Category: Memory

The issue of memory has always been interesting for people. It has been investigated from different perspectives and with different aims. Conclusions of these investigations were different, however, there is no use denying the fact that this field of knowledge is of a great importance. Functions and peculiarities of the process of memorizing are not studied yet and have a lot of hidden factors. That is why; investigation of this process is a very important issue.

Great numbers of different investigations were made in order to discover main aspects of memory and understand what factors influence the process of memorizing. The objective of this work is to determine how the use of mnemonics techniques can influence memorization. Basing on previous researchers, this one is, however, different, as it tries is to combine ideas obtaining and determining a role of some special techniques. This field is of a great interest for many different researchers. Klaus Oberauer in his article Access to Information in Working Memory: Exploring the Focus of Attention starts the investigation of the main process of memorizing. In the chain of experiments, he examines working memory (Oberauer, 2002).

Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of the human brain and memory in the whole.

Investigations of the mechanisms of memorizing continue Veronika Coltheart, Stephen Mondy, Paul E. Dux and Lisa Stephenson. In their work Effects of Orthographic and Phonological Word Length on Memory for Lists Shown at RSVP and STM Rated they investigate effects of orthographic and phonological word length on memory (Coltheart, Mondy, Dux & Stephenson, 2004). To understand this influence, three experiments were carried out. Results these experiments showed, that there are two length effects peculiar for our memory which are based on orthographic and phonological length. (Coltheart et al., 2004).

Further investigations of this sphere are connected with the attempt to examine the influence of a Hebb repetition effect. The chain of 5 experiments were carried out and described by Mike P. A. Page, Nick Cumming, Dennis Norris, Graham J. Hitch and Alan M. McNeil in their work Repetition Learning in the Immediate Serial Recall of Visual and Auditory Materials. All five experiments were successful and managed to prove that Hebb repetition effect influences the process of memorization. Moreover, it is possible to observe the learning of repeating list regardless of whether phonological coding was evident (Cumming, Pag, Hitch, & McNeil, 2006).

Being an important step in understanding of some mechanism of the work of our memory, this work gives some new ideas for researchers. However, investigations of this issue continue and Jesse Sargent, Stephen Dopkins, John Philbeck and David Chichka undertook another study called Chunking in spatial Memory.

The main aim of this researcher is to understand the nature of human spatial representations and how blind rotation influences them. In order to support their search with evidences, they carried out the experiment in which people learned positions of the objects in the room and underwent different rotations. Results show that people remember location of the objects better while reflecting to their inter object relations and using some other kind of memory (Sargent, Dopkins, Phibeck, & Chichka, 2010).

One more important investigation of working memory was made by Valerie Camos in her work On the Law Relating Processing to Storage in Working Memory. The main goal of this work is to understand better peculiarities of the functioning of working memory and storing of information. These are also several experiences connected with this work which main aim is to investigate the relations between short term and working memory. Having carried out these experiments, the author comes to the conclusion, that short term memory is not just a subsystem of working memory, however, it can be referred as one of its extreme states (Camos, 2011).

That is why, basing on the results of these researchers, it is possible to suggest that mechanisms of memorizing are very complicated structures, which though, are organized according to certain principles. Understanding and investigation of these principles can improve the history of the process of memorizing and show better results in the end. That is why; it becomes obvious, that some techniques which take into account all these features will be able to improve memorization. The basis for these techniques is the relations between different aspects of the work of human memory. Being highly structured, it responds better to specially organized factors which are able to promote development of special connections in the brain of the person.

Having analyzed the data, it is possible to come to several conclusions. First of all, it should be said that the Mnemonics Techniques are prove to be effective as they are based on special process which are peculiar for people which suffer from some problems connected with memorizing or for people who just need to improve their memorization skills.

Method

Participants

The total numbers of participants in the experiment were 69. We have selected college level students by sign-up participation to conduct this study on. The number of participants that were assigned to use peg words technique were 37 students. The number of participants that were assigned to use the repetition technique was 32 students. The gender demographic characteristic of the participants were 51 females and 18 males. All of our participants are between the ages of 18-40 years old. We conducted this experiment on both native and nonnative English speaking students. All participants volunteered to be part of our experiment and were given school credit for their participation.

Materials

Several items were be needed in order to conduct this experiment such as thirty flash cards with words on them, the list of words, the story with bolded words, pencils, blank sheets of paper, and a stop watch. The list of thirty words will be given to them prior to the experiment to help us determine which words they should memorize. The flash cards contain the words given to them to memorize. The story contains the words they’re to memorize in a different method than repetition. The pencil and paper is for the participants to report all the material memorized during the experiment. Lastly, the stop watch is to time them during every new word, this will allow for an objective result.

Procedure

We will first read the consent form to the participants before commencing our experiment. All the participants will get the same thirty words and a total of three minutes to memorize as many as they can. Group A will try to memorize as many words possible using the peg word method. We will provide them with a short story containing all thirty words in bold [It all began with a runaway train. Marvel Man, the superhero in this story heard about the incident while watching the morning news on the television and he knew his help was needed. After all, no one else had the strength of ten elephants, the speed of a cheetah and the ability to fly.

Only he could save those passengers. Marvel Man lived in the city of Savewell. A place of skyscrapers and busy streets. A place where people didn’t always feel safe. A place where accidents happened and the accident on this particular day was a serious one. A gas explosion had damaged a piece of track and a high speed train carrying ninety passengers was hurtling out of control towards it, and even worse – the driver was unconscious. Would Marvel save the day? Marvel Man was soon on his way soaring above the city, heading towards the runaway train. He stopped briefly and stood on a roof top and used his amazing vision to scan the city below his red cape billowing in the wind.]

Group B has the same goal but will use the repetition method to memorize the same thirty words which will be numbered and listed. They will be given ten seconds to memorize every word, the bell ring will indicate the participant to move on to the next word [train, superhero, incident, watching, television, help, strength, elephants, speed, passengers, city, skyscrapers, streets, feel, one, explosion, piece, carrying, ninety, hurtling, worse, driver, unconscious, soaring, stopped, roof, vision, scan, red, billowing]. Once the word “Stop” has been projected, they must immediately turn the paper over where they can no longer see the words.

Upon completion, they will be handed a blank sheet of paper where they will have to report the words they remember – they will be given two minutes to produce this information. The instructors will then verify the information and tally up the amount of words correctly remembered. The memorizing method that produces the most memorized words will be deemed as the better method for information retention.

Script: Hello everyone, please be seated. I am now going to distribute a demographic questionnaire. Please answer the questions as accurately as possible. When you are finished, turn it over and leave it on your desk.

