There are many factors that affect recall, which may have made recall better in the second trial of the study. Alongside the issue of categorization, pronunciation time and reading aloud may have made recall better. In this case, more time was taken in pronunciation, since students were given a chance to sort the items as they were read. List length effect also played a role in improving the recall.
By sorting out the items, the length of the list of words was limited, thus improving recall. Another key factor influencing recall is transposition gradients which refer to the organization of items. A random approach was used in presenting the words.
The issue of protrusion also takes course in the recall. Items recalled in the first presentation will have been likely recalled in the second round. Based on these insights, categorization is not the only factor enhancing the recall (Morling, 2012).
Internal validity is a scientific tool in studies used to reflect the approximate truth concerning cause-effect relationships. Internal validity is used in establishing causal relationship in scientific studies. This is a vital measure in quantitative research studies that enables researchers in different experimental designs to adhere to cause effect principle (Morling, 2012).
There are different threats to internal validity in this study, which may have jeopardized the outcome the results. Some of the threats to internal validity are as follows.
History: The internal validity of the study is affected by history in the sense that the second recall is affected by the first presentation. The results of the second presentation can not be assumed as valid since they have been affected by the first presentation (Morling, 2012).
Reliability of procedures: The procedures used in the presentation may invalidate the study. Issues of inconsistency and unreliable operationalization in giving instructions may likely occur in the study, thus jeopardizing the validity.
The mode of presenting the items in sequence in the first presentation has great impact on the results and validity of the study. On the other hand, categorization of the items has also influenced the outcome (Morling, 2012).
Design of low power: This is a scenario where the sample size is insufficient in detecting real cause and effect. There is a high possibility of manipulation since the study only incorporated one class rather than engaging a diverse group of people (Morling, 2012).
Order effects: The presentations were conducted twice and entail a long list of items, which may cause fatigue, boredom, disintegration, tiredness, and demotivation of participants. This has great influence on the validity (Morling, 2012).
Multiple tests of significance: This is a great threat to validity which might have had a role in the Study. The study was conducted two times, thus helping the researchers to capitalize on chance fluctuations, thus impacting on validity (Morling, 2012).
The research should have been planned to undertake one study so as to counter the threats of history and multiple tests of significance. Threat of order effects can be avoided through planning the study to involve less trials and long lists of items to avoid fatigue and boredom among participants. Enlargement of sample size is also vital in increasing liability and boosting the design power (Morling, 2012).
Response to Post
The post regarding the research on recall offers good insights on the factors influencing information processing and recall. The article is well presented, whereby it ncorporates the ideas of different researchers. The topic has been adequately addressed by highlighting the factors involved in information processing. Based on the article, type of processing influences the success of retrieving information.
The ideas of long term memory have also been incorporated into the discussion. The manner in which ideas are put into long term memory is identified as a key factor influencing recall or retrieving of information. The effect of information processing is also well addressed, whereby it is stated that deep processing of information facilitates retrieval.
The concept of semantic memory has been referred to as important in ensuring deep information processing and retrieval. These are important and factual insights which have been supported by research. The article best explains the causes of long term memory and retrieval, where rehearsal and semantic memory code are attributed to better recall (Morling, 2012).
In regards to internal validity, the post has success in explaining the factors which may jeopardize validity. Based on the post, categorization influenced the recall ability of participants, thus influencing validity. This is factual in the sense that categorization reduces list length thus boosting memory. The first trial impacted the history of the study thus affecting validity since the words are already in short-term memory.
History of the study in previous study plays a key role in enhancing memory and retrieval of words. The post offers sufficient discussion on the ways of reducing threats to internal validity. Using a different sample of words is suggested as efficient in enhancing validity. The post is valuable and explicit in addressing internal validity, whereby it calls for the use of new sample to avoid the effect of short term memory (Morling, 2012).
