Category: Middle Ages

Medicine through time has evolved into many different discoveries and achievements spearheaded by revolutionary changes in our technology as well as practices. However, the grassroots of such revolutionary and modern developments lie in the past, by exploring some of the main leaders of progress in medieval Europe as well as their developments, ideologies, and practices, this paper aims to shine the light on medicine as less commonly known.

“Byzantine Medicine, Tradition and Empiricism”, by Owsei Temkin, and “Galen” by Frederick G. Kilgour. Are two sources dedicated to capturing Galen’s notorious work throughout the history of medicine. Capturing his role as a key figure in medieval medicine, who’s work would set a backbone for the many developments to follow. While popular belief would label Galen as a successor to Hippocrates, serving to extend and complete the frameworks of much of his work by carrying on his work and further consolidating it. The studies used aim to capture Galen’s work as an individual in shaping medieval medicine and bringing forward knowledge of the human body. When Galen began his studies of medicine and anatomy “medicine was entirely innocent of a scientific basis”, this is primarily since the practice of anatomy and dissection of humans had been banned, a barrier that for many years hindered physicians from pursuing evidence through applied research and experimentation, and a barrier that stagnated the progress of medicine in medieval Europe for many years. It would, however, be through Galen’s challenging nature and drive, that medicine would evolve. Despite the dissection of animals such as monkeys being the tolerated method used by all medieval surgeons. Galen viewed “anatomy, physiology, and pathology” as empirical to the study of medicine, understanding the great differences between animals and humans that make them incomparable to one another and would eventually seek answers beyond such methods. Despite predominantly relying on pigs, he additionally dissected the human skeletons of the dead as well as relied on the thorough inspection of the anatomical buildup of tissues and muscles of those with wounds or cuts and would obtain valuable knowledge about human anatomy unobtainable from the dissection of animals. The sources claim his experimental methodologies, as the drive behind much of the medieval knowledge and understanding of human anatomy, by capturing the role of his debates with the sects of the Empiricists and Methodists portrayed in his book “on sects” that would become “one of the elementary texts in Alexandria”, as a motivation for greater development in medieval medicine. Empiricists and Methodists who had “little but experience” on real medicine were set back by their lack of accurate knowledge on the human body and human anatomy. Galen however, sought to demolish the empirical and methodical approach and replace it with rationality seen in his pursuit of useful and recorded medicine through dissection and anatomy, inspiring medieval surgeons to follow such an approach in the process. Through Galen’s pursuit of knowledge beyond all historical medical books left by predecessors, seeking anatomy as a primary drive for his medical practices, he would drastically change medieval understanding of the human muscles. And would eventually find the existence of 300 muscles in all, becoming the first person to demonstrate that a muscle has one job, “contraction”, and claiming that each muscle has only one direction of contraction. Through his groundbreaking research, Galen would be able to illustrate maps of the human body and increase medical knowledge of the human muscular system and its various functions, ultimately identifying muscles that are still commonly known in modern medicine.

“Galen” additionally offers insight on Galen’s role as a successor of Hippocrates’s revolutionary work during the medieval era, this is primarily through his development of the “theory of opposites”. A theory that formed the backbone of Hippocrates’s four humors, a medical belief that would shape medieval medical practices for many decades to come. Hippocrates’s four humors was a commonly known theory that believed the body was made of 4 elements or “humors”. “Blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile”, all of which must be balanced amongst each other for one to stay healthy, claiming that all health problems would be closely related to the imbalance of one of the humors. The theory would be further established by Galen’s’ “theory of opposites”, suggesting that the humors could be rebalanced by applying the opposite, the idea that whatever it is to be balanced must be met by its counterpart in attempt to do so. The theory would be met with very little opposition as people would soon begin to follow Galen’s suggestions, as he introduced many practical cures to solve this. Some of the treatments under Galen’s theory of opposites would be the likes of “bloodletting” which involved letting out the blood of the body to balance its levels, through cupping, cutting a vein or using leeches to absorb the believed “excess” blood levels. As well as “purging” which involved giving patients “laxatives” and “emetics” in attempt to make them vomit to help cleans and treat an ill body. Despite its flaws, Galen’s theory of opposites would become extremely popular within medieval Europe as other doctors, apothecaries, as well as barber-surgeons, would take his remedies to heal the sick, once again capturing his role as a leader of progress in medieval Europe.

Galen’s work additionally extended to research the correlation between dietary behaviors and illnesses, attempting to find any type of correlation between the two through his use of autopsies that served to enhance medieval knowledge of diets and their impacts. “Galen: on the properties of food stuffs” by Galen captures his research quest and process, using observation and applied methods to find answers and improve his understanding. By observing the plants in attempt “to see how the plants were eaten by country people”, and additionally emphasizing the idea of constantly observing how plants behave around us, by observing the way plants and other drugs “changed according to season, location and other factors” emphasizing direct impacts of external factors on our bodies as we digest such plants into our dietary systems. Additionally, examining the various food properties and their direct correlation with the four humors. Further enhancing medieval understanding of the impact of one’s diet on their health.

