobles perceived crusades as a means of gaining influence, the attacked had to defend their possessions. In general, the huge costs of the Crusades led to the strengthening of the influence of royal houses in Europe, and the role of the nobility significantly decreased.

Works Cited

Allen, S. J., and Emilie Amt. The Crusades: A Reader. University of Toronto Press, 2014.

Clairvaux, Bernard. In Praise of the New Knighthood. Gorgias Press, 2010.

Cole, Joshua and Carol Symes. Western civilizations. 5th ed., vol. 1, W.W. Norton & Company, 2022.

Kirshner, Julius and Karl F. Morrison. Readings in Western Civilization, Volume 4: Medieval Europe. Chicago University Press, 1986.