Reference
Morling, B. (2012). Research Methods in Psychology: Evaluating a World of Information. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Yes, photos help people generate memories successfully. A study carried out by Strange, Garry, Bernstein, and Lindsay (2011) showed that people tend to create false memories when looking at genuine pictures. For instance, when viewing a photo of a specific place, one is likely to insert oneself into the identified environment and, therefore, create a false memory of visiting the place in question (Strange et al., 2011).
The identified phenomenon can be explained by the fact that pictures of actual places, events, etc. provide one’s imagination with the content that is viewed as impossible to detach from reality. The resulting impression of having experienced what is portrayed in the picture leads to the creation of false memories. Therefore, credible pictures do help generate memories despite the absence of relevant experiences.
What Effects Do Sensory Details Have on People’s Memory?
Sensory details affect the generation of false memories extensively. The authors of the study make it clear that placing one in specific visual and spatial systems leads to the production of false memories about having been in the identified systems before (Strange et al., 2011).
The incorporation of sensory elements into the process of remembering specific events and experiences, even if they are false, leads to an even stronger impression of having specific experiences. In other words, visual representations of certain events play a tremendous role in the creation of false memories (Strange et al., 2011). It could also be argued that, by introducing other types of sensory elements, e.g., sounds, tactile experiences, etc., will help build an even stronger false memory of a certain event or experience.
What Is Retrieval Failure?
Before answering the question of what is retrieval failure, one must define for retrieval. According to Baddeley, Eysenck, and Anderson (2015), retrieval occurs when one recalls the information that has been encoded deeply in one’s mind. In other words, retrieval is a synonym for remembering (Baddeley et al., 2015). Retrieval failure, in turn, happens when one fails to recall a certain action, event, etc. (Baddeley et al., 2015).
The memories may return after they are soured by a specific experience that can be related to them, yet, without the supporting information, these memories cannot be produced. Retrieval failure may occur once specific data is transferred to the long-term memory and as long as the data in question is not rehearsed regularly (Baddeley et al., 2015).
What Are the Reasons for Retrieval Failure?
As stressed above, unless the necessary information is repeated regularly, it is stored in long-term memory, which makes the process of remembering rather difficult. Therefore, without the factors that could help sour the process of retrieving forgotten data from long-term memory, one will not be able to recall the required facts. The observed phenomenon can be linked to the one known as the “tip-of-the-tongue experience” (Baddeley et al., 2015, p. 196), which implies that one realizes the familiarity of the subject matter yet inevitably fails to recall the necessary facts.
Making the connections that are termed as associations helps improve the retrieval process since associations serve as the links between the current situation and specific experiences. Allowing one to recollect the necessary information by linking it to the circumstances in which it was received, the use of associations is one of the key strategies for successful retrieval.
References
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2015). Memory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Strange, D., Garry, M., Bernstein, D. M., & Lindsay, D. S. (2011). Photographs cause false memories for the news. Acta Psychologica, 136(1), 90-94. Web.
Questions to Baddeley, Eysenck, and Anderson’s (2015) Autobiographical Memory
What is the purpose of autobiographical memory?
Autobiographical memory serves as the means of retaining the essential information about one’s life. For instance, autobiographical memory provides a chance to remember the events that shaped one’s personality and defined the further course of one’s development. In other words, autobiographical memory contributes to the development of an individual’s identity, therefore, helping people to define their place and role in the social and family hierarchy, thus, cementing their relationships with others (Baddeley, Eysenck, & Anderson, 2015).
Furthermore, autobiographical memory is an integral part of one’s mental health. The loss of autobiographical memory is typically associated with health issues such as dementia, particularly, Alzheimer’s disease (Baddeley et al., 2015). Therefore, the acquisition and retention of autobiographic memory are essential to one’s cognitive and emotional development.
What is calendrical autobiographical memory?
The phenomenon of calendrical autobiographical memory is especially curious since it incorporates the description of several unprecedented cases. The subject matter is rendered as a rather rare occurrence and is, therefore, atypical in most people.
