Category: Mexican American

The story of ‘How To Tame A Wild Tongue’ by Gloria Anzaldua is a tale about how she researches the opposing view towards the Chicano methods for talking and the appalling impact of this pessimistic disposition on the Chicano individuals where they live in the border.

Gloria begins the story by utilizing an analogy and recollecting a dental specialist who grumbled about her tongue and that it was excessively solid and obstinate. She got disappointed and needed to realize how to tame a wild tongue. Gloria begins to explain some moments in her life where her background has given her some struggles in her life, especially for her identity. Gloria recalls a specific time where her teacher sent her to the corner because she had to correct her teacher for saying her name wrong. It was a bitter experience for her, and it further highlights some of her experiences as a Chicano.

A Chicano is also known as a person of Mexican origin or descent. Gloria reveals this because she wants the readers to understand the real Gloria is and that they have to see through many different layers of language and also prove her struggles with her identity. Her gender also plays a significant role as her culture has imposed a different set of rules and saying how women are expected to act or speak in this time period. Being a Chicano in a society where they are always being looked down upon can be a struggle for many. Chicanos can’t identify as English or Hispanic speaking people because they’re located somewhere in between as the right mix of both cultures. This can prove to struggle for Gloria to deal with as she’s growing up because Chicano students are both Mexican-American; they have different cultures that influence their dialects; therefore, they speak differently.

Gloria makes reference to a story in the substance where she goes off the educational program while showing some Chicano understudies English. She also talks about how she believes that her language has a lot to do with her identity and believes she has been judged by it and that she has formed a relationship between her character and different languages and attributes that to the fact that humans are complicated as they are. Chicano people have suffered dramatically from negative attitudes that they received from other cultures, specifically Mexican and English-speaking people. Gloria thinks of her as a highlight as a fundamental element that distinguishes her. She clarifies that Chicano Spanish talks have grown normally as an outskirt language. Be that as it may, Gloria doesn’t distinguish herself socially with both of the gatherings so her language is fitting for individuals who talk it as well. These individuals originate from various, complex foundations. She feels that Chicano Spanish developed on the grounds that these individuals needed to distinguish themselves as an interesting gathering. Anzaldua accepts their legacy must be surrendered so as to be acknowledged in America.

The creator utilizes tales and truly acknowledges her work for her experience. Her accounts likewise claim to individuals’ feelings, causing individuals to comprehend that this kind of persecution is genuinely agonizing. She feels as though she can’t “acknowledge the authenticity” of herself until she acknowledges her dialects. She simply needs her crowd to regard her Chicano Spanish and feel like they can grasp and regard their own language and culture.

Second-generation Mexican-Americans are among the fastest-growing populations in the United States representing over 59% of the Latino population and are loosening cultural ties the family dynamic begins to fall apart even with strong maternal figures encouraging youth to accommodate both cultures, (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2001, 2004). “Several authors suggest that challenges created by this dual cultural adaptation process represent a substantial risk for Mexican American (and other minority) youths and may lead to negative mental health outcomes, low self-esteem, conduct problems, school failure, drug and alcohol abuse, and financial instability,” (Knight et al. 2011). Therefore, it is my assertion that Erika L. Sanchez’s novel I Am Not Your Perfect American Daughter seen through the Youth Lens suggests that the second-generation Mexican-American family begins to fragment and lose their cultural values and beliefs while adapting an American cultural youth construct with the characterization of matriarchal figures and their influence on the protagonist. Julia, the narrator’s older sister Olga Reyes suffered a fatal truck accident and at the funeral she worries that she will never live up to her deceased sisters memory in her parents’ eyes. Mrs. Reyes decided to carry out all she missed out on with Olga on Julia by giving her an extravagant quinceñera they cannot afford. Julia finds clues to her sisters possible secret life while reminiscing through Olga’s old room after their mother entombed it and decided to keep investigating despite running into brick walls at every turn.

Sanchez’s uses the character of Julia’s uncle, Tîo Biogotes, to represent the expectations of Mexican parents imposed on their American-born children, when in reality through YL it is education and knowledge that Julia really values in order to find her own truth and identity. Julia feels a little frustrated having to attend her nephew’s seventh birthday which always end up showcasing the drunken shenanigans of her uncles. Tîo Biogotes reminds Julia that she must learn how to be a proper young lady just as her deceased sister was, otherwise she will get nowhere in life without the support of her family. “You know, without family, you won’t make it in this life. And now that you’re older, you have to learn how to be a nice señorita just like your sister, may she rest in peace,” (Sanchez 83).

The Spanish word señorita and its use by the adult character of Tío Bigotes emphasizes the importance of family. However, it elicits guilt as Tio Bigotes uses it. Calling Julia a “young lady” and pointing out to her that having her nose stuck in books is not ladylike is condescending and is purposefully made to cause her to feel guilty for reading during a family gathering. If Julia furthers her knowledge of published works that were predominantly American literature, suggests that she is abandoning her culture and seeking an escape in books depicting cultures that marginalize her own Hispanic culture. Thus, Julia is conforming to American culture and abandoning her Hispanic heritage. Julia’s uncle makes sure to note that family is extremely important and she would not amount to anything without them. Sanchez suggests that because the narrator insists on reading and ignoring her family to do so alienated Julia from her family not only physically at the time of the get-together, but metaphorically. This assimilation to American culture by Julia will separate her intellectually and culturally from her family. She seems to find an escape from her family and culture in reading. The further she educates herself or keeps reading the further it seems she wants to get away from not only her family but her culture. Julia is constantly struggling to live up to unrealistic expectations of the memory of her deceased sister, Olga. Tio Bigotes reminds her that she should act more like Olga, because she was the perfect Mexican young lady that they want Julia to be. It is unrealistic for the Sanchez family to expect Julia to live up to a memory that they have sanctified. They think of Olga only in perfection, because as Mexican culture dictates they should not speak ill of the dead. Thus, Julia is condemned by her family to never be quite good enough. Julia then escapes these expectations in the fictional worlds of other cultures her books provide. Julia enjoys the fictional worlds her books depict because they show cultures with strong characters, female characters, that are free to choose their own path as opposed to being forced by their parents to remain at home and be housewives.