*Group A-given story* I am now going to distribute three sheets. It contains a list of words, a story, and a blank paper. Please keep all papers face down until I tell you to turn it over. You will have 1 minute to read the list and be asked to turn it over. Then you will have three minutes to read the story. After the time is up, turn the paper back over and I will come and collect it. When I collect your story, I will also give you the pen that you need to write with. You will then write on the blank sheet all the bolded words from the story. You may now turn over your sheet and begin reading the list. Stop. Please turn your sheet face down and I will come to collect it.

You may now turn over your story and begin reading. Stop. Please use the pen that I gave you to write the bolded words you remember from the story. When you are finished, turn your answer sheet face down and raise your hand. I will come collect your answer sheet and pen. Thank you for participating in this study. Does anyone have any questions? Our study is about different forms of mnemonics and how they affect memory and recall. Thank you for your help.

*Group B-given list* I am now going to distribute two sheets. It contains a list of words and a blank paper. Please keep all papers face down until I tell you to turn it over. You will have four minutes to read the list and be asked to turn it over. After the time is up, turn the paper back over and I will come and collect it. When I collect your list, I will also give you the pen that you need to write with. You will then write on the blank sheet all the words you remember from the list. You may now turn over your sheet and begin reading the list. Stop. Please turn your sheet face down and I will come to collect it. Please use the pen that I gave you to write the bolded words you remember from the story. When you are finished, turn your answer sheet face down and raise your hand. I will come collect your answer sheet and pen. Thank you for participating in this study. Does anyone have any questions? Our study is about different forms of mnemonics and how they affect memory and recall. Thank you for your help.

We used a simple randomization technique in order to assign the different time slots into the two different groups. The simple randomization we used was an online random number generator (www.random.org) to give to each time slot that would determine which group they were placed in. If a participant received a number of 1-4, they were placed into group A (the group using peg word mnemonics) or if a participant received a number of 5-8, they were placed into group B (the group using repetition mnemonics.

Results

An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare methods of studying in story and flashcards conditions. There wasn’t a significant difference in the scores for the story (M=8.89, SD=3.921) and flashcard (M=8.44, SD=3.089) conditions; t(69)=1.042, p=.311.

These results suggest that story condition didn’t significantly improve memorization of words.

Specifically, our results suggest that when people have a story they don’t remember specific words better than by memorizing them on flashcards.

Discussion

Results of the experiment provide the opportunity for discussion. First of all, is should be said that the results show that there is no significant difference in the scores of participants who use either story or flashcards for memorizing. This fact can serve as the evidence of a small difference between memorizing techniques and of the fact that specially created context does not help people to remember specific words better than flashcards.

However, there are also some limitations which should be mentioned as they could influence the experiment. First of all, it is possible to say that the researchers were limited in the number of participants. To obtain more credible and statistically significant results greater number of people should be involved in the experiment. Moreover, gender peculiarities should be given more attention.

However, these limitations could not influence credibility of the data obtained and conclusions made. Moreover, differences in the age of participants make the research more valuable as it is possible to analyze peculiarities of the functioning of memory at different stages of development of a human being.

However, taking into account the results obtained in the course of experiment, it is possible to suggest the idea of the low efficiency of the memorizing method which is based on the usage of context. It is possible to suggest that participants of the experiment are concerned about the main sense of a story, not aiming to remember every separate word. It should also be admitted that they can unconsciously forget about the main aim of the experiment, trying to remember as much information as it is possible, though, not distinguishing separate words (Oberauer, 2002). Besides, resting on the results of the experiment, it is possible to suggest the idea that flashcards help to create the needed atmosphere and make a person concentrated on memorizing of certain words or objects, which are repeated several times on cards (Cumming, Pag, Hitch, & McNeil, 2006).

With this in mind, it should be said that much attention should be given to instructions which describe the main procedure and behavior of the experiment. It can be recommended to define clearly what respondents should do in the course of experiment and what information they are expected to reproduce. Moreover, the world length should also be taken into account as it influences the process of memorizing greatly (Coltheart, Mondy, Dux & Stephenson, 2004).

However, these results can be construed in another way. Taking into account not significant differences between the answers of respondents, it is possible to suggest that both methods are either equally efficient or inefficient. In order to prove this statement another experiment should be conducted in which these methods will be compared with another ways of memorizing. The results will show the level of efficiency of every method.

Besides, having conducted experiment and analyzed results, it is possible to discuss its significance and importance for understanding the main mechanisms of memory and memorizing. It is obvious, that arbitrary memory can show better results than involuntary in a laboratory setting. Moreover, being concentrated on memorizing, people show better results (Sargent, Dopkins, Phibeck, & Chichka, 2010).

However, it is too assuming to state prevalence of one or another type of memory without their deep investigations. Moreover, results obtained in the course of experiment can be applied to different spheres of activity of human beings. Flashcards can be recommended for educational sphere as they show high level of the efficiency in memorizing separate words (Camos, 2011). That is why, these cards can be recommended for using at the lessons of foreign language.

Unfortunately, taking into account peculiarities of the conducted experiment, there was no possibility to determine and analyze the influence of gender differences on the process of memorizing as the majority of respondent were female. Moreover, mutual dependence between sex and memorizing technique could not also be investigated.

Taking into account peculiarities of the research and topicality of the issue, it is possible to state the fact that this work can be of a great importance both for common people and researches. Memorizing techniques, which were analyzed in the work, are widely used nowadays and that is why readers can be interested in peculiarities of their functioning and the level of their efficiency. Moreover, further investigations of this sphere are recommended as there are still many variables to determine and processes to analyze.

References

Camos, V. (2011). On the law relating processing to storage in working memory. Psychological Review. Web.

Coltheart, V., Mondy, S., Dux, P. E., & Stephenson, L. (2004). Effects of orthographic and phonological word length on memory for lists shown at rsvp and stm rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning , Memory and Cognition. Web.

Cumming, H. J., Pag, M. P., Norris, D., Hitch, G. J., & McNeil, A. L. (2006). Repetition learning in the immediate serial recall of visual and auditory materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. Web.

Oberauer, K. (2002). Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. Web.

Sargent, J., Dopkins, S., Philbeck, J., & Chichka, D. (2010). Chunking in spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. Web.

Introduction

The human mind entails the sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. They argue that these three types of memory are complementary. They process information in a systemic manner. Information moves from one memory to the second one before moving to the last and the most permanent store. Cognitive psychologists argue that perceived information takes one second in the sensory memory, one minute in the short-term memory and a life-time in the long-term memory. This study aims at ascertaining whether information takes one second in the sensory memory under all circumstances.

Purpose of the Study

Research question: Does information always take one second in the sensory memory even when the circumstances under which stimuli are perceived change?

This research seeks to confirm or refute the argument by cognitive psychologists that information takes a very short and predetermined period in the sensory memory. I will work on this study by dealing with human beings whose sensory memory’s retention rates will be investigated. It will be interesting to determine how much information an individual can store in the sensory memory within a given period under different circumstances. The study will resolve the uncertainty about whether the time information spends in the sensory memory is always constant or not.