Another major character in bringing forward and shaping medieval medicine throughout Europe would be Guy De Chaulliac, who’s work would not only enhance understanding amongst the medieval medical community but would also serve to inspire many surgeons to follow. “The standard medieval manual of surgery” By Gillian Furlong, provides both illustrations and insights on Chauliac’s revolutionary advancements, as well the respect he obtained for such revolutionary advancements. Guy de chauliac who’s well-earned reputation as the “most famous surgeon of the middle ages” would be further established through his creation of the “Chirurgia Magna” also known as the “Cyrurgia”, a surgical script that would ultimately become “the most important and influential medieval manual of surgery”. Eventually being labeled as “the standard surgical text of its age”, serving as an inspiration for many medieval doctors, and continuing to be used until the late 17th century. “Guy de chauliac: pre-eminent surgeon of the middle ages” by David A.k walgters. Further serves to illustrate the inner structure of the “Cyrurgia”, by describing its workings, capturing its powerful role in bringing medieval medicine forward. The manual is described as being divided into seven sections focusing on “anatomy, aposthema (swellings), wounds, ulcers, fractures special diseases and antidotary” each one of the seven sections is further divided into two doctrines the first including all that is a “generic approach”, and the second doctrine being divided into chapters “based on a particular site or body region”. Through his thorough outline and detailed research referencing various body parts, Chauliac would shine the light on many discoveries and practices, helping educate medieval doctors and serving as a script and guide for many medieval surgeons. Due to his discoveries and notable surgical manual, De chauliac would soon become an administrative figure within the medical community, helping educate and Inspire surgeons with his various discoveries, and similarly to Galen encouraging medieval surgeons to obtain greater understanding through observation and experimentation, rather than being confined to previous discoveries or the ideas of their peers. Though his progressive thinking Chauliac would not only lead to the creation of a manual that would continue to be useful for the next 200 years but would also lead to an evolved medical mindset that like his predecessors encouraged applied experimentation rather than following previous findings. Chaulliac’s advancements to medieval medicine would also be seen in the surgical fields where he would once again become an inspiration. His most prominent role being his emphasis on the sanitation of the practices within a surgical setting, as well as the management of wounds. Which would be translated in his teachings to remove all unsanitary and mixed bodies near wounds before surgery in attempt of eliminating the risk of infections to the wound. Chauliac’s ability to understand the threat of a lack of sanitation within a surgical setting serves to capture his extremely advanced views, this is primarily due to how underdeveloped medieval sanitary methods were, with surgeons having to primarily rely on aseptic methods as antiseptic remedies would only come to be during the 18th century. chauliac encouraged the cleanliness of the doctor and the surroundings especially in the process of dealing with bodies prone to infections. His embracing of “the power of nature in healing” was additionally reflected on the traditional natural remedies he advised to deal with infections and severe pain of wounds such as the likes of “poppy’ and “red warm oil”.

“Guy de chauliac” by Ballaro Beverly, captures his role in the surgical world beyond sanitation, seen through his work with bones and healing strategies. Chauliac would suggest the use of “ splinting and suspension” to treat broken limbs, which involved hanging a rope from the ceiling over a sick patients’ bed to facilitate the sick person’s’ movement, a practice that has remained in use in our modern-day in attempt of preventing the limbs of shortening as the bones healed. De chauliac work revolved around prioritizing the patients’ comfort, something that was often overlooked within the primitive medical treatments in medieval Europe, additionally captured through his use of methods such as a “sponge soaked in a narcotic substance” as a form of aesthesis and in attempt to further maintain patient comfort and promote healing. The source captures his work’s ability to surpass his death around 1368, having left behind a great legacy of achievements and discoveries from a surgical manual that would continue to guide medieval surgeons for centuries to come, and through his additional implementations of natural remedies as well as sanitary measures to reduce infection rates, and his advanced work with limbs and bones. All serving to shape medieval medicine as well as set a legacy of patient care within the medieval surgical setting.

Despite being heavily overlooked as extremely outdated and primitive, medieval medicine could be noted as a major backbone for much of the medical practices followed in the modern world. Individuals such as guy de chauliac and Galen, have been some of the predominant leaders of advancements throughout medieval Europe and the world, through the effective and practical remedies they served to advance surgical knowledge in medieval Europe as well as their discoveries on anatomy, dietary systems, and various surgical practices that improved medical knowledge and inspired radical changes in medieval medicine.

Bibliography

1. Ballaro, Beverly. “Guy de Chauliac.” Guy de Chauliac, August 2017, 1. https://search-ebscohost-com.eznvcc.vccs.edu:2443/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=20210015&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
2. Bynum, William. History of Medicine : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Accessed April 4, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.
3. De Chauliac, Guy. ‘The Standard Medieval Manual of Surgery.’ In Treasures from UCL, by Furlong Gillian, 71. London: UCL Press, 2015. Accessed April 4, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1g69xrh.24.
4. Temkin, Owsei. ‘Byzantine Medicine: Tradition and Empiricism.’ Dumbarton Oaks Papers 16 (1962): 95-115. Accessed April 4, 2020. doi:10.2307/1291159.
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8. Watters, David A. K. ‘Guy De Chauliac: Pre-eminent Surgeon of the Middle Ages.’ ANZ Journal of Surgery. 83, no. 10 (2013): 730.

During medieval times the society of England had begun to expand its population creating towns, cities, and trades. According to sources, “A new wave of monasteries and friaries were established, while reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops. Despite developments in England’s governance and legal system, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy.” (Anonymous) The church was centered in the village and the castle still reigns supreme over the land. Things like trade were a way that entrepreneurs during the mid-evil times to make money through livestock or produce. They still were based on their own rules and still moved under the king’s law.

To begin, the 12th century was under the reign of Henry II he reasserted royal authorities and rebuilt the royal finances, intervening to claim power in Ireland and prompting the Anglo-Norman consolidation of the country. He also strengthen England’s border and used his wealth to fund a long-running war in France, which led to a revolt from his kids because they wanted to claim power as well.

Furthermore, most people in medieval Europe lived in little provincial networks, making their living from the land. Laborer ladies had numerous local duties, including thinking about kids, getting ready for nourishment, and tending to animals. During the busiest occasions of the year, for example, the reap, ladies regularly joined their spouses in the field to acquire the harvests. Ladies frequently took an interest in essential cabin ventures, for example, preparing, heating, and assembling materials. Ladies were educated to be hitched and comply with their more distant. They were likewise educated to be hitched and bring up their youngsters. They had a superior possibility of taking in exchange from their better half or the privately-run company. However, you had peasant women who were not able to stay at the house and had to endure harsh labor by helping with their husband’s chores and taking care of their women’s duties. During this time men were seen to go out and make a living off their trade while women were to stay at home and do house duties. Also, noble children were to live in the castle until they were seven if they were a boy and they would be then sent off to their own castle and train to be a knight. Otherwise, girls were sent to learn how to do daily women’s duties. The children were very illiterate because the only learning they did was either how to be a knight or how to do daily chores. The church played a big role in educating the noble children. The peasant children had no hope unless they were being taught how to basic read and write by a priest.