The narrator’s sister’s death symbolizes her further alienation from her family. The true nature of Olga’s death is a mystery left for Julia to solve representing how she is setting out to shatter the perfect image of her sister her family has made. This goes against Mexican culture’s beliefs of how to remember a deceased family member. Though Julia’s uncle reminds her of she should act like Olga, he fails to mention that she possibly committed suscide. According to Stanley Brandes, Mexican culture believes that one should not speak ill of the dead, but outline their accomplishments and contributions to the family. “Mexicans are surrounded by and live side by side with death,” (Brandes 128). Brandes argues that Mexicans have a morbid connection with death. In regards to Sanchez’s novel, the Mexican family has a strong connection to death in the constant and repetitive mention of Olga, “may she rest in peace”. Brandes notes that Mexican culture has an ironic connection to the notion of death mocking it which is contrary to Anglo-Americans. In continuously mentioning the deceased and wishing her rest is contradictory creating an irony that reflects the Mexican’s living parallel with death. Olga does not rest but lives alongside her family in what Mexican Catholic culture believes to be the afterlife. The irony lies in her being talked about and compared to the living even in death.

Sanchez characterizes Tio Bigotes in this statements as intoxicated and abrasive when addressing Julia. “…my dad and uncles pile into the dining room to bust out the expensive tequila from the liquor cabinet. I should’ve known. This happens at every party,” (Sanchez 82). His intoxication suggests that he overindulges in alcohol to escape his life which contradicts drinking spirits to celebrate at a family gathering. Why would he want to escape family by getting drunk? Getting drunk is the only way that Tio Bigotes can escape his family and attacks Julia for being able to find an escape that does not impair her judgment but sharpen her mind. “Like always, they sit around the dining room table, passing the tequila and talking about how great it was to live in their hometown of Los Ojos…as if reminiscing about lost love…If they love that town so much, why don’t they just go back and live there? I wonder. Always crying about Mexico as if it were the best place on earth,” (Sanchez 82). His condition implies Sanchez’s claim of Mexicans in America have contempt for second-generation Mexican-Americans and their ability to use education to escape strong family chains. Bonds are reflected as chains in Tio Biogotes’ situation. Tio Biogotes would prefer Julia to show an appreciation for her family at least superficially as he does. Tio Bigotes remains physically with his family, but checks out mentaly like the rest of the men attending these frequent family parties with beer.

Julia contradicts the traditional institution of the female figure in Mexican families by finding refuge and solace in reading to escape her family and their selfless expectations. Julia’s family encourages and constantly reminds her to accomplish more than they have but still remain within the traditionally marginalized construct of Mexican culture in America which can allow her to have a better life while maintaining a strong connection to her family. Her parents want her to be more than they are but not better.

When Julia returns from school she finds her father soaking his feet in a tub after working a 12-hour shift at a candy factory. He still finds the strength to offer pearls of wisdom to his seemingly lost daughter.

Apa doesn’t say much, but he always tells me, ‘Don’t work like a donkey like me. Be a secretary and work in a nice office with air conditioning.” I never tell him I’d rather clean toilets than be some man’s assistant. Fetching coffee and being bossed around by a jerk in a suit? No thanks. Once, I told Apa that I wanted to be a writer, but all he said was that I had to make enough money so I didn’t have to live in an apartment full of roaches. I never brought it up again.” (Sanchez 121)

Julia is actively trying to escape her culture through her education and reading. She aspires to become a writer. However, when she does mention her hopes for a scholarly future, her remarks are met with opposition. However, her dreams are not shattered they are merely suppressed. Apa wants her to work in service to others depicting the typical Mexican machismo of women working to serve men. Julia is strongly opposed to working for a man in a subservient capacity. She is determined to become a writer and write her own way regardless of the probability of having a low income. Making meager wages is not the American dream that brought her parents across the border. Their idea of giving their children an opportunity to have a better life than they did in Mexico is equivalent to making money not being educated. Regardless of how much Julia betters herself academically, she will never be a success in her parents eyes if she does not make a good living with whatever career she chooses. This is another way that Julia rebels against her family furthering her away from maintaining the strong familial bonds that are typical of Mexican culture suggested by her “never bringing it up again.”

Research shows the Mexican family structure begins to break down after assimilation following the second generation of Mexican-American children as demonstrated by Sanchez’s character of Lupita and the adults in her family, (Knight, et al,. 2010). A growing number of Mexican-American adolescents show a growing academic motivation to separate from their families despite the tradition of staying close to home for continued education or going straight into the workforce after high school to remain in proximity to parents. Despite the development of a bicultural identity in second generation Mexican-American youths they still experienced an internal conflict with the struggle of independence verses maintaining traditional Mexican family values and traditions.

Theoretical frameworks suggest that many Mexican American adolescents develop a bicultural identity (e.g., Rudmin, 2008; Schwartz, et al., 2006) and adopt a value system and behavioral styles approved by members of the ethnic and mainstream cultures. Emerging evidence has linked Latino youths’ cultural values to a number of critical outcomes, including academic motivation (Fuligni, 2001), substance use (Brook et al., 1998), and externalizing behavior problems, (Gonzales et al., 2008). The theory also suggests that immigrants and other minority youth may have more positive adaptation in the U.S. when they adopt a combination of mainstream and traditional ethnic cultural values (i.e., biculturalism; e.g., Gonzales, et al. 2002). Further, youths who develop a relatively bicultural identity may more successfully navigate these dual sets of demands (e.g., Rudmin, 2008; Schwartz, Montgomery, & Briones, 2006). On the other hand, the demands of dual cultural adaptation may lead to the internalization of values that are sometimes difficult to reconcile (i.e., familism vs. independence), leading some youth to experience conflict internally (e.g., identity difficulties) and with significant others (i.e., intergenerational value discrepancies). (Knight, et al., 2010)

Biculturalism conflicts with the ability to maintain a healthy practice of Mexican family traditions, mainly the closeness and community. Many Mexican-American adolescents are raised with stories of Mexico, such as Sanchez’s character of Lupita while simultaneously having the idea of fulfilling the American Dream their parents aspire to drill into them. This dream is one of financial independence achieved through education. Though, it sometimes seems to be only a high school education and a steady paying job that Mexican parents inspire their children to have and all the while demanding they remain in the same geographical area to keep a strong frequent familial connections. This is in direct conflict with nationwide initiatives for all students to go to college. Mexican-American adolescents, like Knight, et al., claim to find this duality to be so difficult it often leads to struggles in other areas of their lives suggesting that the absence of practicing traditional Mexican family values has a negative effect on all relationships in their lives.