Although the presence of calendrical memory does not imply that one should be able to remember the events associated with specific episodes especially well, the subject matter implied an outstandingly good level of autobiographical memory progress (Baddeley et al., 2015). The level of detail that people with calendrical memory show when recalling specific autobiographical events is truly unbelievable. Further studies of the mechanics of calendrical memory are required to explore the issue deeper and, therefore, gain a better understanding of the properties of memory.
Questions to Kensinger and Schacter’s (2006) Article
What is the difference between the effects of positive and negative valence on the efficacy of memorizing specific events?
According to the study carried out by Baddeley et al. (2015), there is no tangible difference between the effects that positive and negative valence has on people’s abilities to remember particular events. To be more accurate, the number of details that the groups representing positive and negative valence-based memory processes recalled was similar in both groups. Both types of participants memorized roughly the same number of details concerning the events in which they took part.
This type of the information was different in each case; according to the outcomes of the measurement process, the negative-valence group showed the propensity toward developing the information associated with events, whereas the positive-valence group seemed to have a weaker grasp on the data associated with the events (Baddeley et al., 2015).
What is the connection between the type of valence and the quality of memory?
Apart from affecting the number of details that the participants were able to retain in their memory, the choice of the valence type also had a profound impact on the quality of the memories that the participants acquired. Particularly, the participants using the neutral memory type were capable of retaining the essential information more successfully than the groups that used negative and positive valence types (Kensinger & Schacter, 2006). The identified effect can be attributed to the fact that the specified outcome leads to “fewer reconstructive memory errors” (Kensinger & Schacter, 2006, p. 761). Therefore, the correlation between the outcomes of measurement in both groups can be explained from the current theoretical standpoint. That being said, a closer analysis of the specified issue is required.
References
Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M. W., & Anderson, M. C. (2015). Memory (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Kensinger, E. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2006). When the Red Sox shocked the Yankees: Comparing negative and positive memories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13(5), 757-763.
A false memory is a condition of giving twisted and biased information. Although a human memory is a powerful tool, it makes someone at some point to give incorrect information. This is caused by some factors like distracters.
A good example that demonstrates a false memory is position of items in a list. People are able to recall items on a list depending on their position (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002).
For instance, those items that appear last in an item are remembered the most (recency effect), those in the center are not remembered well and those that appeared first are remembered better (primary effect). This also applies to time. Recent events are recalled the best because of the recency effect.
It is therefore important to conduct some experiments to see the differences between the correct memory and the false memory. A good memory is supposed to store information like past experiences, study materials and give accurate information when needed.
However, this is not the case as memory tends to fade with time. There are factors that lead to false memory apart from time. They include misleading conceptions (distracters), great expectations, anxiety and depression.
Misleading conceptions or distracters tend to occupies someone’s memory and hence there is no room for the information that is needed (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002). This is the same with great expectations. Great expectations dominate someone’s mind and all they think is what they are expecting.
This is no difference with anxiety and depression. Someone is always anxious about something and this causes false memory. When someone is depressed, he/she becomes withdrawn and do not want to think.
There are other factors that contribute to false memory. When someone is given incorrect information, misinterpreting the original information and being emotionally attached to something.
When someone is given incorrect information, he/she perceives it’s the correct information and stores it in the memory. This is the same for misinterpreting original information.
This report discusses in general experiments that were done on a different category of people. There is data that was collected of an individual, a group of people and global. This was done to determine if people exhibited the condition of a false memory (Pannu & Kaszniak, 2005).
In an individual experiment, a woman was given some items to recall. She was supposed to present her information according to their position. After doing the experiment, those items that appeared last were presented correctly. She did not remember well those items that were in the center. Those that appeared first, she remembered well.
Data was then collected for a group of people. Some volunteers were given words which they were shown for a short period like two seconds for every word. They were then given response answers with distracters to identify original words. There were independent variables and dependent variables. These will be explained later in the methodology section. This is the same for global.