Life during the medieval times was a society of tradesmen. The noble class significantly influenced medieval society as the nobility had a significant say in all aspects of medieval politics, culture, religion, and economics. The members of the nobility were those who fight for their barons and kings. They were responsible for the security of the serfs and the clergy. Each member of the nobility was free as a person and he was only responsible for his military duties. The social function of members of nobility was to ensure the security of the weak and poor. They were also required to follow the virtues of chivalry, so the clergy created a code of conduct for the members of the nobility, which they were expected to accept and follow. These nobles had a critical segment of the King’s property and they reserved an option to gather immediate and backhanded expenses alongside rents, which was offered by the serfs. The church or the priests were held high and were regarded by serfs and nobles the same.

For serfs and normal ranchers, a large portion of their daytime was spent in trying sincerely and subsequently making riches in any case, there were events when the serfs and their masters used to rest, appreciate and engage themselves. Social exercises had their own significance and every one of the individuals from the general public was relied upon to go to these social exercises. Neighborhood serfs and dealers used to go to fairs tune in to the troubadours and watch and partake in aerobatic games. While the life of a serf was hard and occupied, the individuals from the honorability were not generally as occupied as they were during the hours of brute attacks or wars.

During the time of peace, these members of nobility had little to do but manage their portion of land. Often they had little or nothing to work for. This gave rise to the practice of tournaments. Nobles and knights from the nearby area and abroad were invited to take part in these competitive tournaments. These tournaments were held for the purpose of entertainment and engagement of members of the nobility. Oddly, in some of the surrounding peasants’ and serfs’ free time, they watch these tournaments for enjoyment and entertainment purposes.

London grew to become Europe’s largest City during the medieval period. The medieval city of London housed several Christians who venerated particular saints, wore badges, and often embarked on religious journeys. Wealth made or broke the quality of life for Londoners. The have-nots did not own ovens so they bought their bread from bakeries and shops that sold bread already cooked. Skill workers earned a pittance and could barely afford a brand-new pair of shoes no matter how hard they toiled. Medieval London kept a small Jewish community composed of people who earned their living by lending money and building stone houses. Jealousy took a toll on medieval city dwellers and before the end of the 13th century; the entire community of Jews was forced to vacate England. Finally, the economy of London was thriving in many ways. Trade was one of the big influences as well as the building of stone houses as well. They were able to build houses that could last because at first houses were made from wood and hay.

Ever thought about the music that you hear? Ever heard a solo voice without a music background? It was probably a Gregorian chant. Gregorian Chants are one of the oldest foundations in Western music in history. Gregorian chants are hymns from the Roman Catholic Church. Religious songs date back to the origin of the churches with Gregorian Chants becoming the proper music of the Roman rite in the middle ages. Gregorian Chants were religious poems or songs sung by a choir, and if they were not sung, they were played instrumentally. During the Renaissance era, a new form of music came alive. Renaissance music was vocally and musically sung throughout the years. The Renaissance era created a type of music that was known as the ‘rebirth’. During the first part of the Renaissance era music was written and sung for the church but in the later year music was for the churches, courts, wealthy persons, and music printing. The Gregorian Chants and Renaissance music are similar but different when really compared.

Gregorian Chants were sung a cappella (without musical instruments) or with musical instruments only. Gregorian chants were monophonic, which means that there was only one unaccompanied musical line.

“Medieval church music was based on one of eight scales or modes. Certain of the modes were used for joyful music, others for meditative chant, and still others to tell sad stories. All of these modes were built from the notes in the C major scale (white keys on the piano). In Gregorian Chant (medieval church music), the melody stayed within about an octave” The Medieval Church Modes, (American). Normally the chants were sung by choirs of boys and men within the churches, but however, in religious orders, women and men were allowed to sing together. Women were not needed as much because younger boys were able to hit a higher octave than women due to the lack of puberty. Considering that Gregorian chants were produced and sung during the Roman Catholic era, the language that was used to sing and write was Latin. The Latin language was used throughout the churches. Gregorian chants have a special way of being sung.

Chants were normally sung in unison “Innovations included tropes, extra words or notes added to a chant, and organum, improvisational harmonies focusing on octaves, fifths, fourths, and, later, thirds. Neither tropes nor organum, however, belong to the chant repertory proper” (New).

Gregorian chants influenced the square notation heads, the harmonizing of voices and instruments, etc. The staff notation in music heard throughout the years was from the chants. Square notation heads were used to mark the octave that the note was supposed to be sung on. Musical notation was derived from the chants along with the repetition of a note. Gregorian chants were known for the repetition of notes and words. Neumes were tiny marks indicating the fall or rise of the voice. One of the most popular influences that were that was taken from the Gregorian chant was the chorale a simple melody, written for congregations to sing hymns. Chorale settings can be sung vocally, by instrumental, or both in later years.

“The renewed interest in early music in the late 19th century left its mark on 20th-century music. Gregorian influences in classical music include the choral setting of four chants in ‘Quatre motets sur des themes Gregorian’s’ by Maurice Duruflé and the choral work of Arvo Pärt” (New). The calmness and gentleness of the Gregorian chants influenced music as we know it now. The harmonies styles such as somebody would call out a phrase and it would be repeated or a phrase or note would be called out and the lower note would be called. Gregorian chants were the staple of the Roman Catholic period. They influenced many cultures and musical movements.

Renaissance music was sung with instruments and also only instrumental. “Renaissance instruments, such as vials and most wind instruments were often built in families, with several different sizes to cover different ranges. A group of like instruments were called a consort” (Burkholder). Renaissance music also included winds, plucked strings, bowed strings, keyboards, and percussion. Because of the recent change in society, a common unifying polyphonic style of music emerged. “Polyphony means music with more than one part, and so this indicates simultaneous notes” (McComb).

“Polyphony is one of the notable changes that mark the Renaissance from the Middle Ages musically. Its use encouraged the use of larger ensembles and demanded sets of instruments that would blend together across the whole vocal range. Principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets, with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms (such as the madrigal) for their own designs.”

Renaissance music was very influential in history.