According to Susanne Gamboa, et al., second-generation Americans who are millennials are having an increasingly difficult time balancing or even knowing exactly how to maintain their biculturalism. They often feel like they are unable to live up to their parents’ expectations of maintaining a close tie to their family and realistically achieving their parents’ American Dream for them of being successful independent Americans, (Gamboa, et al,. 2018).

Over half of Latinos under 18 and roughly two-thirds of Latino millennials are second-generation Americans — born in the U.S. to least one immigrant parent. “These young Latinos are the U.S. born, going through U.S. schools,” Lopez said, “yet they grew up in Latino households, exposed to the culture of their parents’ home country — that is the distinguishing point. They have all the markers of being American, yet they are the children of immigrants.” Navigating their parents’ immigrant culture while being born and raised in the U.S. has shaped their views on identity and what it means to be an American — factors that are, in turn, shaping the nation’s adult workforce and the electorate. Like other population waves throughout the country’s history, these young bicultural Americans are coming of age enmeshed in their Latino and American worlds and trying to carve out a place for themselves in both of them and between. Berenize García, 16, of New York City, said her father, a Mexican immigrant, has pressured her to be “more American,” while her mother told her it’s disrespectful not to retain and speak Spanish to their Mexican relatives. (Gamboa, et al,. 2018)

Second-generation American’s such as Lupita, continue to use education as a way to realize their parents dream of them becoming self-sufficient, but inevitable leads to a rift in the familial structure definition of the traditional Mexican culture.

According to Knight’s La Familia study in 2010, second-generation adolescents are not affected significantly by their ethnic cultural values because of assimilation to American cultural values as opposed to the significant effect it has on their immigrant parents.

Among adolescents, immigrant status was not significantly associated with ethnic cultural values (Familism Support, Familism Obligations, Familism Referents, Respect, Religion, and Traditional Gender Roles…(Knight, et al., 2010)

Thus, second generation Mexican-American youth detach from their familism ultimately leading to the degradation of the traditional strong Mexican family structure by the pursuit of the American Dream through education.

Therefore, I Am Not Your Perfect American Daughter suggests that Julia being the second generation Mexican-American begins to fragment, and lose her cultural values and beliefs while adapting an American cultural youth construct through education. Julia is stifled by her huge tight-knit family, so much so that she drowns herself in books in hopes to become a famous writer someday. “I want to become so famous that people stop me on the street and say, ‘Oh my God are you Julia Reyes the greatest writer that has ever graced this earth?’ All I know is that I’m gonna pack my bags when I graduate and say, ‘See ya later mothafuckas!’” (Sanchez 2) The narrator’s mother’s attempts to live vicariously through her daughter and do all the things she believes to have missed out on because of Olga’s death with Julia are misguided and futile. Julia’s biculturalism has made her independent and detached from her family, even disdainful and having an active rebellion towards everything that has to do with her Mexican culture. Julia is now in search of a new identity, though she is not willing to share her plans with her family they are still happening. This internalization of her future plans is yet another example of the detachment from the traditional Mexican values of the second-generation adolescent. Sanchez’s novel is extremely important in showing though perhaps unintentional degradation of the institution of family traditionally expressed in Mexican-American young adult literature by the adolescents active pursuit of an education far away from their families and search for independence as a separate entity from the grater familism that is the Mexican family.

Work Cited

1. America’s Health Rankings. (2019). Explore Teen Suicide in the United States | 2019 Health of Women and Children Report. [online] [20 Nov. 2019].
2. Brandes, Stanley. “Is There a Mexican View of Death?” Ethos, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Mar. 2003), pp. 127-144. Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association
3. Cahlan, Sarah, Suzanne Gamboa & Sandra Lilley. NBC News. (2019). Young Latinos: Born in the U.S.A., carving their own identity. [online] [20 Nov. 2019].
4. Knight, George P et al. “The Mexican American Cultural Values scales for Adolescents and Adults.” The Journal of early adolescence. Vol. 30,3 (2010): 444-481. doi:10.1177/0272431609338178.
5. Miller, Cody. Reimagining the Canon to Study Youth Culture. NCTE. 06.18.18 Diversity.
6. Sanchez, Erika L. 2019. I Am Not Your Perfect Mexican Daughter. New York. Random House Children’s Books.
7. Thomas, Ebony Elizabeth. The Dark Fantastic: Race and the Imagination from Harry Potter to the Hunger Games. NYU Press, May 21, 2019, 2019.

This article will assess information from a variety of sources to expand the knowledge on the impact of the Chicano movement in the 21st century. To begin there is some insight required to have a basic understanding of Jorge Mariscal’s “FOREWORD: THE CHICANO MOVEMENT Does Anyone Care about What Happened 45 Years Ago?” (Mariscal xi). The first thing being defining what exactly the Chicanx movement really was/is, the movement having roots going back as early as 1846. The 20th century is when the fight took a new form, in 1929 there were a couple of different organizations started such as the Mexican American Legal Defense Fund. Even till today, all the different groups have the same goal, that one goal being to make sure that all Mexican Americans have the same rights as their anglo counterparts.