Methodology

I will have three students participating in the study. I will then show them differently colored letters of the alphabet; A, B and C. Secondly, I will show them Chinese letters of the same colors. I will then expose them to the letters for only two seconds. The conceptual independent variable is the familiarity of the stimuli while the conceptual dependent variable is the ability to remember. On the other hand, the operational independent variable is the familiarity of the stimuli while the operational dependent variable is the exactness of their description of the stimuli. This study is likely to work because it will show that the duration the sensory memory takes to lose information is not always constant. Rather, it is dependent on some factors.

Possible Results

The students are more likely to remember the letters of the alphabet in the form they use in English compared to the same letters in Chinese. They are more likely to give more precise descriptions of A, B and C as they use them in English. However, they might not be as precise when describing the Chinese alphabets. Therefore, when the stimulus is familiar, it is more likely to stay in the sensory memory longer than unfamiliar information. Another possible result is they might remember everything about the appearance of the English letters and completely nothing about the Chinese letters. The reason for this situation is that the sensory memory might not store unfamiliar information and transfer it to the short-term memory. The sensory memory stores information for short periods, but may not store anything about very unfamiliar and complex information.

Possible Conclusions

The familiarity of the information an individual perceives affects the duration it takes in the sensory memory and the possibility of being stored. When information is familiar, the sensory memory will take a very short period to store it and transfer it to the short-term memory. On the contrary, when the information is unfamiliar, one second may not be enough to store it in the sensory memory. In the second possible outcome, the unfamiliarity of the stimuli can hinder from the sensory memory from storing anything.

The multi-storage memory model proposed by Atkinson and Schiffrin provides for three information stores: 1) a sensory register, 2) a short-term storage (STS), and 3) long-term storage (LTS). An incoming stimulus is directly registered in the corresponding sensory modality and either lost or passed on for processing. When Atkinson and Shiffrin developed their model, the other sensory modality systems were not as well understood today (although they still hold many secrets). Still, the model makes room for them in anticipation of future research that will reveal as yet unknown properties. Schiffrin suggests that automatic processing begins the moment a stimulus is presented. Each stimulus, going through successive processing stages, is automatically encoded and activates a series of operations inherent in that process. For example, when an observer perceives a letter, they may automatically encode its contrast, color, and position; then its curves and angles; then as a consonant, and finally its meaning.

Long-term storage stores information permanently, short-term storage for no more than 30 seconds (no repetition), and a sensor register (SR) for a few hundred milliseconds. Atkinson and Shiffrin introduced an essential distinction between the concept of memory and memory stores (Humphreys et al., 2020). They defined the term “memory” as the data to be stored and the term “storage” as the structural element in which this data is stored. Simply stating how long an element is stored does not mean determining precisely wherein the memory structure it is located. Thus, according to their system, information may be admitted to the LTS shortly after it is presented, or it may be held in it for several minutes but never enter the LTS.

Short-term storage is viewed as a working system in which the input information fades and disappears quickly, but not as quickly as from a sensor register. An example of a short-term storage operation is a situation in which a person needs to memorize a short 4-digit code. The capacity of this storage is enough to contain this relatively small amount of information (Humphreys et al., 2020). Nevertheless, in situations when one needs to memorize an 11-digit telephone number, the short-term memory may not work because its capacity will be insufficient.

It is important to note that the form of information representation in the STS may differ from the original sensory form (e.g., a word presented visually may be represented in auditory code). The information contained in the third system, i.e., in the long-term storage, was considered by the authors to be relatively constant, even though it may be inaccessible due to interference with the input information. The function of the is to track the stimuli in the input register (to control the stimuli coming into the LTS) and to provide a place to store the information coming from the LTS.

The way information is forgotten is different for each type of memory. Information in sensory memory decays very quickly. Information in short-term memory is displaced by new incoming information, and information in long-term memory is forgotten because of interference with other related information. According to Atkinson and Schiffrin, one of the most important differences between short-term memory and long-term memory is the mechanism of forgetting. Forgetting, which occurs in short-term memory, occurs because of distraction from the information stored in memory and because of interference with other incoming information.

In the original system, information attenuation in the STS was difficult to pinpoint, but Atkinson and Schiffrin believed it occurred within 15 to 30 seconds. However, if an item is placed in a “repetition buffer,” it can be maintained longer, and the longer it is held there, the more likely it is to be transferred to long-term storage and, according to probability theory, the more likely it is to be displaced from that buffer by new input information.

The person himself mainly controls the transition of information from one storage to another. The information briefly held in the sensory register is scanned, and the selected part of it is entered into the STS. The authors of the model believe that the process of information transfer from the STS can last as long as it is held here. Atkinson and Shiffrin postulated that information could directly enter the sensor register’s long-term storage.

Reference

Humphreys, M. S., Tehan, G., Baumann, O., & Loft, S. (2020). Explaining short-term memory phenomena with an integrated episodic/semantic framework of long-term memory.Cognitive Psychology, 123, 101346.

Abstract

Working memory capacity and its role have been a focus of lasting research. It has been acknowledged that it plays a key role in people’s problem solving. The present research focuses on the way working memory load affects problem solving ability and the impact working memory capacity has on problem solving ability of people. Fifty-three students took part in the research. They had to memorize dot patterns and solve the so-called Monty Hall Dilemma. It was found that working memory load did negatively affect problem solving ability. The data obtain also show particular correlation between working memory capacity and problem solving ability. Thus, people with higher working memory capacity were more successful in problem solving.

Introduction

Working memory has been studied for decades and researchers have obtained valuable data on factors affecting its functioning. Thus, Yuan, Steedle, Shavelson, Alonzo and Oppezzo (2006) trace the development of research on working memory since 1880s and note that its importance has been acknowledged. The researchers also pay attention to correlation between working memory and fluid intelligence (the ability to solve problems and “understand complex relationships”) and stress that working memory is crucial for this process (Yuan et al., 2006, p.91). De Neys and Verschueren (2006) explored the role of working memory in solving the Monty Hall Dilemma. In this research, people who gave the correct answer to the dilemma had a higher working memory capacity. It was found that working memory is also important in the process of overcoming salient intuition (De Neys & Verschueren, 2006). However, there is a gap in the research as it is not clear whether solving a problem can affect working memory capacity.

The purpose of this research is to explore whether working memory capacity is influenced by the process of problem solving and to prove that working memory load decreases problem solving capacity. It is hypothesized that working memory capacity decreases when a process of solving a problem is involved. However, it is predicted that a simple problem does not significantly affect working memory capacity. It is also hypothesized that working memory capacity correlates with problem solving ability and people with higher working memory capacity are able to solve wording problems more successfully.

Method

Participants

The research involved participation of 53 people (43 females and 9 males). The participants pertained to different ethnic and age groups. They were students in their 1-2 and 3 year of university. The purpose of the study was announced after the experiment.