“The music of the period was significantly influenced by the developments which define the early modern period: the rise of humanistic thought; the recovery of the literary and artistic heritage of ancient Greece and Rome; increased innovation and discovery; the growth of commercial enterprise; the rise of a bourgeois class; and the Protestant Reformation” (Lumen). The Renaissance era was called the ‘rebirth’ period because the era was very different than what was previously known. Music changed a lot throughout the era; at the beginning of the era, music was religious and only for the church. Towards the end of the era music was public and for the wealthy. The whole attuited throughout the year changed because the idea of humanism hopped in minds. Humanism was the value of humans and the thoughts being emphasized. The Mensuration notation is a numerical system where rhythmic durations were measured between note values. “Arithmetical proportions are used in mensural notation to diminish or increase the value of a note in certain ratios” (Apel 146). “Just as a whole rest in modern notation can have different durations depending on the time signature, so many of the notes and rests of this earlier notation can have different durations depending on the mensuration. There are no bar lines to mark each measure nor to distinguish one mensuration from another, but the rhythmic organization is there just the same” (Diffin, 6)

Both the Gregorian chants and the Renaissance music influenced a lot of things within the society and in later years to come. Both Gregorian Chants and Renaissance music are two very different types of music type. These musical influences have rarely anything in common with each other when it comes to music but when you look at how music influences society it had many simulates

Work cited:

1. “A Brief History of Gregorian Chant.” America Magazine, 7 Mar. 2018, https://www.americamagazine.org/arts-culture/2018/03/07/brief-history-gregorian-chant.
2. INVITATION TO LEARN GREGORIAN CHANT | Gregorian Chant Hymns—. http://gregorian-chant-hymns.com/ . Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.
3. The Medieval Church Modes, Dorian Scales & Mixolydian Scales. https://bandnotes.info/tidbits/tidbits-feb.htm. Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.
4. Gregorian Chant – New World Encyclopedia. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Gregorian_chant . Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.
5. McComb, Todd M. What Is Monophony, Polyphony, Homophony, Monody Etc.? http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/misc/homophony.html . Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.
6. Renaissance Music | Music Appreciation. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/renaissance-music/ . Accessed 15 Dec. 2019.
7. Apel, Willi. The Notation of Polyphonic Music, 900–1600. 1961. 5th ed., Cambridge, MA: The Medieval Academy of America., December 15, https://archive.org/details/notationofpolyph00apel/page/146.
8. Duffin, Ross W. “Notation Manual.” Notation Manual, 1983, https://artscimedia.case.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/135/2016/09/15014753/NotationManual.pdf.
9. Burkholder, J. Peter. “ Renaissance Instruments.” Music M401 History and Literature of Music I: Antiquity to 1800, Iowa State University’s Musica Antiqua, 15 Oct. 2014, http://courses.music.indiana.edu/m401/instrum.html.

The European social order

How were European societies arranged in the 1400s? European societies were arranged in a hierarchy, that is, by order of rank or position. Rulers and nobles were at the top. They owned the most land and were the most powerful. Peasants were at the bottom. Most of the people in European society were peasants. In Europe, kinship did not play as important a role as it did in Native American and African societies. Life in Europe centered around the nuclear family. This kind of household was made up of a mother and father and their children.

Christianity shapes the European outlook

How did the Crusades affect Europe? The Roman Catholic Church was important in Europe. The pope, the leader of the church, had political and spiritual power. The church encouraged Christians to take Spain from the Muslims, who were followers of Islam. The church also wanted Muslims to leave the Holy Land. From 1096 to 1270, Europeans took part in the Crusades. These were a series of wars to retake the Holy Land. The Crusades failed to achieve this goal. The Crusades still had a big impact, though. Trade increased. Europeans wanted the goods they saw in Asia. The Crusades weakened the power of European nobles and the pope. They also let European monarchs gain more power. In the early 1500s reformers called for changes in the Roman Catholic Church. This movement was called the Reformation.

Changes come to Europe

What changes were happening in Europe? In the 1300s Europe suffered several serious setbacks. Thousands died from starvation after a crop failure. An epidemic of plagues beginning in the 1340s killed 25 million people, a quarter of Europe’s population. Long wars killed thousands more. In the 1400s modern Europe began to take shape. The Crusades had opened trade routes. The population increased, and towns and cities grew larger and more powerful. The Crusades weakened the nobility and made monarchs more powerful. By the late 1400s, four major nations were taking shape in Western Europe: Portugal, Spain, France, and England. The Renaissance led to a more secular spirit, an interest in worldly pleasures, and a new confidence in human achievement. People began to regard themselves as individuals.

Europe enters a new age of expansion

Why did Europeans become interested in exploration? Europeans looked for new routes to the East. The introduction of the compass and astrolabe allowed ship captains to navigate better. New ships such as the Caravel allowed sailors to sail against the wind. Prince Henry of Portugal, often called Henry the Navigator, developed and employed these new innovations. He sent his captains to explore the coast of Africa. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa in 1488. Ten years later, Vasco da Gama reached India.

Romanticism was the largest artistic movement of the late 1700s. Romanticism came around because of political, social, and economic changes. Some important features of romanticism are emphasis on imagination, a capacity for wonder, and the importance of self expression and feeling. This style of writing was a way for artists and writers to express themselves in a different way. Some examples of authors of this time period are William Blake, Walter Scott, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Percy Shelley. Romantic paintings often featured natural disasters.

One of the most important authors of the time was John Keats, who was born in London on the 31st of October in 1795. Keats was a short man, he was just over 5 feet tall. His hair was red brown in color. His father died in an accident when John was just eight and his mother died when he was fourteen. In his time Keats published fifty four poems and a few magazines. He took on a wide range of poetic types. Some of John Keats poems are ‘To Autumn’, ‘Ode on a grecian urn’ and ‘Ode to a nightingale’.

The particular style of poetry has had a lasting effect on our writing style and the way we live and talk. The Romantics found fresh ways to express themselves: their reverence for nature, in its awesome beauty, was to prove to be a legacy that would last forever. Looking upon parts of the environment for inspiration, they pushed people to travel, both literally and metaphorically, into new territories of the world. Their attitudes about life were freeing and made the world seem a bigger place of more opportunity. The outcome of their standpoint has continued to have an effect on culture in many ways.