The Chicano movement served as an extension of the Mexican-American civil rights movement that aimed at empowering Chicanos. Apart from civil rights, the Chicano movement was also concerned with re-establishing a Mexican ethnic identity. It started with the struggles of farm workers led by Dolores Huerta and César Chávez. In Mariscal’s work he mentions many of the different accomplishments of the Chicano/Chicana movement such as the “founding of the United Farm Workers (UFW) and the Alianza Federal de Mercedes” (Mariscal xiii). Many of these feats are very commendable, however, that being said there is still change that needs to be made from the ongoing movement to further the progress of Mexican Americans; Mariscal himself makes many valid points. “An entire new generation of Chicana/Latino scholars/intellectuals came out of the movement. Professor Jorge Mariscal and I represent that generation in this volume. Some of the authors in this text represent the latest wave of Chicano historians, for example, but scholars who are building on the shoulders of those who came before. In addition, the movement forced the system to provide more opportunities in business careen, the law, the media, medicine, engineering, and other more skilled and technical positions. Furthermore, the movement created a whole generation of elected and appointed Chicano/Latina politicians and this has only further increased over time. In all, the movement helped to create a new and aspiring middle class, but one in many cases was still empowered by the ethos of the Chicano Movement and thus more demanding of the system” (Mariscal, 13).

Activism groups within the Hispanic community existed before the enactment of the actual Chicano movement. For instance, in the 1940s and 1950s, the Hispanic activist groups had won two noteworthy victories. The first was the case of Mendez versus the Westminster Supreme Court in the year 1947. This case was an essential predecessor to the Brown Versus Board of Education case. Within the same year (1954), Brown achieved another win for Hispanic communities at the supreme court; the case was Hernandez versus the city of Texas. This case came with the conclusion that the 14th amendment guaranteed the right for the protection of all racial groups in the United States. Between the 60s and 1970s, the Hispanics had managed to claim equal rights. They now wanted to have the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo revised, this treaty was relevant because it ended the Mexican-American war. America had already taken southwest cities, which were initially part of the Mexican territory.

During the era of civil rights, the Chicanos began making demands for this land. They wanted it to be given to Mexican Americans because it consisted of their ancestral land.

Mexicans might have acquired civil rights early in history, but they were not protected from the politics of de facto and de jure. Legally seen as white, but socially treated as ‘Mexicans.’

The Chicano movement played a central role in shaping the community dynamics of Hispanic populations in America and transforming both their politics and identity. The Chicano movement had various dimensions, a single organization couldn’t manage all the agendas, approaches, tactics, objectives, and ideologies pursued by the Chicano/a activists.

Student and youth organizations were also paramount to the Chicano movement. The Raza Unida Party operated in Texas, this party was started with the hope of mobilizing Chicano voting power. The history of the Chicano movement is closely linked to Crystal City, Texas coincidentally where the party was established. Just as was the case with various schools in the united states, crystal city high school took to the streets in protest of educational reforms, civil rights, and Mexican American cultural identity. https://immigrationtounitedstates.org/415-chicano-movement.html

Soon, the Raza Unida Party became a considerable aspect of Chicano activism in the 1970s, in Texas as well as southern California. The voting power of Mexican Americans is still notable in modern American society. This is because the Chicano makes the most substantial part of marginalized populations in the united states. There are an estimated 58.9 million Hispanic people in the United States, comprising 18.1% of the population. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/20/us/hispanics-in-the-u-s-

The Mexican American Legal Defense was formulated with the aim of protecting Chicano/a civil rights. The Mexican American Legal Defense was the first organization to have ever been created with the purpose of minority civil rights protection. In the year 1967 hundreds of Chicano/a activists gathered at Denver. During this meeting, the Spiritual Plan of Aztlan manifesto was initiated. The ideology behind this manifesto played out when the United Race (La Raza Unida) was formed. Although La Raza Unida is no longer a registered party of the united states, the legacy it created still shaped the role of Mexican Americans in the American political landscape.

However, the lack of political influence impeded the improvements intended by this movement. This established the Chicano as a noteworthy elective block. After President John F. Kennedy was sworn in as president, he showed his gratitude by offering the Chicano and other Hispanic groups positions within his governmental party. After acquiring political influence through President John F. Kennedy, the Chicano movement initiated their demands for education, labor reforms, and various other sectors. The Mexican American Legal Defense was formulated with the aim of protecting Chicano/a civil rights. The Mexican American Legal Defense was the first organization to have ever been created with the purpose of minority civil rights protection. In the year 1967 hundreds of Chicano/a activists gathered at Denver. During this meeting, the Spiritual Plan of Aztlan manifesto was initiated. The ideology behind this manifesto played out when the United Race (La Raza Unida) was formed. Although La Raza Unida is no longer a registered party of the united states, the legacy it created still shaped the role of Mexican Americans in the American political landscape.

Equally in modern society, students played central roles in implementing the agenda of the Chicano movement. In the year 1968, various members of the Mexican American Youth Association and the United Mexican American Students staged a walkabout from schools in the Los Angeles and Denver areas to protest the ban imposed against speaking Spanish, high dropout rates amid Chicano/a students, and Eurocentric curriculum. The two main organizations that were involved made an official list of demands. The demands being separated into different categories: such as academic, administrative, facilities, and most of all student rights.

It took some time, however, the groups that had participated in the walkout were finally successful in getting their demands met. These groups were successful because about a decade later, the United States Supreme Court and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare acknowledged that it was unlawful to limit students who couldn’t express themselves in English from attending schooling.

For example, back before there was social media or any effective way to communicate to the masses two different student organizations planned and executed a walkout estimated to be around 15,000 students across many different high schools in East Los Angeles, California. If this were to happen today, there would be some serious changes being made. The issue with that previous statement is that even though the world is much more connected because of the internet, such an event is unlikely to happen because of the attitude of the modern generation.

There is, however, a query over the success of the movement in giving the Chicano identity.