Apparatus

The experiment utilized two patterns of five dots. One of these patterns was harder than the other. The Monty Hall Dilemma, modified from De Neys and Verschueren (2006), was also employed.

Procedure

The participants were divided into two groups. One group (24 people) was shown a harder pattern and the other group (29 people) was shown an easier pattern for 20 seconds. After that both groups were given the Monty Hall Dilemma to solve. The time for solving the dilemma was unlimited. When participants were done with the problem solving, they were asked to draw the pattern they saw at the beginning of the experiment. Notably, the time for recall was not limited.

After that participants were shown the patterns the saw and were asked to respond whether they completed the pattern correctly. Then the participants answered questions as to their gender and years of study as well as the group they were in. They were also asked if they were acquainted with the concept of “word problem”. At the end, they were shown the solution to the dilemma. Remarkably, students were focused during the experiment and did not discuss the problem. When the solution was shown, student became animated and discussed their answers and their reasoning. There were no questions as to the procedure and students did not need additional instructions.

Results

In the group which got a harder pattern, there were 21 correct answers and 3 incorrect. In the other group, all answers were correct. A chi-squared test revealed the value 3.843 and p<0.05. As far as the answers to the dilemma are concerned, in the group with the harder pattern, 5 participants out of 24 gave correct answers. In the other group, 4 participants out of 29 gave correct answers. A chi-squared test revealed the value of 0.462 and p<0.497. Notably, there were 32 participants unacquainted with the problem. Out of these students, in the group with a harder pattern, 3 out of 14 participants gave the correct answer while only 1 (out of 18) participant gave the correct answer in the other group. A chi-squared test revealed the value of 1.814 and p<0.178.

Discussion

The results of the experiment show that working memory was affected by the problem solving process, but it had insignificant effect on this process. Remarkably, in testing effects on working memory, the value revealed was quite low which means that there is decrease in working memory capacity when a problem solving process is involved.

This finding coincides with existing data on the matter. Thus, Yuan et al. (2006) stated that working memory can decrease when a problem solving process was involved as people’s attention was distracted and they could make mistakes. The present research shows that this is true as the participants gave correct answers for the easier pattern but students having harder patterns were less successful in their task completion.

As far as the impact working memory capacity has on the problem solving process the results of the experiment are less definite. Students who were unacquainted with the dilemma gave incorrect answers in the majority of cases. It is rather impossible to state that working memory load played a meaningful role in this process as participants with lower working memory load (those having the easier pattern) were even less successful than students in the other group. Notably, p<0.497 signifies that it is unlikely that working memory load has a significant impact on the problem solving process.

More so, the same results are received with students who were acquainted with the dilemma and had more chances to solve it correctly. Thus, students predominantly gave incorrect answers and p<0.178 suggests that there is no precise correlation between working memory load and problem solving process. Such results do not coincide with data obtained by Yuan et al. (2006) who stated that there is particular correlation between working memory load and fluid intelligence.

At the same time, the data obtained also show that it is possible to trace certain correlation between working memory capacity and problem solving ability. Thus, participants with higher working memory capacity gave more correct answers when solving the problem. This finding coincides with the existing research on the matter. Thus, Yuan et al. (2006) claim there is particular correlation between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence, or, in other words, problem solving ability. De Neys and Verschueren (2006) also stress that high working memory capacity is associated with better solving problem ability. In a nutshell, people with higher working memory capacity are likely to solve wording problems more successfully than those with lower working memory capacity. Clearly, the research provides certain evidence which can support existing data and findings.

The hypothesis concerning the effects of problem solving on working memory capacity has proved to be true. The hypothesis concerning correlation between working memory capacity and problem solving ability is also true. However, this study has a number of limitations. First of all, the proportion of male and female students was inappropriate. More so, the division into groups was rather unclear. It could be more effective to divide students with a focus on their working memory capacity. Thus, their working memory capacity had to be checked first and then they could be divided into students with higher and lower working memory capacity.

It can be beneficial to expand the research. Thus, it is possible to trace correlation between gender (and/or ethnicity) and working memory capacity. It can be interesting to reveal the extent to which working memory capacity correlates with problem solving ability. For this purpose, it can be a good idea to implement a research with the use of several wording problems and patterns. Of course, it is necessary to involve more participants in the experiment. The research has to be more complex to make sure that the data are relevant.

Reference List

De Neys, W., & Verschueren, N. (2006). Working memory capacity and a notorious brain teaser. Experimental Psychology, 53(2), 123-131. Web.

Yuan, K., Steedle, J., Shavelson, R., Alonzo, A., & Oppezzo, M. (2006). Working memory, fluid intelligence, and science learning. Educational Research Review, 1(1), 83-98. Web.

Memory is the ability to recall what happened in the past or the process through which one’s brain stores events and reproduce them in the future. When one is not able to remember what happened in the past, he/she can be considered to be suffering a memory loss. Memory storage is divided into short-term memory, which is also known as the working memory and the long-term memory. Long-term memory helps one to remember a thing that happened in the recent past. Long-term memory, on the other hand, helps one to remember events that happened a long time ago. As memories move from short time store to long time stores, they tend to be distorted as seen in the article.

The study done fifteen months after the verdict has 50% accuracy level, while the study done after thirty-two months has a reduced level of accuracy (29%). Retention interval of memory will depend on the emotional attachment a particular event has to a particular person. The more the event affects a person, the higher the retention level and vice versa. This is why it is necessary to ask the people being interviewed how they felt about that particular event and whether they had a direct or indirect relationship with the occurrences of that event. This is connected to the flash bulb memory which represents a very vivid memory stored over a lifetime due to its effects on the people concerned like the case of 9/11.

People tend not to be familiar with how their memories work. This brings about poor memory performance after being retained for a long time in the long-term memory. Personal involvement in an event is also a factor determining whether the retention level will be high or short-lived. From the study of the memory surrounding the verdict in the O.J. Simpson murder trial, it is clear that memory changes from one day to the next owing to the fact that accuracy level reduces as time passes by.

Three days after the verdict the accuracy level could be assumed to be 100%, then the study done after fifteen months had an accuracy of 50% and finally the study done 32 months after the verdict had an accuracy level of 29%. This study was done under all the considerations of the flashbulb memory like the emotional reaction and agreement or disagreement with the verdict. In some other studies, data were collected both shortly after the event and later. From the studies, it is clear that the initial reaction to the original event will to a great extent influence the retention level.

The more emotional people react to an event the easier they will remember it when asked to do so. The data collected from the verdict of O.J. Simpson were put on a scoreboard to analyze the level of memory distortion over time. The results were as discussed above determined by flashbulb memory whereby the people who were affected most by the verdict could remember literary everything as opposed to the people who did not really care about what happened. The scoreboard was divided to no distortion, minor distortion and major distortion categories.