Certain literary character types began in the Romantic period: for example, the rebellious hero and the mysterious lady such as Keats’s ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’. Romantics often embraced the scary and the popularity of Gothic novels. There was also very much interest in scientific discoveries and developments. Particularly, Mary Shelley’s ‘Frankenstein’ has lasted and it has been said that this establishing text made the way for the advances of science-fiction.

Literature was not the only art form to be affected by Romanticism though. ‘Composers also stayed away from the former clarity of balance to experiment, striving for deeper emotional depth. Mendelssohn, Schumann, Chopin, Berlioz and Liszt were early pioneers”. They were followed by Verdi, Wagner, Brahms and Tchaikovsky, all of who produced inspiring music, and in the twentieth century Schoenberg, Debussy, Bartok, Mahler, Shostakovich, Stravinsky, Puccini and Rachmaninoff continued the tradition of writing for the romantic era. Virtuoso conductors and performers attracted a lot of attention. There are several of modern composers who are referred to as Neo-Romantics, these include George Rochberg and David Del Tredici.

These things changed the way we see the world and experience things. We see the world differently and people have changed. The romanticism period was a very important part of the changing of our world. The authors changes writing and many different things. One thing is for sure, the Romantic era made a shift in the way people thought, and has continued to make an influence on the way we see and experience the world.

Romanticism was and is a global movement that cleared Western Europe and Russia toward the finish of the eighteenth and start of the nineteenth centuries. It extended to North America starting around 1830. As a movement, Romanticism drew its motivation and vitality from different sources including a developing sense that the innovative conceivable outcomes inherent to the inflexible formalism of Illumination rationality and art had been depleted, developing weakness with rule by the few and the resounding achievements of the French and American upsets and such later famous wars for freedom as those in Greece, Poland, and Spain. The Romantic era ascends from the new wealth, stability, and sense of advancement made by the preceding Edification. Romanticism therefore depends intensely on the practical achievements of the earlier un-Romantic era, even while removing itself from the mechanical or methodical associations of the Age of Reason; a relationship between material wealth and scientific technological learning on one hand, and individual, spiritual, or enthusiastic transcendence on the other, that twenty-first century Americans keep on overseeing.

Romanticism is the chronicled time of literature in which modern readers most start to see an impression of themselves and their own advanced clashes and wants. The Romantic time frame has passed, yet its styles esteems still thrive today in mainstream structures and well-known dispositions, sentiments, emotions, and creative energy take need over rationale and facts. Anything you want you can have on the off chance that you just need it enough, because when you set a goal then you work really hard just to achieve or to get closer to that goal. The other value or style of the romanticism era is Nature as excellence and truth, especially the sense of nature is superb.

If we see romanticism in personal and individual style then we may come to know that romantic emotion has an inner as well as outer introduction, the inner-self and nature is separate from daily societal activities. The inner and outer relate to one another: for example, a dull and stormy night mirrors a tormented self or soul, or a delicate knoll with flying creatures trilling stirs an inner feeling of harmony or congruity. The phrase ‘Romantic’ is normally restricted to love (similarly as ‘romances’ presently mean love stories), however some subtler uncovers how the more extensive importance of Romanticism perseveres and also uncovers the big picture behind the topic. As to talk about internationally, this term is not just limited to one country and it is the global vision of the whole world. Romanticism has two generation of poets and the poets in the first generation includes the iconic names like William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and poets from the second generation includes the legends like George Byron, Percy Shelley, John Keats.

Romanticism was a reestablishment; a revolution is artistic structures in compositions, writing and theater. In Germany and Russia, romanticism made the national writing. It impacted the entire vision of art. It was likewise the source of contemporary thoughts including latest individualism, the vision of nature, the vision of work by art as a confined item. Nature ended up romanticized as life in the nation was increasingly idealistic. Romantic poets did not discuss cities (yet realists did). Nature was a wellspring of poetic motivation and gave an otherworldly measurement to life, in view of the natural association among man and nature in customary rustic culture, which was biting the dust quick due to the Mechanical Transformation.

There was a recovery of human life destroyed by cities, an admired vision of nature; they were searching for a recharged humanity. Romanticism is the emphasis of feelings, interests and instincts. It contrasts from the 18th century, which depended on reason and reflection. Reason is all inclusive, everybody utilizes a similar rationale; it isn’t close to home. Then again, feelings, enthusiasm and instinct are what make individuals not quite the same as one another; it is exceptionally individualistic and narrow minded. The romantic vision of love is best on the grounds that serious when inconceivable; fate, death, social differences such as in Romeo and Juliet.

During late antiquity and early middle ages, the Christian faith emerged first as a sect of Judaism that distinguished itself from other Jewish communities, like the Essenes, the Sadducees and Pharisees, by recognition of Jesus as the arrival of the Messiah. The morality proposed by the Christians was not new, but an extension of the moral precepts, which had been practised by the philosophers and Jews; the monotheistic stance of the group was also an extension of the Jewish basis of Christianity. However, in contrast to Judaism, which was an ancient faith, the Christian religion was relatively new and therefore suspicious; it had not yet earned the reputation or the honour of an established faith. Some of the moral precepts promoted by the Christians included marital faithfulness, discouragement of remarriage, notions against the propriety of suicide, virginity from the time of birth, continence from the time of baptism, and continence within married couples. This essay argues that Constantine built the foundations for Christianity to spread in the late antiquity and early middle ages. Through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE and the introduction of political bishops, Constantine integrated Christianity into many main aspects of society, building the pillars in which future Emperors of the Roman Empire could expand upon. The consolidation of this integration through the building of churches in key cities not only signified the growing power and influence the Christian faith had within the Roman Empire, but also demonstrated how crucial conversion to Christianity was believed to be for the lasting success of the Roman Empire.

To understand the significance of Constantine’s endorsement of Christianity, it is important to understand the previous attitudes towards the Christian faith in the late antiquity. The Christian message of religious exclusivity and monotheism was resented throughout the empire. Denial of any other god beside their own was a major source of Roman opposition towards the Christian faith. Furthermore, due to their monotheistic beliefs, Christians refused to participate in public sacrifices to the empire was arguably at the heart of Christian persecution.