This question needs scholarly attention as it is essential to ascertain the importance of the Chicano movement. The peak of the resurged Chicano movement was experienced in 1994 when students from various schools in the united states took to the streets in protest of California’s anti-immigrant Proposition 187. “As noted time and time again there have been examples of students and youth calling out for social change. Fast-forward to 2014 and we see troubling conditions for Spanish-speaking communities that remind us of the pre-Movement period. Rather than elaborating upon the details of the new anti-Latino racism-the disproportionate impact of the housing crisis on Latinos, mass deportations, a still broken K-12 system, reduced access to higher education, the hyper-militarization of the border, and so onI will simply say ‘Arizona’ and assume that most readers understand that there are ominous clouds threatening the future for Latinos in the United States” (Mariscal, xii).

Throughout American history, countless immigrants have struggled to fit into the ideal standards of U.S. society in order to create a better life for themselves and their families. The violence and unfair treatment that immigrants were faced with, ultimately led them to change their identities and stray away from their traditional culture to assimilate to societal expectations. Salt of the Earth (1954) is a film that portrays the struggles of Mexican American miners and their families in Zinc Town, New Mexico. The movie centers around Esperanza Quintero and her family’s involvement in the strikes that called for higher wages and just treatment of Mexican American laborers. The film shows the transformation of Esperanza from a passive bystander to one of the major figures in the protest movement. She ends the movie realizing the significance of maintaining Mexican culture as well as standing up for the rights of her Mexican American community. Throughout history, men are often portrayed as the main mode of change, however, women have also played a major role in transforming society. Mexican American women had a vital role in redefining what it meant to be Mexican American, specifically Mexican American women while perpetuating Mexican culture for future generations.

In countless societies, women are often portrayed as submissive and thus unproblematic because they are unwilling to speak out for injustice. Due to this stereotype, women in the past did not have a major presence in economic, social, or political decisions. They were mainly confined to the household and were responsible for caring for the family while being obedient to their husbands. As a result of these confinements, women often felt that they did not have the power to make a true change in society, because often times their opinions did not hold much weight. At the beginning of the film, Esperanza fit well into this passive stereotype. She was initially against her husband, Ramon, from standing in the strikes because she did not want him to put his life at risk. She also had a sense of hopelessness in which she felt that even if the miners were to protest, their opinions would not be heard and there would be worse consequences. Despite her efforts to stop Ramon from protesting, Esperanza’s wants did not have an influence on his actions. During the time of Esperanza, women did not even have any major influences in their households. They were often seen as inferior to men and thus would have to follow what their husbands said and passively support their actions.

Although Salt of the Earth, showed Esperanza as a submissive wife, it also showed her transformation to a strong and outspoken who ultimately went against her husband’s wishes to fight for her own beliefs. As the movie progressed, the miners were no longer able to stand and picket due to the passing of the Taft-Hartley Act, which allowed law enforcement to place miners in jail if they decided to continue in the protests. In order to protect their husbands, Esperanza and the wives of the other miners decided to stand in their husband’s place. This shows a drastic change in Esperanza’s character, from the beginning in which she wanted nothing to do with the strikes. Esperanza ultimately stood up against her husband’s wishes to fight for her ideals, similar to how he ignored her wishes. By doing so, she was able to break down the gender norms that once confined her from speaking out against injustice. She also saw the importance of fighting for the rights of her community, especially because Mexican American laborers played and major role in supporting the U.S. economy. Esperanza was able to become a leader, providing guidance to the other women and standing as a model for the younger Mexican American women generation to stand up for what they feel is right.

A similar transformation of identity occurred to Olga Talamante. In “De Campesina an Internacionalista: A Journey of Encuentros y Desencuentros,” she describes her experiences through activism and how she saw injustice at a very young age. Although she saw these injustices she did not make major strides in her activism until after college. Through her experiences in numerous different protest movements in the U.S. and overseas, she was able to see the similarities of oppression that immigrants face. Talamante also learned the importance of educating others in not only realizing how they were oppressed and mistreated but also how to stand up for these injustices. She also encouraged the Chicana and Latina scholarship through her involvement in the Chicana Latina Foundation as well as supporting LGBT rights with the Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF). Mexican American women like Esperanza and Olga, not only wanted to break down the barriers that prevented them from making major changes in society, but they also wanted to encourage other women to stand up for what they believed in despite how others viewed them.

The struggles of being a soldier, all the hard work and pain they had to go through on a daily basis, the traumatizing events and effects of the war on these poor humans, and all of the deaths and tragic issues faced with war. James M. McCaffrey evaluates all these events and what the soldiers really go through as they fought for power for their country. The Mexican-American war was a fight over land to see who would gain Texas and the Mexican felt that America has too much land would make them feel superior and want to gain more and more power. In the novel, Army of manifest destiny by James M. McCaffrey, he begins his book by going into debt about his research on the Mexican-American war and the effects it had on the people, socially, physically, politically, and economically. In the author’s preface, he states his reason for why he writes his book and the purpose associated with it. James M. McCaffrey writes his thesis which is,” The purpose of the present work, then, is to look at the war from the viewpoint of the common soldiers’ experiences. What prompted them to enlist in the first place? What did they think of the Mexican people with whom they came in contact? How did they feel toward the officers? Were they adequately supported with food, clothing, shelter, and medical care by their government? How did they spend their spare time? If they broke any rules, how were they punished? What did the regular soldiers think of these temporary volunteers, and vice versa? And finally, having answered these questions, how did the American soldiers in the Mexican war measure up to their counterpart’s earlier and later conflicts?”(McCaffrey # xii) James was trying to emphasize the importance of all the soldiers and the obstacles faced in their way in order to finally gain peace between the countries. He uses very detailed information and makes the reader feel as if he is in the story and is a part of the journey in this war as a soldier. His focus is to show us the reality of how soldiers lived and what went through their heads as war happened and to make us think of what we would do in their place as soldiers living in a war and the environments that they had no control over, things that would end up killing them with no hesitation as they went forward with war such as diseases being an example.