The “no distortion” part on the scoreboard represented a person who had an interest in the matter, the minor distortion part represented a person who was less interested and the major distortion part represented a person who did not have any interest in the matter. In conclusion, it is clear that memory is distorted over time, but the level of distortion will depend on a number of factors, such as the emotional attachment to the happening and the pictorial representation of the event being studied.

References

Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory distortions develop over time: Recollections of the OJ Simpson trial verdict after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science, 11(1), 39-45.

One of the most important properties of human memory is forgetting, which serves protective purposes and actually determines the human ability to memorize new information throughout the lifespan. The present paper, using the interference theory of forgetting as a framework, discusses the case of forgetting because of the background noise.

First of all, the process of learning itself is thwarted because of the background music: in fact, the individual is receiving information through 2 perception channels, auditory and visual. According to the levels-of-processing theory, humans longer remember the information, learned deliberately, but due to the fact that the auditory input also leaves its memory trace (Sternberg, 2006; Goldstein, 2007). When the roommate turns on music, two types of learning take place: international (at the conceptual level) and accidental, and the latter, as one can understand, interferes with the former, distracting attention, first and foremost. When the attention is split into the two parallel inputs, the individual is not able to force themselves “not to listen” to the music, as this irritant is fixed by attention automatically. Subsequently, the process of memorizing is split as well, moreover, due to the fact that music is reproduced very loudly, it is difficult to adjust to it so that it also interferes as a “pervasive” and persistent irritant.

Not surprisingly, even after the audible input is removed, the memory span will be encountered by the learner. This phenomenon is explained by the interference perspective in the most comprehensive way. This approach focuses on the events that preceded, followed as well as accompanied the process of learning. Interference theory identifies two major cases associated with memory and forgetting. First of all, retroactive interference: “Here, more recent learning interferes with the recall of earlier learning. For example, someone may learn to drive a car with a manual transmission and later learns to drive an automatic. If he goes back to a manual car, he may try to drive it as an automatic” (Clemson, 1995, p. 148). The situation of proactive interference is converse, as in this case, earlier learning affects later learning. As one can understand, the given case refers more to retroactive interference, which means the person forgets the information from the textbook, as the auditory reproduction overlaps the deliberate “semantic” learning. On the other hand, proactive interference can be identified as well, as memorizing remains problematic even after the noisy irritant is removed.

Clemson (1995) observes that the most probable cause of proactive interference is interference with recollection. The difficulty of storing information in STM increases with the accumulation of new experiences, “but when the category of information is changed (e.g., from recalling numbers to recalling words), performance goes back up to the previous highest levels (this is called release from proactive inhibition)” (Clemson, 1995, p. 148). In 1972, Gardiner and his colleagues showed that it didn’t matter whether the switch to another category was signaled to the person after the learning or in advance (Clemson, 1995). Due to the fact that it is informing subjects that the category has been recently changed after they have read or heard phrases are not likely to influence the way the text is stored, the distinction in performance must be associated with retrieval (Sternberg, 2006).

To sum up, studying with the background of loud music is counterproductive, as it is also an information channel that interferes with the comprehension and memorization of more important information.

Works cited

Clemson, W. (1995). Learning Targets: Key Stage 1/Scotland P1-P3. Nelson Thornes Publications.

Goldstein, E (2007) Cognitive Psychology (2nd ed) Thomas Wadsworth.

Sternberg, Robert J. (2006). Cognitive psychology, 4^th edition. Thomson Wadsworth

Abstract

The aim of the study was to examine the Stroop effect on memory function of men and women. The experiment was conducted with 16 women and 16 male with similar age range and ethnic background. Environmental factors such lighting of the room and room temperature were kept at constant. The inhabitation and attentional control were examined using the color word Stroop. It was assumed that men will face challenges in identifying color with a different word than women. It was also assumed that both men and women will encounter difficulties in identifying the color of the ink with a different word. These hypothesize were consistent with the study results. This study can be used in understanding the correlation between attention and memory both in men and women and may be applied to academic concepts.

Introduction

There are questions and concerns on how the brain works and how it process information. Research has led psychologist to connect cognitive functions to anatomical location (Jorm, Anstey, Christensen, & Rodgers, 2004). The frontal lobe is connected to memory tasks such as solving problems, reasoning abilities, planning, and attention. However, it is still unknown how the frontal lobe functions to define the way in which a person processes and stores information. This study seeks to compare cognitive interference between men and women using the Stroop effect.

The Stroop effect utilizes words and colors to produce an incongruent effect by having a color like “YELLOW” written in blue ink. The subjects spent much time with high error rates to responding to the naming of color with different words. This is because the incongruent color interferes when identifying the printed color. In the context of Baddeley’s theory, the central executive of the memory is responsible for this interferences. Baddeley’s (1997) theory of executive function is an umbrella term consisting of the critical skills for purposeful, goal-directed activity. Executive functions are conceptualized as a collection of processes that guide, direct, regulate and manage cognitive, emotional and behavioral function. The higher order cognitive functions integrate the more basic cognitive processes such as attention, perception and memory.

Baddeley (1997) considers working memory to be classified into three component. The first component is the phonological loop. The function of the phonological loop is to analyze and send auditory stimuli. Besides attending to auditory stimuli, the phonological loop is tied to language; both written and verbal communication. Baddeley (1997) believes that people subvocalize everything that they read to help them attend to the information. Baddeley (1997) found that subjects had more trouble remembering auditory stimuli that sounded similar as opposed to stimuli that had different sounds. Therefore, distinctive incentives comprise more than just phonological loop. If people take longer to arrive at answers, then there must be more demand on a secondary decision-making system, such as the central executive.

When individual take a long period to process assigned task, the secondary decision-making system such as the central executive is under pressure to identify the appropriate solution to the linked problem. The visuospatial sketchpad, the second component, plays a significant role in assisting people to navigate their surrounding environment. This component help people to process the environment around them, imagine the environment and mentally accepting what they see. The component plays a significant role in manipulating objects, imaging objects, events, and concepts. It also helps people to recall information in long-term memory. The final component, central executive, delegate attention, screens out irrelevant information, and facilitates clear understanding. The central executive is connected to task involving general intelligence.

Hypothesis

The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions. Studies suggest a gender difference in connection to cognitive abilities (Maylor et al., 2007). Women appear to performed cognitive function better than men. Maitland, Intrieri, Schaie and Willis (2000) study reported a gender difference in cognitive function during the seven years of study. According to their study (Maylor et al., 2007), female outperformed male in a verbal recall task, regardless of the age. Lowe, Mayfield and Reynolds’ (2003) finding assert that female performs better in verbal task memory while male performed better in task related to spatial task memory. Based on the literature findings, the study assumed that men will encounter more challenges in recognizing color with a different word than women. I also assumed that both men and women will encounter difficulties in identifying the color of the ink with a different word.