In order to understand why the Christian ideologies and concepts appealed to so many people in late antiquity and early middle ages, we first need to understand the message and ideologies that they were teaching. Christians had a very strong identity and were members of an extended, yet artificial kin group that they created when they went through baptism. Yet, this group was open to all classes; churches vowed to accept even those who were excluded from other aspects of Roman society. Therefore, among the early converts to Christianity were former slaves, existing slaves, members of the aristocracy, etc. And many members of early Christianity were also embers of the merchant class. Taking this into account, it is clear why the promise of better inheritance of this world and the next inspired so many people to convert to the Christian faith. Christianity promised a better inheritance of this world and the next for those who became Christians. In this world, they could expect charity, a sense of community life, common social bonds that tied them together. Also, the promise of salvation in the afterlife was especially appealing to those in the underclass, for those who had a relatively or entirely miserable existence in this life. Christianity also provided access to a philosophical world which was not restricted to an educated elite.

One of the most significant agreements in the advancement of Christianity was the Edict of Milan 313 CE. The Edict of Milan was the outcome of a political agreement between the Roman emperors Constantine and Licinus in February 313; it permanently established the freedom to practice Christianity within the Roman Empire. The edict was significant as it granted Christians legal rights, including the right to organise churches, and directed the prompt return to Christians of confiscated property. Although there had been previous edicts of toleration, the Edict of Milan was arguably the main turning point in the spread of Christianity across the Roman Empire in late antiquity and early middle ages. With the edict endorsing Christianity, people were allowed to openly practise the religion without the deterrent of persecution, meaning that people were, in theory, free to practise Christianity if they desired. Although some historians, such as Isabella Sandwell, argue that “some late-antique people might not have chosen to see religious interaction as an interaction between two mutually opposed and strongly bounded entities” and “Instead, they might have played up the similarities across religious boundaries, emphasised areas of compromise and allowed people to switch easily between religious allegiances.” This argument has its merits as evidence shows that in late antiquity, pagan religion itself was adapting and becoming less polytheistic. Therefore, the initial impact of the edict of Milan may not have been explosive as it first appears. However, its legacy is still one of great significance as it pathed the way for future reforms such as the First Council of Nicaea. The first council of Nicaea was a council of bishops assembled in the city of Nicaea by Constantine in the year 325 CE. This assemblage of this resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine: the Nicene Creed. Constantine’s organisation of The Nicene Creed was another significant milestone in the progression of the Christian faith in early antiquity. We begin to see the formation of a more prestigious, powerful and respected religion, a stark contrast to the struggling persecuted Christian faith before 313 CE.

Not only did Constantine grant people the freedom to practise Christianity without persecution in the Edict of Milan, he also integrated Christian faith into the fundamental pillars of society through the introduction of political bishops. This new introduction to society is extremely significant as it indicates that not only were those of Christian faith now free to practise Christianity as they pleased, but they now had political influence within the empire, increasing the significance and power of the Christianity within the Roman empire.

After Constantin endorsed the Christian faith, through the Edict of Milan, we begin to see a surge in the number of cynics and other philosophers, such as John Chrysostom, speaking to the public. “The pinnacle of ancient education was the school of rhetoric, and the skill continued to be an important element of elite identity throughout the later Roman Empire,” therefore, Chrysostom and his many of his contemporaries were educated in rhetoric, meaning that they were extremely skilful in their powers of persuasion. With this in mind, it is easier to explain why public speaking was a powerful factor in the conversion of many people to Christianity in late antiquity and the early middle ages. These sermons, however, these sermons were not restricted to just the educated elite. Although “the rich, educated, or male members of the congregation were often the center of attention, a close look at Chrysostom’s homilies reveals that the preacher was aware that he was speaking to people with a variety of educational backgrounds,” including the lower, merchant classes and those who were excluded from other aspects of Roman society. Addressing people of a variety of educational and social status’ as one was, arguably, critical in the inducement of citizens across the Roman Empire. Within Christianity, all people had a purpose and were of importance. This gave converts who were perceived as outcasts of society, such as former slaves, a sense of inclusivity with the rest of the Roman population, something they would not have had the opportunity to experience before; nobody was excluded in the Christian faith due to their social ranking. However, without the Edict of Milan in 313, not only would public figures like Chrysostom and his contemporaries be persecuted, but also those who attended his sermons, meaning that a vast majority of citizens, who were attracted to the christian faith, were deterred from the practice. Not only did Constantine enable these sermons to take place, but he also integrated leaders of the Christian faith into key positions within the government and built churches for them to preach their message.

Constantine consolidated the endorsement of the Christian faith through the building of impressive churches on “established sites of Christian worship connected with the martyrs” (including St Peter’s and Lateran basilica). The decision to build the churches on the sites connected with the martyrs is one of significance; it suggested to the roman people that Christianity was now the dominant faith, breaking ties with old traditions. “Constantine ringed the city of Rome with new churches, built at established sites of Christian worship connected with the martyrs,” showing the people of the empire that Christendom was not something to fear or resent, but instead was a faith that people should embrace. Constantine arguably gave Christianity the platform and necessities in which it needed for a widespread empire conversion. Not only did Constantine allow these churches, but he also spent empire funds building them in major cities such as Antioch, Nicomedia, Milan and Aquilia. With some of them receiving imperial sponsorship, it signified that Constantine’s endorsement of Christianity was more than just personal feelings, but may, in fact, be of political benefits and crucial for the survival of the Empire. As seen with previous religious persuasions in the Roman Empire in late antiquity, it is evident that religious beliefs and the success of the empire were inextricably intertwined through public acts such as Sacrifice to the Genius of the Emperor.