Since the beginning of the book, James M. McCaffrey uses his detailed text to show his audience the resemblance.” Just like soldiers before and since, they would strive for personal laurels, putting their manhood to the ultimate test. “ (McCaffrey, #34) this shows me that the young men that were eager to enlist would mainly do it for personal recognition and as a way to make themselves feel empowered and as a way to test their manhood. The young men felt so hurried to go into war but little did they know that they would have to go through multiple training before ever reaching their enemy in war. To expand on what the young men would experience we were given details on what they went through as they were sent off to war. “The most often mentioned cause of displeasure was the poor food served on the ships, the overcrowded conditions, and the almost universal sickness “ (McCaffrey,#46). The war came with many negative effects than it did positive for the soldiers. They experienced a horrible ride to war as they were not used to the new environment that they were being placed. “ I was sick only a few minutes, vomited only once,’. most, however, were not that lucky.” (McCaffrey #47).

Some survived but most died off on the way to war or in the camps as the author explained. Very few had it easy when it came to going off to war, some of the soldiers had already once before gone through all the traumatizing events that the new enlisted men were now going through. I viewed all of the soldiers as strong individuals for being able to go through so many traumatizing things as they tried to defend their country and show no weakness to anyone on the journey to war and to the people back home in the United States. I feel as is takes a lot of courage to be able to just get up and decide that you will go to war, knowing all the different situations that as a soldier you can be put in and knowing that going off to war is nothing like their homes with decent food and being safe from diseases, unlike the camps and ships that these soldiers and volunteers and enlisted men were placed on to, to survive and to be ready to fight.

As I continued to read I found much more information that made it all feel so real as if I was in the war fighting against the Mexican people and the environment around them. The soldiers were so strong that they not only fought for peace and power but even fought through long killing diseases that would kill them in a blink of an eye. “ diarrhea, malaria, and dysentery were the most pervasive diseases, but other killers such as smallpox, cholera, and yellow fever also appeared in the camps “. (McCaffrey #52). I could emphasize that the soldiers had it very rough than they had anticipated when they first signed up for going into the war. This goes into debt over how the Americans were not really prepared for the locations they would be going through and how weak they were physically/internally when it came down to diseases and sickness overpowering their bodies. I think that the author was really trying to get us to envision all the soldiers sick and in desperate need of medical attention which he did an amazing job of detailing the novel over all the small details needed to imagine the scenario of the soldiers. “Diseases, which killed almost eleven thousand American soldiers and led to the discharge from service of several thousand more “. These soldiers did not even suffer much from war instead were being killed off and were seen as waste if not useful for the war. The war was mainly fought by volunteers and was deadly because of unknown diseases with no actual medication to cure the people which became one of the most costly wars that America had experienced at the time. I feel as the author mainly just wrote throughout the book about the diseases and the doctors trying to find the cure for these diseases or how to cure people when injured in war but since science/medication was not advanced at all, it was very hard on the soldiers and volunteers to survive. Americans and Mexicans never really ever had peace between them, the tension was high and even though the Americans were on Mexican people’s land they still felt as if they were superior to the Mexicans.” On a general level the American Soldier regarded the Mexican people as being of a lower racial order” (McCaffrey #74). “ Americans easily rationalized the concept of manifest destiny by equating the Mexican people with what they considered a lesser form of human” (McCaffrey #68). The Mexicans were viewed as “treacherous devils” and “ lesser of a human “ and were usually mocked by the American soldiers but had to find peace because they were on the Mexican’s land and camping in their towns and villages. I believe the Americans in my opinion instead of trying to be so hurtful towards the

Mexicans should have used the advantage of becoming friendly to find benefits out of Mexican people and making friendships but instead wanted to view them as less of people just as they saw slaves at the time and felt they needed to spy on them and their way of living but also their culture and The main concept in America was racism as they felt they were more dominant than any other race and from American history that development of wanting more land was from the belief of the founding fathers believing they had to expand west. the Americans wanted them to make themselves feel like a higher power when in reality they were not and were more fragile than, the Mexicans and like usual, the Americans had to depend on others for any type of resources they needed such as food or housing or their way of making money such as their economy growing bigger and stronger but it is all thanks to the others taking all the responsibility and hard work and those being pushed out or taken advantage of, that the American’s were living their best life and feeling superior than the rest of the countries in the world. While some viewed the Mexican people as disgusting, some Americans could not lay their eyes off the beautiful Mexican women. “ those who saw beauty in Mexican womanhood were not always shy about expressing their admiration. One volunteer declared that the women in Mexico were so beautiful that he could not keep himself from falling in love with them “ ( McCaffrey # 79 ). Americans have always wanted to take advantage of women and in many wars such as the Mexican-American war, they viewed women as subjects and maids, and mostly for African Americans, they were raped and thrown to do all the hard labor for both white men and women. So for the Americans to view the Mexican women as the most beautiful women could trigger the reader as to what could and would happen to the women of Mexico. But it also

shows how the Americans and the Mexicans had something in common liking the same type of beautiful women as they described in the book and how their beauty could gain anybody’s attention but the more racial-based Americans wanted to see them as ugly and disgusting or at least that is what they claim to their wives back home in America. As we all know the soldier’s never always had it so perfect and mostly when it came to listening to others give orders as they felt superior and felt like no blame should be put on the soldiers. “On more than one occasion, conscientious soldiers blamed their field grade officers for the fact that their regiments did not get to participate in the battle .” (McCaffrey # 89). The soldiers were so quick to blame everyone but themselves showing a lack of honesty and lack of respect for the officers who were there to lead them to succeed. “They sometimes physically threatened unpopular officers…Actual cases of soldiers murdering their officers, now called ‘fragging’”. (McCaffrey #91). From all the violence they experienced on their trip to war they felt as if violence was the key to everything and was the solution to all the problems that they faced. They felt as if fighting and killing would get them what they want and Felt as if everyone was lower than them. The American people felt the need to release the boredom of camp life and began to be troublemakers and lawbreakers in the civilian society . “military courts handed down sentences that varied from mere reprimands to death.”(McCaffrey #106). The army officials were not having it with the soldier’s horrific behavior and felt that they should be punished even if they were not bad people but needed to receive consequences for their misfits in society and to learn from their mistakes. These soldiers would experience horrible and traumatizing punishments even for the slightest behavioral issues happening in the camps .” found themselves put into dark holes with a minimum of nourishment… bucked and gagged … was extremely painful .. ‘very good way of keeping down unruly spirits”( McCaffrey #106,#107). The army’s elaborate justice system was very harsh and strict on how they went about with the wide range of penalties. They, later on, had a processed law which was that no soldier may receive punishment till they were seen by the court to see if the punishment was extreme or may only need a few officers to decide. Which led to the different courts going up to the highest court in the development of law in the country for disciplining those who are being charged with any type of misbehavior or misfit in society. society was very strict and cruel when it came to punishment back in the 1800s but as time has progressed, they have found less cruel punishments for the citizens making wrong decisions in the community that we now live in.