Method

The experiment was conducted with 16 women and 16 male with similar age range and ethnic background. Environmental factors such lighting of the room and room temperature were kept at constant. All the respondent were asked to sign a consent form before beginning the experiment. The consent form informed them of all the necessity of the experiment. The respondent also signed a psychological readiness question before beginning the experiment. The participants were fully informed about the requirements of the experiments. Participants with normal or corrected to normal vision completed the selected tasks. The participants received the testing under supervised laboratory conditions.

The inhabitation and attentional control were examined using the color word Stroop. This experiment utilized two test type for each group. Two stimuli tests were congruent (string of “X”s in a match the word), and two stimuli tests were incongruent (the name of the color was not the same color as the visually represented stimuli). The congruent and incongruent conditions were applied to the subjects with two experiment on each group. The color word Stroop has repeatedly shown to be a reliable and valid measure of cognitive interferences. The two stimuli tests were congruent (block that matched in color), and the other two stimuli tests were incongruent (blocks of different color). The computer recorded response time and accuracy of information.

Results

The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions. The results suggest that women averaged better than men on the Stroop task. Women had better cognitive abilities to separate color from the real word. Men took much time to unravel this logic. The women average was 7.08 seconds with the correct name/ color and 13.40 seconds with the different color/name. The men average was 7.48 seconds with the correct name/color and 15.19 seconds with the different color/name.

The results are presented in the following graph

Discussion

The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions. It was hypothesized that men will encounter more challenges in memorizing color with a different word than women. It was also assumed that both men and women will encounter difficulties in identifying the color of the ink with a different word. These hypothesizes are in line with the study results. Women outperformed men in both congruent and incongruent blocks activities. This results consistent with Poulin, O’Connel, and Freeman, (2004) findings that women outperformed men pictorial recall task. Poulin, O’Connel, and Freeman, (2004) concluded that that estrogen hormone in women enhanced their visual and memory abilities.

Since there is a large difference between the congruent and incongruent blocks, I was led to believe that there is some level of attention loading in both men and women. The more that a task is purely sensory, the less it draws upon the executive functioning systems of the central executive. The more complex and less sensory a task is, the more involved the executive functioning becomes (Poulin, O’Connel, & Freeman, 2004).

Activities that demand higher functioning of the brain lead to a slower reaction time and is connected more to the working memory which also incorporates the tasks of the frontal lobe. Restucia, Marca, Marra, Rubino and Valeriani (2005) agree with my study finding. According to their findings activities in the frontal lobe occurs when individual seek attention and perform tasks that demand attention. This stresses the idea that a certain amount of brain demand must have been accomplished by the activation of the central executive.

This explains why both men and women spent much time identifying the color of the ink with a different word. My study, therefore, demonstrates that attentional loads are the critical variable that determine the connection between congruent and incongruent blocks. In light of this contention, it is conceivable another variable exists that better explains the connection. Working memory probably accounts for some variance between the congruent and incongruent blocks. Working memory is maybe responsible for the variance between congruent and incongruent aspects.

I recommend a future study to focus on the notion of cognitive loading.The current study was performed in controlled environmental settings which lack a reflection of a natural setting where people are involved in real life memory test. Therefore, the environmental legitimacy of the study can be questioned. The extension of this study should be performed to investigate whether the controlling environment had an impact Baddeley’s (1997) theory of memory load.

The participants were a healthy individual from the same ethnical background. This limited the generalization of the group. Future research attention should be focused on different population, especially those considered to be more prone to negative psychological and health consequences such as adolescents, health risks, and disability. Future studies also need to concentrate on individuals from different societies, racial characters as well as another psychological background. The findings from this study can be used in understanding the correlation between attention and memory both in men and women and may be applied to academic concepts.

References

Baddeley, A. D. (1997). Human memory: Theory and practice. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Web.

Jorm, A. F., Anstey, K. J., Christensen, H., & Rodgers, B. (2004). Gender differences in cognitive abilities: The mediating role of health state and health habits. Intelligence, 32, 7-23. Web.

Lowe, P. A., Mayfield, J. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2003). Gender differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, 865-878. Web.

Maitland, S. B., Intrieri, R. C., Schaie, W. K., & Willis, S. L. (2000). Gender differences and changes in cognitive abilities across adult life span. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 7, 32-35. Web.

Maylor, E. A., Reimers, S., Choi, J., Collaer, M.L., Peters, M., & Silverman, I. (2007). Gender and sexual orientation differences in cognition across adulthood: Age is kinder to women than to men regardless of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 235-249. Web.

Poulin, M., O’Connel, R. L., & Freeman, L. M. (2004). Picture recall skills correlate with 2D: 4D ration in women but not men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 174-181. Web.

Restuccia, D., Marca, G. D., Marra, C., Rubino, M., Valeriani, M. (2005). Attentional load of the primary task influences the frontal but not the temporal generators of mismatch negativity. Cognitive Brain Research, 25(3), 891-899. Web.

Introduction

Memory serves our lives a very vital purpose. It becomes the storehouse of our experiences, of our learning, of everything which comes to pass our day to day life. It is where we stash both good and bad experiences and it is a place where we run into at times when we need to remember something.

However, there are isolated instances when memory becomes a waterloo for many persons. There are cases in point when the precious memory becomes not so valuable anymore and may even contribute to a person’s downfall.

Memory is an ever complicated process and still, studies are being extensively conducted so as to understand the processes being involved with it. To our knowledge, memory involves processes which are similar to that of learning. There are these processes which we call encoding and retrieval. The former refers to the manner of impressing into our minds the memories which we have acquired while the former refers to the manner by which a person reclaims the memories which have been stored earlier in time.

Both processes are important because they work as conjoined courses of action which makes our memory and our mind useful to us. Logically, one does not serve its function without the other. However, the presence of both processes does not necessarily determine the sanity or stability of a person’s mind or ability to remember things correctly. There are these things which we call false memory and memory distortion wherein an event is believed by a person to have happened in his or her life due to some external corroboration. The influence of the external environment to the person leads this certain individual to believe things which actually haven’t happened and is just merely a product of his or her own imagination induced to them by the outside forces (Ofshe, 1992).

Ramifications on the Reliability of Court Witnesses

Because of this phenomenon which can happen to anyone, especially to those psychologically challenged or abused people, this certain syndrome has been identified to be detrimental to many aspects of the society not just in the micro perspective but even to the larger angle such as the court witnesses.

Several prominent cases have been recorded which have something to with false memory and memory distortion. The most common case related to this phenomenon is sexual abuse- wherein an individual would suddenly file charges against a person for sexual assaults which the complainer believe to have happened when actually it hasn’t happened when tried on courts and when based on evidences. In fact, in the last two decades, thousands have come out of their nutshells and started accusing every person in their blood line of sexual assault and incest (Loftus, 1996).