However, it is important to note that although many people during late antiquity were converting to Christianity, “In the period from the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Valentinian III at Ravenna in 425, a considerable section of the population of the Roman empire, at all social levels, remained largely unaffected by the claims of the Christian church. They were impenitently polytheistic, in that the religious common sense of their age.” Some may argue that due to a large amount of the imperial population being unaffected by the religious reforms, Constantine’s efforts to convert the Roman Empire to the Christian faith was unsuccessful. However, it is crucial to look at what the reforms represented, and also to look at the foundations that Constantine built in order for Christianity to further progress and ultimately become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire. The building of these Christian churches was a clear expression of Constantine’s desires for the future of the empire. It can be argued that the building of these magnificent churches was a clear indication that the acceptance of the Christian faith was permanent and revealed Constantine’s intentions for Christianity to eventually become the primary religion within the empire.

Taking all evidence into account, there were many significant reasons for the spread of Christianity in late antiquity and early middle ages. However, Constantine laid down the first successful foundations which made future attempts to further spread Christianity, such as the Nicene Creed and Theodosian Code, as successful as they were, if at all possible. By endorsing the freedom to practice Christianity, it enabled educated cynics and philosophers, who were trained in the art of rhetoric, to freely preach Christian ideologies and values, without fear of being persecuted. This is arguably one of the main reasons that Christianity spread so successfully among the lower class citizens of the Roman Empire before christianity becoming the official religion of the Roman Empire in 380 CE with the Edict of Thessalonica. Without Constantine’s reforms, Christianity would not have gained as strong a foothold and future steps towards Christianity may not have been as successful, therefore, Constantine’s reforms were the most important reason people converted to Christianity in late antiquity and early middle ages.

Following the fall of the Roman Empire, religion became an important aspect of daily life in Europe, because every person from the King to the peasants was controlled by the church. Religion impacted on the social, economic and political systems of the time and help strong power due to the low education levels of peasants. The Middle Ages is described as a 1,000-year-period. The phrase “Middle Ages” is used to describe Europe between the fall of Rome in 476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. Constantine, the Roman Emperor, made Christianity an official religion of the empire and anyone who didn’t follow the same religion would be socially ostracised, and sometimes even get beaten. This meant that everyone in the kingdom had to follow Christianity or would face punishments.

Religion had both positive and negative economic effects. One of the positive effects was the Church’s implementation of an education system, which later paved the way for universities. Their educational scope quickly broadened beyond religious training into medicine and law. This meant that more people could study broader topics and would therefore help the kingdoms and the churches around the area. This would bring in more money boosting the economy. However, there were negative impacts as well. One of them was that there was a high level of corruption in the Catholic Church. This high level of corruption has been reported as one of the causes that eventually led to the downfall of the roman empire. This showed immense flaws in the medieval economical system, once again showing, though negatively, how much of an effect religion had on the Middle Ages. As seen in the information given it is clear that the effect religion had on the economic landscape of Medieval Europe is quite large.

The Church in the Middle ages also had positive and negative social effects. One of the positive effects was that religion gave people a sense of belonging. Belonging to a church was important during this time because it gave people a sense of security and support, allowing them to deal with everyday problems and issues. This meant that the church would bring in more people to go to their church. This is still true today, as people join religions and go to churches to have a sense of belonging. On the other hand, this new feeling of security, hope and belonging were the constant conflicts of opposing beliefs and struggles. For instance, although there were many Christians with the same beliefs, there were also many that did not accept the Catholic practices of that time. One of such people was Martin Luther who was determined to reform the Catholic Church. The reformation protest caused people to live in fear of being outcast from society or prosecuted.

Religion had a part in all political relationships formed within medieval Europe. Both negative and positive outcomes came from the presence of religion in these times. We can see this from the clear sway the Roman-Catholic Church had on who, and how the King operated. Examples of this can be seen when the church excommunicated King Harold for going back on promises regarding the Catholic Church. This had an immense impact on the people of Europe, as the church had the ability to dethrone Kings, therefore dominating control of all of Medieval Europe. A decree by Emperor Henry IV in 1085 talks about the oppression of Christians and how they were going to change it. In doing so, the church was allowed to write some laws, such as ‘If a freeman or a noble shall have violated [a law] … he shall … be expelled from within his boundaries, and his heirs may take his whole estate’. This meant that the church now had political power. A negative impact was their ability to commence crusades whenever they felt threatened by another state of power such as the Muslims in the Middle East. This led to mass killings due to the alleged ‘protection and serving’ of their religion. Another positive impact was its ability to keep people within their jurisdiction in ‘check’, as well as making sure that those who cheated, lied and scammed were stopped from doing so. This drastically reduced both the number of casualties and stolen money within Medieval Europe. We can see a model of this today, in our constitution as a set of laws which deter and punish those who commit crimes, with fines and potential jail time. As seen in the information given, it is certain that the effect religion had on the political landscape of Medieval Europe was very influential.

From the information presented today, it is clear that religion had a vast impact on the Middle Ages in Europe, across the economy, the society and at all levels of politics. As a consequence, it can be seen that the hypothesis: *point to board*, has been confirmed to be true. This has been proven through, firstly, the way that religion had a dominating effect of the economy, by the church introducing schools and universities, the social life from kings to peasants, by religion giving people a sense of belonging, and the political landscape, by the church having more power than the king. Overall, therefore, it is clear that the perspective that religion had a large impact on all aspects of life in Medieval Europe is correct.

We cannot deny the importance of the role that women have played in history, more specifically in the history of the Middle Ages. Women have been viewed as possessions and were given off for peace. They were considered not worthy of power nor freedom, just living under the mercy of their lords and husbands. Their duties included raising children, cooking, and farming. Unfortunately, this has been going on throughout history and in many places today. But when women take power, they should not be underestimated. Women have shaped history in ways that many men could never shape. They have created and controlled kingdoms that others failed to challenge. Women have influenced kings, nations, countries, and religions that have changed the world forever. Throughout this essay, Theodora and Wu Zetian will be used to show how the medieval world was shaped by women. “When women ran the empire – and their history was preserved by men”.