People at one time suffer from a false memory. As mentioned earlier, this is brought about by some factors that make one to forget the information that is needed. One factor is time. Past experiences that happened long ago are quickly forgotten. Anxiety, depressions and great expectations are some of the factors that cause false memory.
A good memory is thus needed to solve problems, to make decisions, to discern and to contemplate (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). There are so many instances that rely on memory like getting good reliable witnesses in a court.
Students rely heavily on memory when doing exams so as to recall what they have been learning. Students are required to be free of any distracters like anxiety, depression etc. that can make them not to give the information required.
Methodology
An experiment was carried out for an individual and data was collected. The experiment had items that followed a particular order. The individual was supposed to read and write them later according to their position. This was tested on a woman who was given some items to recall.
She was supposed to present her information according to the position of the items. The list had ten items. The items were presented one by one for a second each. After she finished reading the list, she was then told to match the items according to the order that they followed.
After doing the experiment, those items that appeared last were presented correctly. She did not remember well the items that were in the center. Those that appeared first, she remembered well. She had high percentages for the first and last items and low percentages for those items that appeared in the center.
Data Summary
Position for the 10 Items
Percentages of the Findings
First
75
Middle
50
Last
90
An experiment was carried out for a group of people. Some volunteers were given words which they were shown for a short period like two seconds for every word. They were then given response answers with distracters to identify the words that were originally included.
Distracters were words that were meant to confuse them; they were not the original words. There were also special distracters; words that resembled the original words.
There were independent variables and independent variables. The distracters and words to be identified were the variables that were independent. The percentages reported were the variables that were dependent (Tan & Ward, 2000).
Data Summary for the Group
Selected Items
Percentage of the findings
From the original list
75
Normal distracters
5
Special distracters
65
Global experiment was done through the primary method of observation. People around the globe expect someone to give 100% correct information which is not the case. They don’t expect that people will give normal or special distracters in their answers. The findings of the global experiment resemble that of the group experiment.
Results
Data was collected for the individual. When the female finished the experiment, those items that appeared last were presented correctly. She did not remember well the items that were in the center. Those that appeared first, she remembered well.
She had high percentages for the first and last items and low percentages for those items that appeared in the center. 75% was reported for the items in the first position, 50% for the items in the center and 90% for the items that appeared last. Recalling of items depended on their position.
In the group experiment, the volunteers included the special and normal destructors in their answers. This was as a result of false memory. They gave answers that were not supposed to be given. They were under the influence of distracters. This is caused by thinking of the special distracters which are related to the words required.
When answering questions, the group of people thought that they were giving the correct answers when they were including special distracters in their answers (Tan & Ward, 2000).
From the original list, the percentage of the findings was 75%. This is a high percentage. The percentage of the normal distracters was 5% and the percentage of the special distracters was 65%.
Global data was collected through observation. People around the globe want others to deliver 100% correct information which is not possible. They discourage people to give normal or special distracters in their answers. This cannot be the case because at one time, the condition of false memory does occur.
Discussion
As seen in the tables, there is occurrence of false memory for both the individual and group experiment. In the individual experiment, the woman was able to remember items according to their position. For instance, those items that appeared last in an item she remembered the most (Tan & Ward, 2000).
This is termed as the recency effect, those that appeared in the center she did not remember well and those that appeared first she remembered well (primary effect).
This also applies to time. Recent events are recalled the best because of the recency effect. She had high percentages for the first and last items and low percentages for those items that appeared in the center.
For the group experiment, there was a high percentage of recalling the original words. There were those people in the group who were not largely influenced by the presence of normal and special distracters. This showed that they had a good memory.
There is a record of a high percentage of special distracters because they resembled the original words. When the group of people wrote the distracters as answers, they thought that they were giving the correct answers because the special distracters resembled the original words.
