Most people believe that everything they remember is true and happened in the exact way they remember. However, sometimes it might not be the case. For example, I clearly remember the day I was learning how to ride a bike for the first time. I can recall many details from the color of the bike, the location, or my dad teaching me. It was terrible training, as I remember it, with me injuring myself and crying over being so clumsy and unable to ride a bike even a few feet.
However, I have no memory of managing to maintain the balance, and neither do I remember my major achievement when I was riding without my dad holding me. For years, I was convinced that I couldn’t ride a bike and started to learn it again as if with a clean slate. The problem of disagreeing with memories can be explained by a closer look at the process of memory acquisition.
Memory processes are basically the mental activities we perform to put information into memory and make use of it later. Researchers identify three processes vital to the act of memorizing: acquisition, retention, and retrieval (Wingfield & Byrnes, 2013). Information that people will remember later should first be acquired in the form of a memory code. Disagreeing memories can result from an encoding problem such as a piece of the original information missing or wrong interpretation of the experience.
The next stage determining the failure or success of the memorizing process is retention. Information acquired during the first stage should be stored for future use. Retention problems are problems connected with the storage of correctly coded information resulting, mostly, from the acquisition of new information interfering with the initial data.
Problems may arise during the process of retrieval even if the information was properly encoded and stored. Sometimes people have a feeling that they definitely know something but cannot remember it. Such failure might result from the incorrect reactivation of the memory code.
Memories are stored and processed in a particular way. According to the studies by Scripps Research Institute (2017), memories are stored in an area of the brain called the infralimbic cortex. To describe the way they have processed scientists use the three-box model.
Sensory memory grasps the smallest amount of information perceived with the help of our senses to transfer it to the next level of short-term memory. Most part of the sensory information is not encoded due to selective attention. Short-term memory is also temporary. If the information is not processed further, it fades. To be transferred to the unlimited storage of the long-term memory information needs to be rehearsed.
Agenesis of the corpus callosum (AgCC) is a neurological disorder known as developmental absence, which results from the malformation of the congenital brain. It can occur as a comorbid disease in such genetic and prenatal diseases as toxic syndromes and other chromosomal abnormalities (Siffredi et al., 2013). In addition, it can occur in isolation, with a lack of sufficient evidence for neural defects, although such individuals with isolated AgCC indicate a more favorable prognosis with a particular configuration of psychological disorder, which may inhibit mental development, thus, overall well-being (Siffredi et al., 2013). Therefore, the capacity to temporarily preserve necessary information in the brain in the presence of a disorder or defect, also known as working memory (WM), is vital for underpinning higher cognitive developments.
The contemporary study’s objective is to comprehend whether verbal reminiscence impairments are a distinctive pattern of high-functioning persons with AgCC in school-aged children and to develop a better appreciation of the function of CC in verbal memory, retrieval of learned, and retention of information. Physical callosal injury in individuals with multiple sclerosis (MS) is linked to defects in list learning and loss of organizational integrity of the callosal zones connecting the frontal and the temporal zones, which are related to loss of verbal memory in Alzheimer’s disease (Paul et al., 2007; Brown & Paul, 2019). The previous studies are vital in providing insight into the direction of the research under study. As such, previous research on persons with AgCC on assessment of their auditory memory indicated contradictory outcomes. One study showed that persons with AgCC had a comparatively integral presentation on tests of vocal memory and performance (Paul et al., 2007).
However, other studies established that people with insulated AgCC also have minor injuries on oral memory tests (Erickson et al., 2014). In another study with partial AgCC, persons showed reduced uttered memory on the California Verbal Learning Test-Children’s Version (CVLT-C), dissimilar to the complete AgCC designated above, the teenagers with pAgCC executed poor performance on the signaled memory (Paul et al., 2016). To address the inconsistency in the previous studies with CVLT, it was predicted that children with AgCC would show reduced performance on a verbal working memory task at 7 years compared with typically developing controls.
Moreover, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show poor performance on verbal working memory tasks at 13 years than typically developing controls established in the research CVLT (Paul et al., 2016). However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar performance improvement in verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT (Erickson, 2014). This is because it was established that such difference does not exist in percent preservation (a manifestation of the capability to recall and recover what was essentially educated), demonstrating that poor recital is a concern of confines during programming and not repossession of what had been educated.
Method
Research Participants
Children with AgCC were enlisted from the Monash Children’s Hospital in Melbourne, Australia, between January 2009 and 2014. Inclusion criteria were a diagnosis confirmed by MRI, 7 years of age, English speaking, and capacity to participate in neuropsychological testing. Another independent group of typically developing 7-year-olds was recruited through hospital advertisements, and their inclusion criteria were no history of brain lesion, neurological disability, or neurodevelopmental disorders.
Materials
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines are used for assessing AgCC.
Questionnaires to gather data about the participants.
Consent forms signed by children’s parents as active participants.
Medical records describing the children’s neurological conditions.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) with Digit Span Backwards subtest: One repeats longer strings of mentioned numbers in reverse order with the values converted into average totals with M=10 and SD=3.
Procedure
Children were involved in a neuropsychological assessment (by a psychologist appraising academic, rational, and educational functioning) and a brain MRI (by a neurologist to portray AgCC and other anomalies). Caregivers finalized the written and oral questionnaires to assess decision-making, behavioral and academic functioning alongside socio-economic status. Information regarding the comorbid disorders was documented in health registers. The study was ratified by the Monash Children’s Hospital Human Research Ethics Committee. Parents or caregivers delivered informed printed consent to contribute to the study. The assessment was directed at ages 7 and 13 between 2009 and 2014. WM was measured using the DSBS based on WISC-IV with values converted into normal scores with M=10 and SD=3. All studies were piloted using age-corrected scaled scores.
Design
A one-sample T-test for independent samples was used to evaluate the variation between the two means of the AgCC group scores and the typically developing group. Moreover, the mean variances within each functional domain were investigated using a paired-sample T-test. Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances was performed, and a 95% CI of the difference between the paired sample tests was conducted using the Exploratory Software for Confidence Intervals (ESCI) (Cumming, 2012). Evaluations comparing the cAgCC and pAgCC groups were presented in Table 6. In addition, the demographic data in terms of sex were also shown in Table 5.
Table 6: Frequency Table Indicating the Demographic Profile of the Children in Terms of Sex.
AgCC group
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Male Female
18 10
64.3 35.7
64.3 35.7
64.3 100
Total
28
100
100
TD group Valid Male Female
16 16
50 50
50 50
50 100
Total
32
100
100
From Table 5 Below, both the cAgCC and pAgCC did not differ significantly on age, each indicating a valid percept of 50%. However, in other abnormalities, there was a significant difference between seizure and genetic disorders, indicating an absent score of 85.7% and 78.6%, respectively. Regarding Schools, mainstream showed high frequency with 75% followed by special development with 21.4% and least in 3.6%.
Table 5: Frequency Table on AgCC Type.