Because of this, there is a negative implication on the reliability of court witnesses or even complainants because their statements may have been induced to them and may have been a pure play of their imaginations. The justice system is therefore being jeopardized with this situation because it only proves that, in the absence of concrete evidences, they may try a certain individual and worse, convict him of a thing he didn’t actually do just because of an almost real situation narrated by the witness with false memory syndrome or memory distortion.

Implications on Therapy Sessions

This phenomenon further becomes a threat in the integrity and veracity of statements acquired from psychiatric counseling because this information may be purely imagined or made up by a person. It also challenges the psychiatrists and psychologists profession because they might be sued for the negligence they commit while having sessions because they, themselves might be the causative factor or corroborating agent which induced that certain memory to be implanted within a person. It has happened before in the United States where there were a number of lawsuits filed against psychiatrists who became negligent in treating patients which led to false memory syndrome.

Importance of Studies

Studies aiming to understand the real cause of these phenomena are important because they would help us understand further the complications which may arise out of these psychological problems. Also, it would help us to be cautious with things we do most especially in involving ourselves with psychiatric counseling or treatments.

More than that, it is but necessary to conduct studies regarding this as soon as possible and find ways to remedy this because more and more people would be affected most especially those who are falsely accused persons. Although there are chances for them to be vindicated of the accusations, there is still a negative impact on their personality because they have been tried on courts with things they didn’t actually do.

References

Ofshe RJ (1992). “Inadvertent hypnosis during interrogation: false confession due to dissociative state; mis-identified multiple personality and the Satanic cult hypothesis”. The International journal of clinical and experimental hypnosis 40 (3): 125–56.

Loftus, Elizabeth (1996). “Memory Distortion and False Memory Creation.” Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 24 (3) 281-295.

Change Management Techniques

The first change management technique that Shimon Kornfield should have used is careful planning. It could be important for the team to understand Kornfield’s vision of the project, the main and secondary tasks, the project timeline, and the general outline of it. Kornfield’s responsibility was to engage the two sides of the team in this planning to create and share the vision that would further be used as a guide for the implementation of the whole project.

The next technique that could have helped communicate the message to the designers. As stated in the case study, each of the designers felt that the other one wanted to own the project (Laufer, 2012). In this case, the project leader needed to translate the mission of the project, even though both designers seemingly understood it. The fact that both designers felt their actions could be “suppressed” by the other one and did not focus on the project mission and message instead indicates that either their vision of it was different or the fear of the other curator “owning” the project was too great and interfered with communication among the team members.

The third technique is to ensure face-to-face communication with each of the project stakeholders (Davis, 2014). As one of the employees pointed out, it appeared that some members of the team were afraid to confront the architect personally and preferred to leave some of the issues unresolved or unaddressed. Therefore, Kornfield had to address these matters in a personal conversation with individual stakeholders to work on misunderstandings and conflicts that led the project to an undesired outcome.

The fourth technique is to create highly detailed implementation plans that will be discussed with each stakeholder and/or department that participates in the project. The timetable with clear deadlines is also necessary to coordinate the work of all stakeholders involved (CMI, 2014).

Essential Steps

1. Collaboration. Collaboration with all stakeholders on a solution or suggestion automatically informs them about the upcoming change and gives time for preparation.
2. Communication. If no solution is found, suggest one, addressing all issues that were discussed. It is crucial to introduce stakeholders to the solution before its implementation to avoid disruptions in the working process.
3. Ensure participation. If some of the stakeholders are unable to participate, reschedule the meeting rather than discuss the change with present team members (CMI, 2014).

Timing

First, the timing was crucial for the museum because it depended on donations, and potential donors were more likely to provide money if they saw the construction in action. If the construction of the museum had not started as soon as it was possible, the project could remain underfinanced. Second, the right choice of a contractor was also crucial for successful project implementation. As Shimon demonstrated, the wrong choice led to expired deadlines and negatives outcomes for project quality (Laufer, 2012). Third, Israel’s solution to ask the architect whether he would be willing to cooperate at the right point in time also facilitated the implementation of the project and eventually led to an overall agreement on it. The changes in the prism’s construction resulted in an outcome highly supported by all stakeholders.

Fourth, the timing was critical for Shimon when the curators were unable to share their decision on the exhibition, and he had to force them to decide because, otherwise, the construction would have been stopped.

Fifth, Israel’s observations of the conflict over lighting indicate that this time, he had to postpone the execution of the approved plans because it could be negatively perceived by the client. Israel’s decision not to proceed with the execution resulted in beneficial economic decisions due to changes in design. Sixth, the curators’ decision to release the project management from any involvement was also timely and necessary for successful project implementation. Shimon agreed that without their support he would be unable to impose his participation on them and further involve in the stages they wanted to complete independently. However, after two months the project manager noticed the curators had difficulties in making the right decision. Due to lack of time he had to persuade the curators they needed additional support from Israel and himself. Shimon’s timely involvement eventually helped finish the construction of the exhibitions.

Establishing Trust and Gaining Credibility

One of the ways to develop trust and gain credibility among team members for the leader is to strive for both cognitive and affective trust. Supposedly, two key members (e.g. Israel and Ishai) were replaced. Kornfield’s responsibility would be to focus on building the relationships with the remaining team members using a cognitive trust (competence and skills) and affective trust (benevolence and empowerment of team members) (Zhu, Newman, Miao, & Hooke, 2013).

Another approach to gaining trust could be the framework of shared leadership. This type of leadership implies that the leader distributes leadership functions among the members of the group; this way, the coordination of the project and team members’ communication with each other and the leader can improve significantly (Drescher, Korsgaard, Welpe, Picot, & Wigand, 2014). If group members influence one another, they engage in a positive social exchange, which, in turn, leads to mutual influence and the development of more trustful relationships. To decrease the level of instability in the group, Kornfield needs to support other team members by showing them that their relationships and involvement are valued and that communication is actively encouraged in the team.

It should also be noted that it is impossible to gain credibility among followers if the leader is unable to be ethical, open, and fair. As Caldwell et al. (2012) point out, leadership is built on ethics and excellence, and to earn credibility the leader must combine character and competence. The leader’s ability to connect with followers individually will result in better performance of both; furthermore, it can also increase loyalty levels among team members and inspire them to suggest and provide innovations, thus making them equal contributors to the project.

Giving the employees credit for their achievements even if not all project disruptions are addressed is an option for Kornfield since it does emphasize his view of employees as equal (not subordinate) stakeholders with a particular vision of the project. Kornfield’s attention to the views of project participants is obligatory because if any of the expressed views are neglected, communication and collaboration among project members will disrupt instantly. Thus, the project manager would have to evaluate each of the contributions personally and choose a suitable suggestion without diminishing the role of other participants. Working on a project without key figures would be complicated, but with the right approach toward the remaining members, it could eventually result in success.