The global experiment resembles that of a group experiment. People experience false memory because of various factors like distracters. Normal and special distracters distort information that is supposed to be given (Tan & Ward, 2000). Although people around the globe expect someone to give 100% correct information, this is not the case.
Conclusion
In conclusion, a human memory experiences the condition of false memory when there are factors like distracters.
This can be seen when people conduct some experiments to see the differences between the correct memory and the false memory. A good memory is supposed to store information like past experiences, study materials and give accurate information when needed. However, this is not the case as memory tends to fade with time.
There are factors that lead to false memory apart from time. Anxiety, depressions and great expectations are some of the factors that cause false memory.
Misleading conceptions or distracters tend to occupy someone’s memory and hence there is no room for the information that is needed. This is the same with great expectations.
The findings for the three sets of data almost resemble. All the people around the world experience false memory at one point of life except those who have good memory. People around the globe expect someone to give 100% correct information which is not the case. They don’t know that people can include normal or special distracters in their answers. This cannot be possible.
References
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory. American Psychological Society, 11(5), 164- 169.
Pannu, J. K., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2005). Metamemory experiments in neurological populations: A review. Neuropsychology Review, 15(2), 105-130.
Roediger, H. L., & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory & Cognition, 21(3), 803–814.
Tan, L., & Ward, 0. (2000). A recency-based account of the primacy effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(2), 1589-1625.
Researches that have been carried out in the years that have passed concerning the subject of human memory have been in most cases separated in to two main categories. The first category in which these researches have been put is cognitive organization of memory and the other category is brain basis of memory. Following this separation that has been there in the researches, the memory’s cognitive theories have generally undergone evolution separately from the memory’s neuroscientific theories and the reverse has also been the case.
This paper has considered the idea that electrical activity measures of the brain of a human being can be utilized as a great means for carrying out the study of the human memory. There has been explanation of the links between the memory functions and electrophysiological measures. The paper has also looked at the possibilities for future initiatives to be taken on the basis of carrying out measurement of the electrical activity of the human brain.
It has been established that the initiatives taken to have clear understanding of cognition are supposed to be eventually rooted in conception that is precise of neural substrates of cognition. Taking moves to have the understanding of human memory is a very big challenge and this calls for the full power of brain science as well as cognitive science.
Introduction
Researches that have been carried out in the years that have passed concerning the subject of human memory have been in most cases separated in to two main categories. The first category in which these researches have been put is cognitive organization of memory and the other category is brain basis of memory. Following this separation that has been there in the researches, the memory’s cognitive theories has, in general terms, undergone evolution separately from the memory’s neuroscientific theories and the reverse has also been the case. More so, those people who have come up with cognitive theories have discovered, on a constant basis, that neural evidence is irrelevant to their theories. In considering the neuroscientists, these are mainly focused on getting to understand the way the brain operates, and the works they have involved themselves in have not connected with the attempts to getting to understand the way the mind operates.
However, fresh links between the science of the brain and the cognitive science can be clearly seen in a broad variety of fields. Moves carried out to measure the function of the human brain, for instance, have brought up the level of the possibility that relevant information concerning the way the brain works can be utilized to find out the way the mind works. According to Gabriel (1998), there is currently a growing pattern to utilize neural information to inform theories of memory in the human memory research. In adopting this approach, this calls for appreciating memory’s brain substrates as well as the cognitive organization of memory. This approach aims at building up links between theories embedded at these varied levels.
This paper is going to consider the idea that electrical activity measures of the brain of a human being can be utilized as a great means for carrying out the study of the human memory. There is going to be explanation of the links that exist between the memory functions and electrophysiological measures. The paper is also going to look at the possibilities for future initiatives to be taken on the basis of carrying out measurement of the electrical activity of the human brain.