Frequency
Percept
Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
AgCC Type Valid Complete Partial
14 14
50 50
50 50
50 100
Total
28
100
100
Seizure Disorder Present Absent
4 24
14.3 85.7
14.3 85.7
14.3 100
Total
28
100
100
GENETIC Disorder Present Absent
6 22
21.4 78.6
21.4 78.6
21.4 100
Total
28
100
100
School Valid a)Mainstream b) Special Development c) Both Mainstream and Special Development
21 61
75 21.43.6
75 21.43.6
75 96.4100
28
100
100
Results
Performance on the Backward Digit Span Standard Score analyzed using the T-test of 2 groups (AgCC vs. TD) based on the mean for recall times is indicated in Table 1. This instrument demonstrated no statistical significance with the AgCC group (M=7.59, SD=3.500) compared to the TD group (M=11.13, SD=2.882), with T (-4.252 <0.05), thus the means score between them are insignificant statistically. The results are 95% Cl (-5.196, -1.869), and the means difference between the groups falls within the t-score values. Table 2 demonstrates no significant differences between the equality in means of the groups AgCC (n=28) and TD (n=32) by the Backward Digit Span Standard Score at 7 years with the Levene’s test with AgCC (n=28) and TD (N=32) at (F=1.187, Sig=0.280 >0.005), the first null hypothesis is accepted and equal variance is assumed.
Table 1: Levene’s Test for Equality and T-test for Equality of Means in AgCC vs. TD at 7 years.
Performance on the Backward Digit Span Standard Score at 13 years analyzed by T-test of 2 groups (AgCC vs. TD) by the mean for recall times is indicated in Table 2. The t-test showed no statistical significance with the AgCC group (M=7.93, SD= 3.222) compared to the TD group (M=9.88, SD=3.508), t =0.883 >0.005, hence the second null hypothesis is accepted and equal variance assumed at (F=1.170, sig=0.284>0.005).
Table 2: Levene’s Test for Equality and T-test for Equality of Means in AgCC vs. TD at 13 years.
As per Table 3, the improvements between children in AgCC at 7 and 13 years indicated statistical significance, thus accepting the third hypothesis that children with AgCC show similar changes in performance on verbal working memory tasks (Backward Digit Span Standard Score at 7 years and Backward Digit Span Standard Score at 13 years. (n=28, correlation, 0.434, sig. 0.024>0.005). The mean-variance is also in acceptable ranges with an AgCC Vs. TD at (M=-.333, SD=3.584, t (-4.83<0.005), df =27 at a 95% Cl (-1.751, 1.085). Regarding the t-test sig of (0.633>0.005), the third hypothesis is equally accepted.
Table 3: Paired t-test for AgCC group on backward Digit Span Standard Score at 7 and 13 Years.
Table 4 demonstrates that the TD group’s performance at 7 and 13 years by the Backward Digit Standard Score is statistically significant. It supports the third hypothesis at (M=1.25,SD=3.455, df=31 at 95% Cl (0.004, 2.496), at t (31)=2.047, sig=0.049=0.005). The equal t-test significance indicates that the hypothesis is accepted without variations in the mean difference.
Table 4: Paired t-test for TD group on backward Digit Span Standard Score at 7 and 13 Years.
Discussion
The study investigated verbal memory in AgCC (n=28) and TD (n=32) students by using the Backward Digit Span Standard Score WISC-IV. The knowledge and memory presentation of the AgCC group was different from the TD group in subsets. The former showed worse performance on the recall than the latter (7 years) after learning and no TD variation on long-term memory (13 years). The groups were similar in retention in both 7 and 13 years. Moreover, the hypothesis regarding AgCC teenagers demonstrating equal progress on verbal WM tasks was confirmed. In verbal learning tasks, they had poorer instantaneous performance than the TD, even though both groups improved. Erickson et al. (2014) also established equivalent outcomes in AgCC and TD persons and no evidence of group variance. Therefore, the study provides more support reflecting verbal retention, retrieval of new information and lower efficiency of AgCC students compared to TD individuals in encoding information for later reminiscence. It could be attributed to other diseases, affecting both recalls in 7 and 13 years.
Similarly, Erickson et al. (2014) reported damages to spoken learning and retention in AgCC. The same results between 7 and 13 years are also accredited to deferred reminiscence on the CVLT-II and are imperfect by the extent of initial data. Hence, future studies on the memory effect in AgCC should aim to implement such tasks on isolated participants with callosal agenesis as a primary disorder. Comparing cAgCC and pAgCC participants did not link augmented recall with callosal network disruptions. Consequently, it is recommended to consider this aspect in the pAgCC patients when conducting future studies. This interrelation emphasizes the mechanism of action of the corpus callosum in redirecting huge neural systems to synthesize data. Thus, AgCC would explain the lowered presence of cortical networks in processing information.
The working-memory impairments experienced by a person with ADHD. Which brain areas appear to be involved?
Impairments in working memory have to be addressed because they could affect individuals with ADHD to an extent where the latter would have trouble engaging in social or academic activities and generating adequate cognitive responses. The majority of difficulties that might arise from executive functioning deficits and impaired working memory might negatively affect a person’s problem-solving skills and moral reasoning (Jensen et al., 2018). Both children and adults with ADHD could maintain a strong inclination toward working memory impairments in spatial and verbal spheres.
The first important argument for a thorough discussion on how ADHD could affect brain functioning and working memory impairments is the existence of prominent factors that could create a link between the disorder and the brain. A recent study in brain imaging showed that several brain regions are implicated in the notion of working memory impairment when it comes to people with ADHD, such as temporal, frontal, and parietal cortices (Duan et al., 2021). In order to improve working memory performance and reduce the impact on working memory, many care providers utilize methylphenidate.
Manipulations with working memory also involve the prefrontal cortex rather often. The importance of secondary brain regions for individuals with ADHD cannot be underestimated either because the parietal lobe could significantly influence visual-spatial processing and verbal rehearsal (Jensen et al., 2018). Brain functioning in individuals with ADHD depends on the prefrontal cortex because the latter modifies neural activity across posterior cortical regions as well. To conclude, the impact of ADHD on brain functioning has to be studied further, as each of the brain regions affected by the disorder could be vital for a person’s everyday functioning, too.
How might background music impact the working memory capacity
I do not usually listen to music when I study because, personally, I feel like additional sounds tend to distract me and avert me from remembering all important pieces of information. My attitude toward the lack of connection between listening to music and studying effectively is also supported by de la Mora Velasco and Hirumi (2020), who claim that background music cannot be recommended as a supporting factor for one’s learning process.
In the case where a learner possesses the lowest capacity level, they are never going to benefit from background music. Even in people with higher capacity levels of working memory, researchers were not able to find any statistically significant results that would approve of one turning on background music to study more effectively (Ntourou et al., 2020). For the most part, it should be considered a personal preference and a possible chance to appeal to the given learner’s motivation.
Speaking of technologies or habits that help me off-load items from the working memory, I would like to mention my favorite approach of breaking down larger tasks into smaller assignments. Not only this approach decreases the perceived complexity of the tasks, but it also helps me manage time better and gain more motivation to move forward. Another valuable method of reducing the burden placed on the working memory capacity is to utilize the drawing-construction strategy and collect and reiterate information using the sketching technique (de la Mora Velasco & Hirumi, 2020). Even though it requires the person to have at least minimal experience in translating information into visual form, the quality of drawings is going to improve with time, and the methods of off-loading the working memory are going to become more effective.
Discussion of the ways to externalize items in working memory, and technologies or habits to help off-load items from the working memory
From the point of classical conditioning, the environment plays one of the most important roles in the process of one’s education due to the fact that nature is inferior to nurture. Nevertheless, it would be incorrect to limit the discussion on human behavior by addressing certain patterns from the standpoints of nurture and nature. The complexity of human behavior cannot be replicated using only these two notions (Cohenour et al., 2018). It is much more likely that any behavioral scientist would gain more insight into a person’s interactions if they consider the environment in association with biological factors, paving the way for classical conditioning.