Starting with Theodora, who earned her living through a combination of her theatrical and sexual desires. Working as an actress at the time would include indecent exhibitions on stage and providing sexual service off stage. As a result, a law was made to prevent anyone of senatorial rank from marrying actresses. Justinian I, traditionally known as Justinian the Great, fell in love with Theodora to the point where he repealed the law in order to marry her. Two years after their marriage, Theodora became the Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. She participated in many political activities. Justinian called her his “partner in my deliberations”. Theodora was known to fight for what she believed in and never gave up or backed down because of fear. When an issue was present, Theodora would face it and try to solve the issue to the best of her ability. During Justinian’s reign, a revolt against him called the Nika Revolt (or the Nika Riots) was taking place all around Constantinople. They were one of the most violent riots the city has ever seen. Nearly half of Constantinople was burned and tens of thousands were killed. While trying to escape the city Theodora decided to fight back, saying that “royal purple is the noblest shroud”. She organized all of Justinian’s forces, and because of her efforts, the Byzantine Empire did not collapse. Theodore was not only an empress but also a great example to every female in the Byzantine Empire. She created laws that empowered women. She allowed men of noble birth to marry women of a lower class, laws that prevented women from being forced into prostitution, and laws that prevented women from being taken advantage of in the event of divorce. Although she was an actress in the past, many would consider her a saint due to her actions. “…for a man who has once been emperor to become a runaway – that we cannot bear! I hope I never have the imperial purple stripped from me nor live to the day when the people I meet fail to address me as empress”, Theodora once said.

The only female emperor and monarch in Chinese history. She ruled the Tang as empress from 655 to 690, and then as emperor for 15 years. Throughout Wu Zetian’s 50-year reign, the empire reached its climax and flourished with stability power, and prosperity. Wu Zetian ruled according to what she once stated, “The ideal ruler is one who rules like a mother rules over her children”. Wu Zetian challenged the Confucian beliefs that state that “having a woman rule [is] as unnatural as having a hen crow like a rooster”. To elevate the status of women, she made scholars write biographies of notable women and gave prominent political positions to members of her mother’s tribe. Wu Zetian was very strategic. To eliminate anyone that threatened her position, she would send them into exile, get them killed, or, in many cases, force them to commit suicide. Many think of her as a dictator but don’t see that she needed to be strong and have that resistance in order to get where she wanted. Her rise to power in a male-dominated society itself is an accomplishment.

Unfortunately, not all the female powers that we have encountered were prosperous or behaved in a positive way. The Frankish queen Fredegund was one of history’s most bloodthirsty and violent queens. Her life and her reign were primarily centered around the torture and killing of everyone who stood against her and her will. For the most part, the same thing applies to the queen regent of Austrasia, Brunhilda. Brunhilda and Fredegund were enemies that fought for years. They sent their best knights to fight. Eventually, Brunhilda was captured by Fredegund but escaped prison. Through these two examples, we see that not every female leader was a great leader. Although many ruled better than men and developed their nation as no other king could have. Meanwhile, others were just like any other leader, with no significance.

In conclusion, female power was not given as much attention and consideration as all the other kings and male leaders, but we can see that female power definitely made a prominent change in history. From Empress Theodora who was not afraid of fighting and completely took control of the situation of her people and empire to Wu Zetian who remained in power by spreading fear among everyone around her, but Wu Zetian did not disappoint and actually progressed her nation. In other places, such as the Frankish kingdom, queens and female leaders were not as wise as their main and only goal was to stay in power and murder whoever they wanted or disliked. Away from queens, regents, and empresses, women have had a great role in peacemaking between empires and kingdoms. Women would be used to make peace through peace-weavers which refers to women who were married to a member of an enemy tribe for the purpose of establishing peace between feuding groups. Overall, we need to recognize that history would be different without female power.

In medieval times, being punished for committing a crime was something to be fearful of. There were brutal torture machines designed to bring agonizing pain to whoever was unlucky enough to be placed in them. These barbaric practices were widely used throughout medieval England. There were also many other punishments that didn’t use machines but still brought uncontrollable pain, and in most cases, death. Punishments varied between social groups. For peasants and serfs, punishments were much more prominent and happened more regularly. Punishments given to people higher up in the social hierarchy were less known and less brutal. Many different types of punishments occurred, they were called ordeals. There were many different types of ordeals, ordeal by fire, ordeal by water, trial by ordeal and ordeal by combat.

Homelessness was considered a crime, and often they would be put into stocks so people could beat them. It was not just the homeless though, the poorer classes were discriminated against and had no say. This chain of poor classes going through agonizing pain never ended. This was due to the fact that most people where uneducated, so in order to survive they had to steal. If your family was starving, you had to find a way to feed them somehow, so, you could go into debt, or risk it all and commit a crime. And often many people committed crimes because impunity lets them. Courts and judges existed but they were bias and judgments where often known before the case. If you did not turn up to court you were considered an outlaw, your property was seized and became the kings. Outlaws often joined together, roaming the countryside and committing crime. Roman and Greek law stated only slaves could get tortured, but, the laws eventually changed so that free men could be tortured and put in prison.

Blasphemy and Heresy were considered the worst crime you could commit, this is because it went against the ways and beliefs of the church. They would then often be sentenced to death. If a man committed rape, robbery or manslaughter they were hung up in a cage so that people could see their slow death. Sometimes, they were taken down just before their death so they could be quartered so the pain would kill them. These public hangings were announced by the kings’ men. Most people would bring their children with them, this was encouraged by rulers, thinking that giving them the fear would become a deterrent of committing a crime. This also meant that the public had a very close understanding of how punishment happened. Medieval officials lacked the resources and money to build suitable jails, so people often died of sickness before their trial. The people then took pity of people in jail and often let them out to beg for food.

The catholic church used torture to get confessions from people even if they were innocent, and the harsher the crime the harsher the punishment. They were beaten, whipped, burned alive, chained in stocks, beheaded, suffocated in water, had their eyes burned out with pinchers, stretched on a rack, burned in hot oil and would have their limbs and fingers cut and torn off. There were also many torture machines, they included the pillory, breast ripper, iron chair, thumb screw, stocks, and many others. The breast ripper (see figure 1) was made for women who committed adultery and abortion. First, it was heated up in a fire, then the four claws would slowly rip apart the woman’s breast. If she didn’t die from the pain and wounds that were caused, she would remain disfigured for the rest of her life. The Spanish Boot was a device designed to crush the foot. It was held the foot in place and caused additional pain and destruction. The toes were often left uncrushed so further damage could be done to them.