“Neural Implementation of declarative memory”
The disorders that come about as a consequence of the brain damage (mental disorders) mostly give clear illustrations of the associations that exist between the mind and the brain. The studies carried out on those patients having amnesia (neuropsychological studies) have been of great significance in regard to tracing out the relationship between the brain and memory. This significance is a consequence of the amnesic shortfall and can be greatly selective. This shortfall is discriminatory or selective when it comes about jointly with an immense set of cognitive functions that are preserved and among these functions; the memory functions are also encompassed. In line with this, evidence obtained from amnesia has been made use of to a great level to set up hypotheses concerning the basic structure of memory. Basing on the idea given out by Squire (1987), declarative memory in particular has been given definition to in behavioral terms as that type of memory that is needed for recalling and making recognition of facts as well as events and also as the memory that is used in feeling the conscious recollection under such conditions or circumstances. Sufficient neuropsychological evidence backs the categorization of declarative memory as being different from the rest of the memory types. However, the clear nature of declarative memory still stands to be explained.
According to Paller (2001), “ key empirical support for distinguishing between declarative and nondeclarative memory consists of a set of dissociations, wherein amnesic patients demonstrate poor memory but not when tested using various implicit memory tests, which are memory tests that make no reference to prior learning episodes” (Pg 3). Therefore, there can be distinguishing of the two categories of memory phenomenon. The first category is conscious recollection and this is “when a person brings to mind some prior event or some factual knowledge, with the awareness of retrieving memory” (Paller, 2001, pg 3). The other class or category is perpetual priming and this is “when behavior is changed in certain circumstances pertaining to a specific perpetual event, as the result of prior experience, and not necessary experience of recollection” (Paller, 2001, pg 3).
Examples of understood memory tests that are employed in illustrating preserved perceptual priming in amnesia is the “word-identification test” put forth by scientists such as Cermak et al (1985), Hamann et al (1995) and Paller et al (1991). Paller (2001) points out that:
According to Paller (2001), in the “word-identification test”, individuals make an effort to read words that are presented in a tainted way. There can be examination of perceptual priming at a time identification is higher for those words that also were shown in a study stage that came before the word identification test. Even if amnesia patients portray ordinary priming in this test, they show reduced performance at a time when they are asked to engage in making recognition of whether or not there was presentation of those words previously.
According to the formulations that have been put forth by Mayes and Downes (1997, pg 97) “the neural dysfunction in amnesic patients disrupts declarative memory but leaves other types of memories entirely intact”. The actual cause for the declarative memory possessing this position remains to be a question of constant research. However, the main overview is that at a time memory breaks down in amnesia, recollection is in part interfered with but there is still preservation of particular kinds of priming. By putting priming and recollection side by side, there can be learning about the way these two are different from one another in terms of psychological and neural features they have. For instance, the brain potentials that move along the time-course of recollection and priming may offer a chance to carry out monitoring of those cognitive processes that are relevant and engage in studying their neutral substrates. Such kind of research may eventually support efforts carried out to give description to unknowable border that exists in neural terms between conscious mental events and unconscious ones.
According to Squire and Paller (2000), “fundamental speculation about declarative memory is that requisite information storage takes place within neocortical areas dedicated for processing particular information in question. There is no storing of all memories in cortical regions in unitary memory store in the brain” (pg 428). But rather, the storage of facial memories is carried out in cortical regions where there is representation of facial information and where there is representation of verbal information among others.
On the overall basis, the storage space for memory in the cortex goes along functional specialty in the cortex. However, “the memory dysfunction of amnesia cuts across all sensory modalities, while at the same time it does not disrupt perceptual abilities” (Paller, 2001, pg 5). The impairment of amnesia is overall in a way that it includes memories that are based on all kinds of information. However, it is also crucial since this impairment is constrained to declarative memory. In fact some of the scientists who have been carrying out studies in the field of memory disorder like Squire and Paller (2000) observe that the core problem, in general terms, lies in the storage of declarative memories and not in encoding or retrieving these memories.