In the example with a mother who listens to jazz music, the simplest example of classical conditioning would be to play jazz music in front of her child (neutral stimulus) and wait for the latter to develop a preference toward this musical genre. As soon as the mother is going to display happiness while listening to jazz (unconditioned stimulus), the child is going to mimic that behavior (unconditioned response) by beginning to dance joyfully, repeating after their mother. The ultimate conditioned response for the child would be to start dancing and experience a good mood every time when jazz music plays, and they can hear it.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that classical conditioning is only suitable for the process of retraining one’s reflexes, so the mother should be careful with the stimulus that she developed via listening to jazz music. New environmental stimuli could challenge the child’s beliefs and cognitive responses, placing them in a state of misperception. With only a certain list of reflex behaviors, the current instance of classical conditioning may not be enough to help the child produce a decent response to the environment. According to Pelaez and Monlux (2017), in such cases, the mother would have to resort to operant conditioning at the end of the day.
References
Cohenour, J. M., Volkert, V. M., & Allen, K. D. (2018). An experimental demonstration of AAB renewal in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 110(1), 63-73.
Duan, K., Jiang, W., Rootes-Murdy, K., Schoenmacker, G. H., Arias-Vasquez, A., Buitelaar, J. K.,… & Liu, J. (2021). Gray matter networks associated with attention and working memory deficit in ADHD across adolescence and adulthood. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), 1-12.
Jensen, D. A., Høvik, M. F., Monsen, N. J. N., Eggen, T. H., Eichele, H., Adolfsdottir, S.,… & Sørensen, L. (2018). Keeping emotions in mind: The influence of working memory capacity on parent-reported symptoms of emotional lability in a sample of children with and without ADHD. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1846.
de la Mora Velasco, E., & Hirumi, A. (2020). The effects of background music on learning: a systematic review of literature to guide future research and practice. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 2817-2837.
Ntourou, K., DeFranco, E. O., Conture, E. G., Walden, T. A., & Mushtaq, N. (2020). A parent-report scale of behavioral inhibition: Validation and application to preschool-age children who do and do not stutter. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 63, 105748.
Pelaez, M., & Monlux, K. (2017). Operant conditioning methodologies to investigate infant learning. European Journal of Behavior Analysis, 18(2), 212-241.
A hypothesis can be defined as an interrelated assertion which tries to provide information of a given phenomenon. It binds together various facts in order to provide a single explanation for certain occurrences. A theory is a cycle with four main steps. The first step involves the act of making observations, formulation of hypotheses, collection of data and finally the explanation of the hypotheses using the data obtained from the findings.
With the above elaboration of a theory, we can conclude that human development theories involve various stages which try to explain why human beings behave the way they do at various different stages in their life. In this study, theories will help us understand different stages of human lifespan. However, this paper shall discus much during childhood. This is because significant changes are usually observed during the early life of human lifespan.
Introduction
In the development process, there are three fundamental stages which enable us to evaluate the significant changes which occur within a human body physically, emotionally and mentally. They include growth, maturation and finally learning. Growth takes place within our body via metabolic processes which occur inside the body. The resultant changes include body increase in size, weight increment, physical changes, sexual and emotional maturity among others. Different body organism increase in size as the age advances. In plants, growth is usually continuous until their death as opposed to humans where growth is limited to different stages where it eventually stops at a certain stage, till death.
While growth refers to the multiplication of the number of individual units or cells in the body, maturation on the other hand can be defined as the successive progress of the individual’s appendage land organs in relation to the capacity to perform and the reflects of hereditarily approved prototypes of performance. Such changes are irreversible as long as environmental factors remain normal throughout the process (Shing, & Lindenberger, 2011).
Psychoanalytic theory
Characteristics
oral
Anal
Phallic
Time period
From birth to 18 months
From 18 months to around 3 years.
This stage is approximated to be from third to seven years
Pleasurable
Tongue, mouth and lips
Bladder, rectum and anus
Genital experience pleasure at this phase.
Most pleasurable activity
Sucking during early terms and finally biting later at the final stage
At an early stage, they experience pleasure when expelling feces and urine but later they obtain pleasure at retaining feces.
Masturbation
Sources of conflict
Breast feeding termination
The training on how to use toilet
Oedipal complex in boys while Electra complex in girls
Sigmund Freud (1865-1939) proposed that humans operate in three states; the id, superego and the ego. The id hunts for self-satisfaction; the superego seeks to do what is right in terms of morals while the ego serves as a rational intermediary between the superego and the id. According to Sigmund, all human beings right from infancy undergoes a chain of psychosexual stages. He hypothesized that each of the stages is characterized by the development of sensitivity in a certain part of the body, where each stages is associated with a conflict which must be resolved before proceeding to the next stage.
If not solved, the problem gives birth to various frustrations which eventually become chronic and hence remaining a central attribute of the victim’s psychology. Freud suggested in his hypothesis that the conflict during phallic stage fallout in the Oedipal for the boys while for the girls Electra complex. During this stage, a boy develops sexual love for his birth mother and rivalry towards his father. This makes him fear reprimand from his father on or after castration. On the other hand, a girl feels sexual love for her father resulting to a feeling of inferiority since she and her mother had been castrated.
Yet, if an individual misses the conflict, s/he might be addicted to a certain stage, which becomes so pleasurable such that they are not willing to move to the next stage. If an individual fails to resolves conflicts of a given stage, they tend to retain characteristics of that stage. A classic example is when a child is fixed at oral stage might be deemed as immature. Such individuals end up engaging to excessive oral behaviors such as smoking, nail eating and drinking among others.
Behavioral theory
This theory is often concerned with observable human behavior. It mainly revolves on what they do and say in reality. Traditionally, people researchers have differentiated behavior units in terms of responses and stimuli, where stimuli are mostly associated with the environment.
Classic condition theory
In this case, we shall focus on classic conditioning theory which was developed by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) (Garbarino, 1980). His research and theory are associated with gastric juices in the digestion of dogs. In his studies, he noted that the dog would start salivating immediately he placed the food in front of its mouth. He went further to experiment if the dog would do the same when subjected to different environment. A bell was rung before the dog was feed on several occasions. At his conclusion, he discovered that the dog started to salivate immediately the bell was rung even if the food was not availed. This led to the discovery of a condition known as psychic secretions. It was concluded that reflex is an unintentional and untrained reaction that is unconsciously triggered by a particular stimuli (Garbarino, 1980).
Cognitive theory
This theory comprises various aspects which tackles how human beings came into organizing, treating, transforming and exchanging information among other factors. Other phenomena include sensation, imagery, retention, recalling, problem-solving skills, perception, thinking and reasoning. The main area of interest in this case lies in the processes which allow human to psychologically present proceedings that become apparent in the ecosystem. Freud and Piaget (1896-1980) made great impact in the psychology of the children (Ingleby, 1983). Freud advanced on personality development while Piaget invested his time in mode of thought.
According to him, development process is more of adaptation where children continue to interact with their surroundings (Ingleby, 1983). Right at the very beginning of a child, simple reflex gradually adjust their range of characters to meet the demands of their surroundings. When playing, children tend to invent a range of schemas. These are cognitive structures which are developed by people in order to best fit in their environment.
He believed that adaptation involves two major processes-assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation enables individual take new information and interpreting it. On the other hand, accommodation enables humans to change their schemas so as to best fit in the world’s environment. Eventually, a state of equilibrium is established. At this state, a child is able to assimilate new experience in terms of models which s/he obtains through accommodation. However, this stage alternates from a state of balance to a state of imbalance (Steinberg, 2007).
Four basic stages in proposed in Cognitive theory
This stage is divided into four basic stages in the development of intelligence.