The author James M . McCaffrey in my opinion could have done better on explaining not only what happened but how it affected the soldiers emotionally and not only what the American soldiers felt and thought, but how the viewpoint of mexican’s was on the war and how they felt towards the Americans soldiers as they were the ones camping in their towns and villages and were taking their resources as well as, spying on them and trying to see them as less of humans when in reality they do have feelings and they should have been expressed in the novel not only what happened during the war to the American soldiers and volunteers. I felt as if the author just focused on what he felt towards what the Americans experienced instead of the Mexican feelings and what they went through as they got ready for war and everything they had to give up as they left their homes as well. I felt if the author would have put the internal conflicts and the perspective of an American and Mexican soldier in the novel that McCaffrey wrote it would make more sense not only on what happened but how the emotional aspects of the war affected the soldiers in the Mexican-American war. I feel as the author did excellent in his description of the book on the specifics of the journey from enlisting, to heading off to war and the effects of the ships and camps to the poor volunteers and enlisted men who had never in their life experienced such disastrous events and lack of resources causing the major killing of soldiers in the war. James M. McCaffrey is an excellent writer and his book gives us a background story/ knowledge before writing about the soldier’s experience and closes off with the winning of the war and the peace treaties being signed to be able to sign off on his whole novel. This novel is like a summary of the war but in a third-person view, so instead of the author speaking as if he is the soldier, he speaks as if he is viewing everything they are going through and not what he as a soldier is experiencing It should be like a memorable book to honor those soldiers and volunteers who went through diseases and amputated body parts and deaths. The Mexican war was a deadly war because most soldiers died of diseases because of a lack of hygiene and lack of resources which the author provided specific evidence over.

In conclusion, James M. McCaffrey strongly demonstrates all the events leading up to the war. He states a lot of what or who or why questions to set up the rest of the novel for the reader to be able to visualize the whole story as a movie in the reader’s head, which he states all of this in his preface of the book. He examines America’s first foreign war against Mexico. James continues his story on an everyday basis over the experience of the soldiers and volunteers in the war. The author justifies his novel and questions by giving his evidence over the war and what he viewed as he wrote the book. The author demonstrates his thoughts as the war went on and he goes through the order of the journey to be specific about what was happening and the physical and political effects it had as the soldiers were punished cruelly and were sent to court as well as most of the soldiers dying off and having to worry 24/7 over if they were going to be the next victims to be killed by the deadly diseases causing the frustration of the soldiers and causing them to act out and made behavioral issues occur. I believe this book taught me a lot more about what the soldiers experienced in the Mexican American war and how I learned a lot more about the war that I before did not know and it opened up my mind to what it really meant to be a soldier and how brave they were to be able to get through all they did go through as horrifying as it realistically was. It was all facts about the war and what in reality happened.

Works Cited

1. MacCaffrey, James M. Army of Manifest Destiny: the American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846-1848. New York Univ. Pr., 1992

Selena Quintanilla, widely known as Selena, was a Mexican-American singer, songwriter, and fashion icon. Born on April 16, 1971, in Lake Jackson, Texas, Selena rose to fame as the “Queen of Tejano Music” and left an indelible mark on the music industry before her tragic death in 1995. Her life and career continue to inspire and resonate with people around the world.

From a young age, Selena displayed immense talent and passion for music. Raised in a musical family, she began performing at the age of nine, alongside her siblings in the band Selena y Los Dinos. Selena’s father, Abraham Quintanilla Jr., recognized her potential and nurtured her talent, becoming her manager and guiding her career.

Selena’s breakthrough came in the 1980s when she released her debut album, self-titled “Selena,” which included hit singles like “Buenos Amigos” and “La Tracalera.” However, it was her 1992 album, “Entre a Mi Mundo,” that propelled her to superstardom. The album’s lead single, “Como La Flor,” became an international sensation and solidified Selena’s status as a musical powerhouse.

What set Selena apart was her ability to blend different genres, including Tejano, pop, and R&B, creating a unique sound that appealed to a diverse audience. Her charismatic stage presence and dynamic performances captivated audiences, transcending language and cultural barriers. She became a symbol of representation and pride for the Latino community, breaking barriers and opening doors for future Latinx artists.

In addition to her musical achievements, Selena’s impact on fashion cannot be overstated. She effortlessly combined her love for fashion and her vibrant personality, creating iconic stage outfits that still influence fashion trends today. Her signature style, featuring bold colors, form-fitting outfits, and sequins, showcased her confidence and individuality.

Tragically, Selena’s life was cut short on March 31, 1995, when she was murdered at the age of 23 by the president of her fan club. Her untimely death shocked the world and devastated her fans. However, her legacy continues to thrive through her music and the enduring impact she had on the Latin music industry.

Following her death, Selena’s posthumous album, “Dreaming of You,” was released in 1995. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart, making her the first Latin artist to achieve such a feat. It showcased her versatility as an artist, featuring both Spanish and English songs, and further solidified her status as a cultural icon.

Selena’s influence extends far beyond her music and fashion. Her life and career have inspired numerous tributes, including the biographical film “Selena” (1997), starring Jennifer Lopez, which introduced her story to a wider audience. The film celebrated her legacy and introduced her music to a new generation of fans.