References

Caldwell, C., Dixon, R. D., Floyd, L. A., Chaudoin, J., Post, J., & Cheokas, G. (2012). Transformative leadership: Achieving unparalleled excellence. Journal of Business Ethics, 109(2), 175-187. Web.

CMI. (2014). Implementing an effective change programme. Web.

Davis, K. (2014). Different stakeholder groups and their perceptions of project success. International Journal of Project Management, 32(2), 189-201. Web.

Drescher, M. A., Korsgaard, M. A., Welpe, I. M., Picot, A., & Wigand, R. T. (2014). The dynamics of shared leadership: Building trust and enhancing performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(5), 771-785. Web.

Laufer, A. (2012). Mastering the leadership role in project management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press. Web.

Zhu, W., Newman, A., Miao, Q., & Hooke, A. (2013). Revisiting the mediating role of trust in transformational leadership effects: Do different types of trust make a difference? The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 94-105. Web.

Abstract

The focal point of the paper is to understand the different aspects of memory and find out the best method of studying. Memory is classified in a number of ways, based on nature, duration, and retrieval of stored information. The formation and information retrieval in memory takes place in three stages. Recall, retrieval of the stored information due to some activity or process. Based on the ability to retain information, memory is classified into three different types. Part of the information stored in the sensory memory is sometimes transferred to short-term memory. Both sensory and short-term memory has limited capacity and short duration. In order to learn new information, we need to consolidate information from short-term to long-term memory. Apart from the above, we also need to consider our declarative memory, which stores facts and is a part of long-term memory. It stores theoretical information and is independent of place and time. This helps recall that term easily. In order to move information into long-term memory, we should also elaborately study our materials and rehearse them repeatedly.

Introduction

Over the years, we have seen that students instead of studying the whole year and learning the course materials properly tend to study only on the night before their examination. They stay up all night to finish their revision and somehow just mug up all the study materials, without understanding it at times. They think that they will be able to remember it the next day for the exam. However, since they do not understand the topic while reading it, sometimes they forget parts of it and get mixed up between two or more topics. It is generally advised that students go through their textbooks repeatedly so that they understand what they are studying which helps them remember it for a longer time. In order to determine whether mugging the course material over the night or studying it throughout the year helps the student, we need to consider the working of our brain. (Ashcraft, 2006).

The human brain has the ability to store, retain, and when necessary retrieve the stored information. Memory is classified in a number of ways, based on nature, duration, and retrieval of stored information. The formation and information retrieval in memory takes place in three stages:

1. Registration, where information is received, then processed and combined.
2. Storage, where a permanent record of registered information is created.
3. Recall, retrieval of the stored information due to some activity or process.

Based on the ability to retain information, memory is classified into three different types:

• Sensory Memory. Our ability to remember an item, which we looked at just for a few seconds, is an example of sensory memory. The capacity of the sensory memory is very limited and it degrades quickly, within milliseconds.
• Short-term Memory. Part of the information stored in the sensory memory is sometimes transferred to short-term memory. It allows us to retrieve information from a number of seconds to even a minute. However, its capacity is also very limited.
• Long-term Memory. Both sensory and short-term memory has limited capacity and short duration. This means that information is available only for a limited period of time and not indefinitely. On the other hand, long-term memory can store larger amounts of information for almost unlimited time, sometimes even for our whole lifetime.

While short-term memory occurs due to the transient patterns of neuronal communication which is dependent on the regions of the frontal and parietal lobe, long-term memory is maintained by a more permanent and stable change in the neural connections of the brain. In order to learn new information, we need to consolidate information from short-term to long-term memory. It has also been found that sleep helps in this consolidation of information, and thus our memory depends on the amount of sleep we get.

Apart from the above, we also need to consider our declarative memory, which stores facts and is a part of long-term memory. It refers to those memories, which have been consciously discussed, like the knowledge we gather from our textbooks and the ones that we can look back upon. (Hou, 2005) However, we can forget some information stored in declarative memory, while those that are frequently used last indefinitely. There are two types of declarative memory:

• Semantic memory. It stores theoretical information and is independent of place and time. It refers to that part of the memory consisting of understandings, meanings, and knowledge, which is not related to certain specific experiences. It thus includes generalized information and does not involve that memory that occurs due to a specific event.
• Episodic memory. It stores factual knowledge based on specific moments in time, place, emotions, and our personal experiences. Thus, it is the memory of those autobiographical events, which take place in our life.

Cognitive psychology deals with the investigation of our mental processes, like solving problems, memory, and language. It tells us how we mentally represent information gathered by our brain. It studies our mental processes and tells how we think, learns, and remember. It also shows ways to improve our memory, increase our decision-making power, and helps to structure the educational curriculum to enhance our learning capabilities. It is mainly concerned with our internal states of the mind and studies our mental processes. Cognitive psychologists have now discovered a number of ways to enhance our memory so that we can easily recall the information stored in our brains. Working memory, which is also sometimes referred to as short-term memory is a theoretical part of cognitive psychology, which refers to the processes, and structures of temporary storage and manipulation of information.

From the above, we see that until and unless we are able to move information from short-term to long-term memory, no matter how much we try to mug up our studies, we are more likely to forget it during our examination. In order to do so, and according to cognitive psychology, we need to properly focus our attention on the material, which we are studying. We should try to study in those places where we are not disturbed so that we can attend to the information. (Perner, 2007).

Cramming up our studies does not help during examinations and we need to have regular study sessions. Studying the material a number of times help us remember it for a longer time than those, which we try to do within a few hours. We also need to organize and structure the material, which we are studying, as our mind stores information in clusters. We can also associate a common everyday item, which we are less likely to forget, like a song, to a difficult term we need to remember. This helps recall that term easily. In order to move information into long-term memory, we should also elaborately study our materials and rehearse them repeatedly. If we gather a detailed description of an object, it helps us to recall it better. We also need to pay extra attention to difficult terms so that we remember them for a longer time. (Coch, 2003).

Thus, we see that if we study our course properly, information is stored in the long-term memory and we are less likely to forget it during an exam. Instead of studying the whole night before an examination, it is better to be prepared for it beforehand as sleep, too, plays an important part in helping our brain retain useful information.

References

Ashcraft, M. H. (2006). Cognition (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

Coch, Donna & Phillip J. Holcomb; 2003; The N400 in beginning readers; Developmental Psychobiology; Volume 43, Issue 2, Pages: 146-166.

Hou, Craig E. Bruce L. Miller & Joel H. Kramer; 2005; Patterns of autobiographical memory loss in dementia; International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry; Volume 20, Issue 9. Pages: 809-815

Perner, Josef, Daniela Kloo, Edith Gornik; 2007; Episodic memory development: theory of mind is part of re-experiencing experienced events; Infant and Child Development; Volume 16, Issue 5, Pages: 471-490.