Sensorimotor stage
This stage last from birth to 2 years. At this juncture, infants establish the affiliation linking sensation and motor performance. In other words, they learn their hands are part of their body whereas playing toys are not.
Preoperational stage
This lasts from two to seven years. At this point, children tend to master and employ symbols and specific languages. During this stage, they tend to believe their only perspective of things. For instance, if a child is asked the reason as to why the snow falls will simply answer so that kids can play in it.
Stage of concrete operations (seven to eleven years)
At this stage the children come to master different logical procedures such as mathematics, conceptions of chain of commands, set links and measurements among others.
Stage of formal operations (11 years and older)
At this stage, the teenage are able to engage fully in scientific reasoning. They are able to understand principles such as Newton’s law. In other words, they face the reality of life and are able to understand why things and natural phenomena happens the way they do.
References
Garbarino, J. (1980). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 2(4), 433 – 438.
Ingleby, D. (1983). Freud and Piaget: The phoney war. New Ideas in Psychology, 1(2), 123 – 144.
Shing, Y., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). The Development of Episodic Memory: Lifespan Lessons. Child Development Perspectives, 5(2), 148 – 155.
Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk Taking in Adolescence: New Perspectives from Brain and Behavioral Science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 55 – 59.
The human memory is an important reference to an individual’s life because it is used to remember past events that help in planning. Memory problems are a common concern in the society due to the increased rate of memory problems among the individuals. This problem is caused by a combination of several factors that is normal. The first factor is an individual age that causes memory lapses. Other factors include temporary and treatable conditions that are experienced in the course of life.
The brain is the body organ responsible for memory in the human body. It can stay in a good condition for a long time, but it becomes tired during the old age. Therefore, it is important for people to understand the various causes of memory problems. As such, this will help develop strategies that will develop the memory of an individual even in the old age. This paper will discuss the memory strategies and their potential effects on the body.
Memory strategies
Memory strategies are methods used to maintain a healthy mental well-being of an individual. The adult memory is prone to problems because it has fewer activities to remember. In contrast, the youth memory is more active because at this level a young person is involved in vigorous activity that requires recall. However, both the old and the youth do not have a perfect memory because they interact with information every time making it difficult to remember everything. Memory problems can be enhanced through various strategies. These strategies are: cognitive training, diet training and Psychopharmacology.
Cognitive training
This is a memory strategy that involves an alteration of the brain for some time through cognitive activities to progress an individual’s memory. Cognitive activities will help improve the cognitive functions in the body like remembrance, interpretation and speed of processing. Additionally, cognitive training can also advance non-memory issues like speed and accuracy controlled by the auditory system (Winfield, 2011). The basis of cognitive training is to regularly perform activities that involve the brain over a length of time. As such, the brain will respond and it will become used to the activities thus improving the general memory. Cognitive training takes two approaches as; strategy training and core training.
Strategy training is designed to help the brain to remember specific bulk information through encoding, maintenance and recall (Janice, 2011). It is based on the fact that information can be remembered through rehearsing several times. Core training involves duplicating demanding information through a combined strategy that sets to improve the outcome. The major aim of both strategies is to develop the level in which an individual can remember information with ease. This involves a continuous activity that will make the brain adjust to the magnitude of the activity thus improving the memory level.
Effects of cognitive training
The approach of performing cognitive training affects both the desired results and how an individual regards the change. Here, if the individual develops a negative attitude towards the cognitive training then its results are likely to be affected. For example, if an individual realizes a progressive result he becomes interested in the training and subsequently improves his memory. On the contrary, where an individual gets a negative result he develops a negative attitude that makes him looses his memory further. However, repeated cognitive training has a positive effect as it can recover other memory conditions in the body. For example, strategy training is effective in improving the condition of children suffering from Down syndrome (Janice, 2011).
Basically, children suffering from Down syndrome have memory problems, but through rehearsing it is possible to get better the function of the brain. Core training is at the center stage in improving the effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Kleim, 2008).
Psychopharmacology
This involves improving memory problems through an analysis of how chemicals found in drugs affect temper, feeling, contemplation and behavior. Adrenaline is a hormone secreted in the body which has been found to pick up the human memory. Therefore, individuals suffering from memory consolidation can be injected with the hormone to improve its effects. It can also improve memory arousal because it takes part during the process of memory encoding (Winfield, 2011).
The glucose level in the human body can also improve the memory through providing a vital component used in the relay of information in the brain. Information is relayed and transmitted to the brain by the transmitter substance called acetylcholine, which is regulated by the glucose levels in the body (Janice, 2011). Another chemical substance that can progress memory problems is nicotine found as a component in cigarettes. People with visiospatial problems are encouraged to smoke to obtain nicotine that is a component of cigarette smoke. It can also be a remedy for patients suffering from schizophrenia.
Effects of psychopharmacology
This is a strategy that uses chemicals to suppress the adverse effects of memory problems. As such, the chemicals which can be produced naturally or induced have severe side-effects to the body. For example, adrenaline in the body is tasked with several functions apart from memory improvement. Its other role is that it is considered a sex hormone and can also stimulate milk production in lactating mothers. High level of adrenaline in the body will increase the urge for sex among individuals in a population that may lead to other issues like unprotected sex, early pregnancy in children or rape cases.
Although nicotine is an essential chemical that can treat several problems in the body, it encourages smoking that has other more profound health problems than memory. A common problem of smoking is addiction and lung cancer. The nicotine in cigarette can cause addiction that will become a habitual behavior to that person. Controlling addiction is a complex task that requires a lot of psychological counseling to control. Additionally, high level of nicotine in the body has been realized to have no effect in improving the memory, but can cause memory impairment (Kleim, 2008).
Diet
A balanced diet is an important strategy to use in improving memory problems because it is not as involving as the other strategies. The components found in food that are responsible for maintaining a strong memory is; glucose, flavanoids and fats (Straus, 2009). The basic function of these components is that they are used in the formation of parts of the brain or take part in the processes in the brain. For example, flavanoids interact with the brain-derived neurotrophic factor to promote an effective functioning of the neurons that relays information to the brain. The effects of using diet as a strategy is that it leads to developing other diseases in the body. For example, a high level of glucose in the body can lead to increased activity of the kidney that result to diabetes.
References
Janice, M. (2011). Emergence of working memory in children using aided communication. Journal of Assistive Technologies, 5(4), 214 – 232.
Kleim, J. (2008). Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51(1), 225-239.
Straus, C. (2009). Strategies for Improving Memory. Psych Central. Web.
Winfield, A. (2011). The psychology of human memory. San Diego: Academic Press.
There has been a prominent debate on the role of decision-making process memory retrieval. Most people tend to rely on stimulus as well as environmental cues while making a decision on whether they had encountered a certain scenario in the past (Mickes, Wixted, & Wais, 2014).
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of the study is to investigate how memory strength influences an individual’s decision-making process. Sixty-one people from different regions are to be interviewed during the process and thereby, examining how an aggregated memory signals influences an individual’s recognition decisions.
Motivation
At some point in life, people often encounter scenarios that are a source of dilemma. For instance, a person seated at a public place may notice a familiar individual whom he or she suspects to be his or her spouses’ friend. He or she may face a dilemma whether to greet the person and risk any embarrassment, in the event that individual turns out to be stranger, or to just ignore and risk insulting a friend of his or her spouse.