In recognition of her contributions to music and culture, Selena has been posthumously honored with numerous awards and accolades. She received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2021, highlighting her lasting impact and the enduring relevance of her music.

Selena Quintanilla’s legacy continues to shine brightly, serving as an inspiration to aspiring artists and a symbol of strength and resilience. Her music transcends generations and borders, connecting people through its infectious rhythms and heartfelt lyrics. Selena’s story reminds us of the power of following one’s dreams, breaking barriers, and embracing cultural heritage.

In conclusion, Selena Quintanilla was more than a singer; she was a cultural icon, a trailblazer, and a beloved figure in the music industry. Her talent, passion, and impact continue to resonate today, ensuring that her legacy lives on. Selena’s music will forever bring joy to the hearts of her fans, reminding us of the enduring power of art and the spirit of a true legend.

History is always told from the side of the victors; as a result, US history textbooks are usually written with a European bias. The founding fathers are glorified and their wrongdoings are glossed over through the rewriting of history. The stories of enslavement, racism, and internment camps are all censored to protect the reputations of our white forefathers. In 2007 Tom Horne, the superintendent of Tucson Public Schools, began the creation of a ban towards Chicano studies in all Arizona school systems. The controversy over whether or not the Chicano studies “teach kids that they are oppressed, that the United States is dominated by a white, racist, imperialist power structure that wants to oppress them” (Gershon). Fueled tensions between Chicano students and white school administrators. Hornes attempts to ban Chicano and Mexican American studies are an outwardly biased and racist attempt to silence a culture of color: it forces the Chicano students to assimilate into a common white identity and lose their native culture. It reminds us of the way early American settlers forced Native Americans to forget their culture, live on reservations, and conform to our religion. The outcome of this forced assimilation breeds conflicts even today, most recently the issue of the Dakota Pipeline.

In Michael Walzer’s essay ‘What Does It Mean to Be an ‘American’, he argues that there has been a constant battle between “Those Americans who attach great value to the oneness of citizenship”, who “seek to constrain the influence of cultural manyness”, and those Americans “who value the many” but ‘disparage the one’ (Taking Sides, 28). Hornes opinion that the Chicano studies create an equality gap between white students and Mexican students aligns with the views of an American that values the one; an American who cannot respect a multicultural society. Hornes attempts to silence Mexican studies reveal a degree of racism in which he views Mexican culture as less important as American culture. Although, I agree that it is important to mainly focus on American culture in an American school (as conservatives argue) these views are outdated and force ethnic students to have to chose their cultural identity, rather than accept and learn about both at their free will. By forcing young, impressionable, Mexican-American students, it harbors internal racism, and discourages the multicultural revolution that technology and global business has inspired. According to the US Department of Education, “If we give students the gift of bilingualism, of multilingualism – if we give students the gift of those skills and those opportunities – they have a better sense of themselves, their community, and their future, and a better appreciation for our diversity as a country”. Especially nowadays, where employers seek out bilingual and multicultural employees, by refusing to teach about different cultures we can’t compete in the global economy.

As previously mentioned, the attempt to ban Mexican-American studies reveals a more modern form of racism used on immigrants. The rhetoric authored in the ban on Chicano studies relates to the early 2000s mentality of Arizonans about illegal immigrants; the state was mostly conservative, anti-immigration, with a large population opposing any Mexican immigration at all. In statements released on the ban of Raza studies, Hornes claimed that there were mentions of anti-American communists such as Che Guevara and Lenin (Precious Knowledge). The negative associations that Americans have with these figures, alongside with racist controversy on Mexican immigrants, makes a perfect concoction of hatred towards the Raza studies, and towards Mexican themselves. In Stephen Steinberg’s essay on race and the melting pot, he claims that “The fault line dividing ethnic groups in America is no longer nationality or religion, but race’ (Taking Sides, 41). “This can be proven by the high amount of new immigrants that form tight knit communities with “flourishing economies in the US’ (Taking Sides, 42). These communities enhance our multicultural society, and give immigrants the freedom to choose their culture, rather than be forcefully assimilated into our predominately white culture. The Raza studies helped to form this tight knit community, and gave Mexican students a chance to express themselves in a safe learning environment. Unfortunately, despite the first-hand account from Mexican students saying they felt more productive than ever, Republicans still felt negatively towards this positive community, claiming it was alien and isolating. As stated by the conservative writer, Lawrence Auster, it is not the majority cultures job to ”include alien traditions in order prove it’s own moral legitimacy’ (Taking Sides, 45). Auster’s claim that including other cultures is purely for moral reasons is completely inaccurate. It is beneficial to society as a whole through business and economy, as well as to the subcultures. Immigrants take a lot of the jobs highly skilled Americans don’t want, and therefore boost are economy.

Regardless of race, it is completely necessary to allow for the emotional and intellectual growth of immigrant American citizens through courses like the Raza studies, because it ultimately helps the entirety of the US. As wonderfully stated by Philippe Legrain, “Opening up our borders would spread freedom, widen opportunity, and enrich the economy, society, and culture’ (Taking Sides, 55). The arguments from the side of banning of the Raza studies are heavily formed with racial bias and discrimination towards Mexican cultures. Tom Horne’s prejudice reveals itself in what is thought to be a political demonstration to appeal to a majority of the Arizona red state. He ran for Attorney General in 2010, and won against Felecia Rotellini. This begs to question of the motives behind his attack on the Raza studies. Was it for political gain? Regardless, it was a selfish act to jeopardize the minority students at his school district for political gain. The students were thriving and the graduation rates were increasing among hispanic students as a result of the direct correlation between them and the Raza studies.

Overall, the attack on Raza studies was deeply rooted in racism. There was no reason for it to be shut down; the students were thriving and they were learning about their cultures in a safe environment. The only true reason why it would be taken away is due to racial bias and the fear that learning about other cultures is anti-American. Luckily, the ban on Chicano Studies was removed in 2017, and was ruled to be a result of racial bias.