Literature review
Decision-making is the process of constructing choice criteria and strategies and using them to select an appropriate decision from numerous possible alternatives. Existing decision theories are concerned about how a choice function is created to arrive at a good decision. These theories include; the game theory, the Bayesian theory, and the dual process theory. However, these studies fail to address the relationship that exists between the memory strength and decision-making.
Method
The participants of the research will be sixty-one people selected from different areas. The participants will be interviewed on a number of incidences that demonstrate their recognition decisions as well as how they applied their memory capability to recall the particular incidences. Process tracing with retrospective reports will be performed. The participants will be asked. In the past, verbal reports have successfully been used in related studies. The individual recognition decision and the memory strength will be compared to determine their relation. The independent variable will be aggregated memory strength while the dependent variable will be individual recognition decisions.
Results
The individual recognition decisions and aggregated memory strength signal will be analyzed in two ways. First, the individual recognition decisions are rated according to the level of memory exhibited by the person. This will help in indicating if there is a clear correlation between individual decision-making and the memory status exhibited by the individual. Second, a clear description will be conducted in order to establish the inaccurate data that may alter the accuracy of the results. A positive correlation between the individual recognition decisions and the aggregated memory strength will be shown. Some people are suspected to show a clear correlation between their recognition ability and the memory status (Mickes, Wixted, & Wais, 2014).
Conclusion
The research will develop an axiomatic and rigorous approach for a cognitive decision-making process, which will describe in detail the nature and cause of both human and machine-based decision-making process based on recent research results of different cognitive informatics. The research is expected to show that the existing theories on decision-making are always not accurate. The reduction of cognitive complexities in decision-making problems by a heuristic feedback of known solution in decision strategies will be studied further especially in intelligent decision-support systems. The cognitive process provided by the research will be applied in a wide range of expert systems.
Reference
Mickes, L., Wixted, J. T., & Wais, P. E. (2014). Recollection Is a Continuous Process: Implications for Dual-Process Theories of Recognition Memory. Psychological Science, 20(4), 509-515. Web.
This model describes how the brain receives, records, and stores information.
The brain inputs information through sensory organs that receive information from surroundings.
The short-term memory holds information for a short period.
Deep-rooted memory has limitless capacity.
Resultantly, it holds details for discussing ideas and personal experiences.
This slide presents the main characteristics and features of the Information Processing Model. Information processing theory is a method of studying cognitive development that arose from the American experimental psychology tradition (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). Developmental psychologists use the information processing viewpoint to explain mental development in terms of maturational changes in essential components of a child’s mind.
Evolution of Information Process
Information processing is undergoing dramatic development.
Previously, the brain processed information through a natural system.
Computer invention has drastically changed information processing.
The widespread use of computer has improved transportation of information.
This slide presents the main points that reflect the principle of changing the perception of information (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). This viewpoint compares the mind to a computer, which interprets data from the outside world. This hypothesis explains how childrens’ brains mature as they grow, resulting in improvements in their capacity to interpret and respond to information acquired via their senses.
The Two–Track Mind
The human brain processes information through two channels.
The visual perception track forms instincts regarding the physical creation of the world.
The sight action tract harmonizes physical shifting to interact with things that we see.
Unconscious parallel processing helps to do routine activities with fairly less focus.
Serial conscious processing is slower and needs concentration on one task at a time.
The two-track mind refers to the two minds that coexist within our single brain. The conscious and unconscious minds, to be precise. Let me begin by describing the two-track mind in this manner. You only have one brain where two minds are working in one brain at the same time. Those two minds are not always cooperating because they constantly feed off one other and exchange information (Mangelschots, 2021). However, because this information exchange occurs subconsciously, it may appear that both minds are working separately. The conscious mind’s decisions are well-thought-out and have a reduced mistake rate. This is because judgments and thinking processes are made intentionally over a more extended period of time. The unconscious mind has the benefit of making quick judgments based on intuition (our prior experiences) and requiring no awareness or conscious mental effort. Thus, there are two channels through which the brain processes information. The visual perception track forms instincts about the physical world, the sight action tract harmonizes physical displacement, allowing to interact with what we see (Wu et al., 2017). Hence unconscious parallel processing, unconscious work with information that does not require much effort, and serial conscious processing, slower, requiring attention and concentration.
Implicit And Explicit Memory Systems
Brain retains information through implicit and explicit memory systems.
Implicit memory retains information in the brain unconsciously and automatically.
This system typically affects how humans perform tasks.
Explicit memory involves personal experiences and factual information used consciously and intentionally to recall.
Many people often get confused about different types of memory. There are short-term and long-term memory, which are divided into several different categories. Memory disorders can affect one or more aspects of short-term and long-term memory (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). When you are asked to define implicit memory, you can say that it is a long-term memory of what you do automatically every day, without conscious thinking. Explicitly defining memory is much easier. This type of memory is responsible for your long-term memories, for example, when you went on vacation last year. Explicit memory is extracted consciously, while implicit memory is extracted unconsciously as soon as a person begins to do something that requires memory extraction (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). An example is balancing a bicycle after a person has started riding. Implicit memory is used much more since it can be implemented even in states of immobility and can be implemented by anyone who has had previous personal experience corresponding to the definition of an entry in the implicit part of memory. Implicit memory helps older people because they can restore in their minds the familiar environment to which they are accustomed and their daily routine with age (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). This helps them in performing everyday tasks. However, it becomes challenging for them to survive in new conditions, such as nursing homes.
Impact of Synapse on Memory Processing
Synapse level affects memory processing.
Emotional states affect the ability to memorize details.
The brain releases glucocorticoids hormones when stressed.
These hormones affect encoding, recording, and recalling of information processing.
In the central nervous system, under the influence of learning, new synapses are formed, and their amount increases, the release of mediators in them rises, dendrites grow, the quantity of spines on them expands, as well as the number of axon collaterals. The termination of training leads to the disappearance of these phenomena within a month. So emotions and changes at the synapse level affect memory processing, and emotional states contribute to the memorization of details. What is more, special proteins are synthesized in neurons that stabilize synaptic processes. For example, if one eye of a newborn animal is closed for many weeks after birth, neurons in alternative strips of the visual cortex of the large brain (neurons normally associated with a closed eye) will degenerate, and the closed eye will remain partially or completely blind during later life.
Improving Memory and Study Habits
The human brain suffers memory loss due to aging and other biological reasons.
Recent research suggests possible improvement approaches.
High consumption of sugar-laden can cause memory loss.
Taking supplements, such as fish oil, helps improve memory
Obtaining enough rest can help in consolidating and transforming short-term memory into the long-term.
Avoiding brain distraction boosts concentration.
Focusing on one subject rather than multitasking helps improve study skills.
To make the most of your memorization skills, you need to be calm and attentive. The primary way to properly tune in to memorization is to get enough sleep. With the help of training, you help your body and brain to maintain the functions of all systems and organs at an optimal level (Zheng & Gardner, 2019). For memory development, it is necessary to maintain the thought process in an active state constantly. A lazy brain does not remember well.
Attention is extremely important for memory. Concentrate on remembering something. In the absence of attention, you will not be able to transfer short-term memories to long-term memory (Mangelschots, 2021). Do everything possible to increase your concentration. Try to focus on some activity, gradually increasing the duration. Do not do several tasks at the same time and do not jump from one activity to another.
References
Zheng, R., & Gardner, M. (2019). Memory in Education. Routledge.
Human memory is a significant aspect of healthy living, the investigation of which contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms inherent to memory-related processes. In particular, memory schemas are adaptive neurological connections between different episodes or pieces of knowledge that allow for memory functioning. In research, the issues related to memory schemas are of significant importance due to the development of neuroscience. This thought paper aims to summarize and critique a recent scholarly article on the functioning of memory schemas.
Summary of the Primary Article
The article selected for the analysis in this paper is Aghayan Golkashani et al.’s (2021) study on the integration of memory schemas in the facilitation of older patients’ memory. Since this study is based on the application of memory schemas to test their benefits for older adults, it is directly related to the topic of human memory schemas. In particular, the rationale for the study conducted by Aghayan Golkashani et al. (2021) was the lack of relevant research evidence on the opportunities for restoring the cognitive capabilities of older adults using applying schematic knowledge and memory. Consecutively, the study aimed to identify the relation between the facilitation of prior knowledge schemas and memories and the ability to form new schemas and inferences in older adults.
The research study was conducted based on the methods of the experiment. A sample of relatively healthy Chinese older adults aged 56-84 and adolescents aged 15-19 were recruited for the study (Aghayan Golkashani et al., 2021). The two groups of participants were compared in terms of memory quality. They passed through two phases of the experiment; first, they learned new schemas; second, they integrated and updated schemas (Aghayan Golkashani et al., 2021). After that, the recall of the learned information was tested, and the two groups of participants (older adults and adolescents) performances were compared. The results showed big age-related differences in the effort needed for older adults and adolescents to form strong schemas; older adults required twice as much effort as adolescents. However, another finding indicated no age-related difference in the ability to form new inferences based on the learned schemas. Thus, the study’s conclusion suggests that schema-based learning effectively facilitates memory and cognitive function in older adults.
Critique of the Primary Article
The summarized research article has introduced a new perspective on applying memory schemas to inference in older adults with age-related impairments of cognition and memory. While the authors claimed limited evidence on the topic in the current literature, the theoretical premises and practical implications of their findings might be supported by external studies. They stated in their article that “to the best of our knowledge, no study has investigated if older adults can effectively integrate novel items into a newly formed schema” (Aghayan Golkashani et al., 2021, p. 472). Such an aspect of the study is a novelty in the current literature investigating older adults’ cognition and might be characterized as a qualitatively new approach to studying aging processes.
However, other scholars have associated the overall principle of memory schema functioning with perception and data processing. In particular, according to Gilboa and Marlatte (2017), “activated schema templates modulate early perceptual processing, as they get populated with specific informational instances (schema instantiation)” (p. 618). Moreover, the application of memory schemas to cognition and memory issues in older adults demonstrated by Aghayan Golkashani et al. (2021) is consistent with the studies by Kwan et al. (2021) and Webb and Dennis (2019). These scholars also claimed that integrating memory schemas in the facilitation of older adults’ memory and cognition issues was beneficial.
On the other hand, the analyzed article does not address the neurobiological factors contributing to memory schemas’ benefits for older adults’ cognition. In this regard, the study by Aghayan Golkashani et al. (2021) might be compared to the study findings conducted by Hasan et al. (2019). Both studies investigated how memory schemas can help facilitate forming of new inferences. However, Hasan et al. (2019) were particularly focused on explaining the neurobiological processes predetermining the investigated processes by referring to the process of myelination in the brain. Overall, the analyzed article correlates with the current trends in scholarly research on memory schemas and contributes to the domain of evidence on the issue that applies to the real-world setting.
Indeed, the study findings might be beneficial for practical use in everyday life since the implications might facilitate older people’s cognitive performance. In particular, caregivers working with older adults with cognitive impairments might integrate working with memory schemas to facilitate their memory and the ability to process new data. For example, when dealing with an aging parent, individuals might assist them in daily activities using memory schemas. It might be implemented by memorizing where certain items are located so that there is no confusion daily. Another option for the real-life application of the study findings might be assistance in medication intake consistency. Since remembering to take medications consistently might be a challenge for an aging person, forming memory schemas by associating certain colors or shapes of pills with the time they need to be taken might be helpful.
When reading and reviewing the article by Aghayan Golkashani et al. (2021), I found many facts and evidence interesting. Firstly, the researchers’ successful attempt to incorporate memory and cognition issues into one theoretical framework was indicative of the application of the concept of schema to both domains. Such a perspective helped me improve my understanding of memory schemas. Secondly, the overall process of the experimentation was interesting to discover. I found it interesting that there was no difference between older adults’ and adolescents’ ability to make assumptions based on newly acquired knowledge. Thirdly, the comprehensiveness of the methodology allowed me to understand the experimental design more clearly so that I could expand my knowledge of psychological research principles. Thus, this study was beneficial for me in contributing to my base of knowledge on the topic and developing my understanding of the research process due to the strengths covered further.
The multiple benefits obtained from the study review were based on the convincing nature of the research, which is validated by the many strengths of the article. Overall, the sample selection for testing memory schemas was a strong basis for the whole research process since it allowed for eliminating bias and ensured the incorporation of multiple factors. In particular, for older participants selected for the study, their age and their age, demographic characteristics, and location of residence were considered. In combination with a meticulous selection approach for the adolescent audience participating in the research process, such a sampling approach allowed for an unbiased comparison of the implications of memory schemas. This advantage of the article is considered a convincing point since non-biased and objective findings are pivotal for evidence-based and reliable research in general and in psychology in particular.
Apart from objectivity and proper sampling, the methodological solutions contributed to my convincement. The article is characterized by an in-depth discussion of the process of the experiment, the data retrieval, and the analysis that was transparent about the process and researchers’ decisions throughout the data processing. In addition, the comparison of the two age groups seemed logical and reasonable since it was easier to distinguish between the memory and inference characteristics in opposition. Another strength of the article that enhanced my convincement was the justification of the need for comparing memory schemas of older adults and adolescents in terms of their acquisition of new schemas. The researchers reviewed previously published literature and addressed the gap to validate the overall research, methodology, and practical implications. Indeed, a significant convincing advantage of the study is its prioritization of the opportunities for practical application of the findings in older adults’ care and in future research, which is addressed further in this paper.
The study was developed based on previously conducted studies; however, it has introduced a new perspective on investigating memory schemas for older adults by testing their ability to form new inferences based on new schemas. This approach might be used to test the neurological characteristics behind such processes in future research. Such an approach might be implemented by integrating the theoretical implications of Aghayan Golkashani et al. (2021) and Hasan et al. (2019). Moreover, a quantitative study might be conducted to compare the ability to form inferences based on newly learned schemas between healthy participants and those with diagnosed cognitive disorders of the same age group. In such a manner, the evidence base contributing to understanding the functioning of memory schemas across different populations would be obtained.
Conclusion
In summary, the analysis of the primary article has demonstrated that the utilization of knowledge about memory schemas is beneficial for memory-related conditions facilitation. The study used an experimental design to identify possible age-related differences in the ability to form new memory schemas and further use them for inference. The results were consistent with other research studies found through relevant literature searches and suggested the following. Although older adults required more effort and time to learn new schemas, there was no age-related difference in the participants’ capability of forming new inferences. The study is a valuable and reliable contribution of evidence to the literature on memory schemas. It provides the basis for future research using quantitative inquiry to test differences in schemas between healthy and mentally ill older adults and to clarify the neurological processes, validating the reviewed study’s findings.
References
Aghayan Golkashani, H., Leong, R. L., Wong, K. F., & Chee, M. W. (2021). Schema-driven memory benefits boost transitive inference in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 36(4), 463-474.
Gilboa, A., & Marlatte, H. (2017). Neurobiology of schemas and schema-mediated memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(8), 618-631.
Hasan, M., Kanna, M. S., Jun, W., Ramkrishnan, A. S., Iqbal, Z., Lee, Y., & Li, Y. (2019). Schema‐like learning and memory consolidation acting through myelination. The FASEB Journal, 33(11), 11758-11775.
Kwan, Y., Choi, S., Eom, T. R., & Kim, T. H. (2021). Development of a structured interview to explore interpersonal schema of older adults living alone based on autobiographical memory. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(5), 1-14.
Webb, C. E., & Dennis, N. A. (2019). Differentiating true and false schematic memories in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 74(7), 1111-1120.
Memory is an essential prerequisite of success in learning because it influences individuals’ abilities to memorize and recall information, complete tasks, and apply knowledge in daily life. According to the working memory model, working memory is a system that allows storing a small amount of information for a short period of time. This makes working memory instrumental to many everyday tasks, such as following directions, typing a new phone number, or remembering steps in a particular activity. Besides that, working memory is also important in education, where it can support learning in both children and adults. This is primarily because working memory is perceived to be pivotal to attention control since it helps to activate and maintain information relevant to completing a task. Engle and Kane (2004) state that working memory capacity “is critical for dealing with the effects of interference and in avoiding the effects of distraction that would capture attention away from maintenance of stimulus representations, novel productions, or less habitual response tendencies” (p. 149). Cowan (2014) also explains that good working memory supports kids’ cognitive development.
While learning is of crucial importance for children to be successful in their future life, young learners are often more susceptible to distractions. Because of these factors, working memory training is of particular importance in early education. Researchers in psychology and education have been attempting to design effective interventions for children to expand their working memory capacity. The present paper focuses on the issue of working memory training in kids and seeks to answer a research question “What working memory training interventions are effective for children?”. As part of the literature review, the paper will consider studies on working memory interventions for children with low academic performance, as well as those diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT)
The study by Chacko et al. (2014) focused on a specific intervention called Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT), aiming to examine its role in enhancing working memory in children aged 7 to 11 years. According to the researchers, CWMT is a computerized training program that focuses on working memory capacity (Chacko et al., 2014). The program targets both aspects of working memory – storage and processing – concerning verbal and nonverbal working memory (Chacko et al., 2014). This means that the chosen training program is comprehensive and could potentially enhance children’s performance of a variety of tasks requiring working memory. The training is also tailored to children’s needs due to its game-like interface, which makes it easier for children to stay interested (Chacko et al., 2014). With regards to the difficulty of tasks, the CWMT uses a staircase-like design, where the difficulty increases with every completed task (Chacko et al., 2014). Overall, the design of the intervention allows suggesting that it could be useful in increasing working memory capacity, thus helping children with ADHD to stay focused and achieve goals.
The methodology of the study was a randomized clinical trial, which is considered to be reliable in terms of outcomes and conclusions. The researchers recruited a total of 85 participants, who were distributed into two groups: active and placebo (Chacko et al., 2014). Only the active group received the CWMT intervention, whereas the placebo group received a non-titrating, low-level version of CWMT which proved to be inefficient in previous studies (Chacko et al., 2014). The outcomes that were measured included working memory reported ADHD symptoms, academic achievement, and objective assessments of attention, impulse control, and activity level (Chacko et al., 2014). The methodology of the study is strong, and the number of participants is adequate to measure the effects of the program.
The study found significant improvements in working memory storage for children in the active group, but no differences in other outcomes were reported. This shows that the CWMT intervention is useful in increasing working memory capacity, but has little effect on the processing and manipulation of data stored in working memory. The findings were delivered in a quantitative form after statistical analysis, which means that they are fairly definite and cannot be interpreted in any other way. The main strengths of the study are its methodology and the use of a well-designed training model. The weaknesses of the study are the unequal training time, with longer sessions for CMWT Active group, and the short time interval between the study and follow-up evaluations. It would have been beneficial to check the participants’ progress after several months or even a year to understand the impact of CMWT on their academic performance, ADHD symptoms, and other long-term outcomes.
Jungle Memory
Jungle Memory (JM) training program for working memory in children has also received significant attention in research. This intervention is similar to CWMT because it is a web-based, game-like intervention addressing multiple aspects of working memory (Nelwan & Kroesbergen, 2016). Additionally, the program incorporates feedback throughout and after the program, which could be motivational for students. There are three games included in the intervention: “Game 1 (Quicksand) involves memory for and later use of word endings, Game 2 (Code Breaker) features mental rotation of letters, and Game 3 (River Crossing) involves sequential memory of mathematical solutions” (Nelwan & Kroesbergen, 2016, p. 1387). The researchers tested the student’s performance in working memory and mathematics following an 8-week program consisting of two combinations of Jungle Memory and mathematics training or mathematics training only.
The methodology was a randomized controlled trial, and the sample size included 64 participants aged 9 to 12 years. They were divided into three groups, one of which was the control group that did not receive any JM training. The results were analyzed using Bayesian evaluation and statistic analysis, and outcomes in working memory and math test performance were evaluated (Nelwan & Kroesbergen, 2016). The study showed JM training to be effective in improving verbal working memory in the short term, as well as in enhancing math test performance (Nelwan & Kroesbergen, 2016). The strengths of the study were the use of a JM training model, which proved to be effective in prior studies, and the use of a randomized controlled trial methodology. The authors also obtained approval from an ethical board, which means that the design was ethical and without significant gaps. Nevertheless, researchers encountered some practical challenges, which resulted in major limitations. These were interruptions during the program, decreased training compliance, and the inclusion of students from different schools. Due to these shortcomings, it is possible that the positive effects of the intervention were caused by other factors, and the results are not definitive.
Working Memory Training Software
A study by Fahimi, Arjmandnia, and Fathabadi (2014) used a new tool called Working Memory Training Software (WMTS) and measured its effect on the working memory of primary school students. WMTS is a computerized program involving two games targeting verbal and visuospatial working memory (Fahimi et al., 2014). The intervention involved 10 sessions using WMTS, with pre-test and post-test outcomes of working memory measured based on the Tehran-Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (Fahimi et al., 2014).
The methodology was a quasi-experimental pre-and post-test design, which is a weakness of the study due to the absence of a control group and poor control over factors that could have contributed to the results. Strengths of the study involve the sample, which consisted of students with a low age range who studied in the same school, and the proven validity and reliability of the intervention and evaluation measures. The outcomes showed significant improvements in both visuospatial and verbal aspects of working memory for all children who participated in the intervention. However, due to the limitations of the study, the results could be due to external factors influencing children’s performance.
Adaptive Working Memory Training
The final intervention that will be considered in the report is the adaptive working memory training (AWMT) program, which is largely based on the famous Braintwister WM training battery (Karbach, Strobach, & Schubert, 2015). The intervention was delivered to 28 elementary school students aged 7-9 years and involved 14 training sessions with either an active training model or a placebo. The authors used a randomized controlled trial methodology which is a strength of the study due to the increased validity of the results. The design complied with ethical standards and requirements, thus reducing the possibility of bias (Karbach et al., 2015). This is also a strength of the study since only one other study obtained ethical approval.
The Active AWMT program involved two computerized training tasks, adapted to each student’s performance level and related to visuospatial working memory maintenance and recall (Karbach et al., 2015). In the control group, the intervention was not adapted to individual performance levels and included only tasks with a reduced number of images and a low difficulty level. The study measured 5 separate outcomes before, after the study, and at three months: reading ability, mathematical ability, working memory, task switching, and inhibitory control (Karbach et al., 2015). The inclusion of inhibitory control as the outcome measure is important because improved working memory may lead to greater self-control, reflected in attention control. Each of the outcomes was measured using either curriculum-based tests or tools specifically designed for the intervention. This is a weakness of the study because tests with unproven validity and reliability could lead to false or biased results.
The results reported by the authors for the active group include increased scores in working memory and reading tests, and these benefits were maintained by the subjects at three months following the intervention (Karbach et al., 2015). Inhibition control, math test performance, and task switching were not significantly affected by the training. Given the strengths and limitations of the study, it is possible to say that these results are definitive since the use of a control group enabled the authors to assess differences in performance. However, the results would have been more reliable if the researchers used assessment tools with proven validity and reliability.
Synthesis and Implications
The studies analyzed as part of the report considered the effect of various types of training on different aspects of working memory. Most of them examined visuospatial and verbal working memory, which is probably based on the structure of the working memory model, which involves both a phonological loop and a visuospatial sketchpad. Hence, the studies can contribute to practice and research in psychology and education by providing information on effective and ineffective working memory training models. Based on the literature review, all of the methods considered in research can be used to enhance verbal or visuospatial working memory, although the Jungle Memory training model and AWMT were the most effective. Teachers who work with poorly performing students can use these methods to improve children’s performance in reading, math, and visual tasks.
All of the studies focused on children rather than adolescents, and even among research articles that were not included, there are few working memory training studies available that target adolescents specifically. This is a critical gap that should be addressed in future research because many adolescents with learning difficulties or ADHD would also benefit from working memory training. Another shortcoming was that there were no randomized controlled trials that tested the comparative effectiveness of different working memory models. This gap should also be addressed in future research by designing methodologies comparing two or more interventions.
The information presented in the studies links to the knowledge obtained from class, particularly with regards to working memory and its impact on learning. This is because most results showed a correlation between improvements in children’s working memory and their performance in various tasks. Since I am interested in working with children and adolescents who experience learning difficulties, the studies also relate to my future practice and research. I believe that conducting more research on working memory improvement at different ages can help to enhance children’s and adolescents’ academic outcomes, leading to increased quality of education on a national level.
References
Chacko, A., Bedard, A. C., Marks, D. J., Feirsen, N., Uderman, J. Z., Chimiklis, A.,… Ramon, M. (2014). A randomized clinical trial of Cogmed working memory training in school‐age children with ADHD: A replication in a diverse sample using a control condition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(3), 247-255.
Cowan, N. (2014). Working memory underpins cognitive development, learning, and education. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 197-223.
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. J. (2004). Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 44, 145-199.
Fahimi, M., Arjmandnia, A. A., & Fathabadi, J. (2014). Investigating the efficacy of “Working Memory Training Software” on students working memory. Health, 6(16), 2236-2244.
Karbach, J., Strobach, T., & Schubert, T. (2015). Adaptive working-memory training benefits reading, but not mathematics in middle childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 21(3), 285-301.
Nelwan, M., & Kroesbergen, E. H. (2016). Limited near and far transfer effects of jungle memory working memory training on learning mathematics in children with attentional and mathematical difficulties. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1384-1393.
The issue of memory has always been interesting for people. It has been investigated from different perspectives and with different aims. Conclusions of these investigations were different, however, there is no use denying the fact that this field of knowledge is of a great importance. Functions and peculiarities of the process of memorizing are not studied yet and have a lot of secrets.. That is why, investigation of this process is a very important issue.
Great number of different investigations were made in order to discover main aspects of memory and understand what factors influence the process of memorizing. The aim of this work is to determine how the use of mnemonics techniques can influence memorization. Basing on previous researches, this one is, however, different, as it tries to combine ideas obtained and determine a role of some special techniques. This field is of a great interest for many different researchers. Klaus Oberauer in his article Access to Information in Working Memory: Exploring the Focus of Attention starts the investigation of the main processes of memorizing. In the chain of experiments, he examines working memory (Oberauer, 2002).
Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of the human brain and memory in the whole. Investigation of the mechanisms of memorizing continued Veronika Coltheart, Stephen Mondy, Paul E. Dux and Lisa Stephenson. In their work Effects of Orthographic and Phonological Word Length on Memory for Lists Shown at RSVP and STM Rates they investigate effects of orthographic and phonological word length on memory (Coltheart, Mondy, Dux & Stephenson, 2004).
To understand this influence, three experiments were carried out. Results of these experiments showed, that there are two length effects peculiar for our memory which are based on orthographic and phonological length. (Coltheart et al., 2004). Further investigations of this sphere are connected with the attempt to examine the influence of a Hebb repetition effect. The chain of 5 experiments were carried out and described by Mike P. A. Page, Nick Cumming, Dennis Norris, Graham J. Hitch and Alan M. McNeil in their work Repetition Learning in the Immediate Serial Recall of Visual and Auditory Materials. All five experiments were successful and managed to prove that Hebb repetition effect influences the process of memorization. Moreover, it is possible to observe the learning of repeating lists regardless of whether phonological coding was evident (Cumming, Pag, Hitch, & McNeil, 2006).
Being an important step in understanding of some mechanisms of the work of our memory, this work gives some new ideas for researchers. However, investigations of this issue continued and Jesse Sargent, Stephen Dopkins, John Philbeck and David Chichka undertook another study called Chunking in Spatial Memory. The main aim of this research is to understand the nature of human spatial representations and how blind rotation influences them. In order to support their research with evidences, they carried out the experiment in which people learned positions of the objects in the room and then underwent different rotations. Results show that people remember location of the objects better while referring to their inter object relations and using some other kind of memory (Sargent, Dopkins, Philbeck, & Chichka, 2010).
One more important investigation of working memory was made by Valerie Camos in her work On the Law Relating Processing to Storage in Working Memory. The main aim of this work is to understand better peculiarities of the functioning of working memory and storing of information. There are also several experiments connected with this work which main aim is to investigate the relations between short term and working memory. Having carried out these experiments, the author comes to the conclusion, that short term memory is not just a subsystem of working one, however, it can be referred as one of its extreme states (Camos, 2011).
That is why, basing on the results of these researches, it is possible to suggest that mechanisms of memorizing are very complicated structures, which, though, are organized according to certain principles. Understanding and investigation of these principles can improve the history of process of memorizing and show better results in the end. That is why, it becomes obvious, that some techniques which take into account all these peculiarities will be able to improve memorization. The basis for these techniques is the relations between different aspects of the work of human memory. Being highly structured, it responses better to specially organized factors which are able to promote development of special connections in the brain of a person.
Having analyzed the data, it is possible to come to several conclusions. First of all, it should be said that the Mnemonics Techniques are proved to be effective as they are based on special processes which are peculiar for short term and work memory. That is why, these techniques could be recommended for people which suffer from some problems connected with memorizing or for people, who just need to improve their memorization skills
References
Camos, V. (2011). On the law relating processing to storage in working memory. Psychological Review, 118(2), 175-192. Web.
Coltheart, V., Mondy, S., Dux, P. E., & Stephenson, L. (2004). Effects of orthographic and phonological word length on memory for lists shown at rsvp and stm rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning , Memory and Cognition, 30(4), 815-826. Web.
Cumming, H. J., Pag, M. P., Norris, D., Hitch, G. J., & McNeil, A. L. (2006). Repetition learning in the immediate serial recall of visual and auditory materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32(4), 716-733. Web.
Oberauer, K. (2002). Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28(3), 411-421. Web.
Sargent, J., Dopkins, S., Philbeck, J., & Chichka, D. (2010). Chunking in spatial memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36(3), 576-589. Web.