According to Hebb (1949), “declarative memories characteristically depend on multiple neuronal ensembles that represent different high-level perceptual, cognitive, and emotional attributes processed in functionally distinct cortical regions”. Feeling an event in the moment at hand can be attained at a time such a set of distributed neural ensembles undergoes stimulation under the “prefrontal networks control” (Paller, 1997). More so, according to Paller (1997), this set of neuronal ensembles can turn out to be for the short term linked through cortico-thalamic and cortico-hippocampal networks. This connections function that is for the meantime are eventually substituted by fresh neocortical representations, instantiated by “coherence ensembles” traced in sequential lobe region next to hippocampus. Paller (2001) points out that the core function of the newly formed neuronal ensembles is to offer consistency to the disseminated neocortical demonstration. “Enduring declarative memories are, by this account, characteristically composed of a set of distributed neocortical ensembles plus associated coherence ensembles” (Pg 6).
Paller (2001) points out that “consolidation basically involves the repeated activation of this set of neocortical storage sites, and in this manner mediating memory retrieval, relationships with other memories, and the formation for other enduring declarative memory” (Pg 7). This chain of events that consists consolidation can go on whether the person has intentions to memorize or carry out the rehearsal of the memory or not, like in the course of sleep.
Paller (2001) gives tentative neurobiological definitions to declarative memory and priming. He defines declarative memory as “a type of neocortical memory in which the relevant plasticity occurs across many neocortical zones, and storage requires a special consolidation process that is unique to this type of dispersed neocortical memory” (pg 7). More so, Paller (2001), defines priming as “a type of neocortical memory in which the relevant plasticity occurs within a single neocortical zone”.
Even if there have been researches on priming most of the time by employing single items like words, on some occasion there has been utilization of pairs of items as an alternative. In cases like these, priming may depend on plasticity across multiple neocortical zones and not just within zone plasticity. Basing on this conceptualization that has been outlined here, this calls for consolidation.
Paller (2001) observes that the dissociation between recollection and priming in amnesia can now be recast in neurobiological terms; “recollection is impaired due to consolidation failure following disruption of either cortico-thalamic or cortico-hippocampal networks, whereas priming due to plasticity within single neocortical zones is preserved” (pg 7). In an effort to bring together the biological and the psychological aspects of amnesia, this conceptualization shows out the starting of a neurocognitive theory of declarative memory as well as priming in those people that are healthy. Considering the quick expansion of the neuroscience in the years that have passed, basing on this there can be optimism about this theory being developed even more, specified in clear detail on an increasing level, and be subjected to empirical test. However, a move that will be more crucial is to carry out the discovery of neural measures of the applicable memory functions in humans.
Electrophysiological measures of recollection and perceptual priming
Paller (2001) points out that the studies of old-new electrophysiological differences originally brought about divergent hypotheses in regard to the associations between electrophysiological (ERPs) and memory retrieval, while studies that followed attained success in carrying out the isolation of ERP associates of recollective processing. Basing on the fact that recollection as well as priming seem to come about at a time those items that are studied are presented in a memory test, straight old-new EPR analyses are characteristically unclear in regard to carrying out the isolation of ERPs related to a single type of memory or the other. Those demonstrations that have been successful show a relationship of recollection needed;
Giving a record of ERPs in the course of recognition and also in circumstances in which subjects were not supposed to carry out explicit recognition responses;
Carrying out the comparison of the study conditions that influenced declarative memory and priming on a different basis and
Encompassing behavioral measures to ensure confirmation of the memory dissociation.
According to Paller ( 2001), the notion that observations can be carried out about the neural actions that are in charge of conscious recollection is of great significance for the reason that observations like these are supposed to prove to be of help for carrying out testing of theories concerning neurophysiology of memory. More so, this move can possibly ensure enhancement of the understanding of the cognitive structure as well as the neural substrates of memory
Perceptual priming is seen to come about even at a time a person can not make out a difference in a clear manner between old items and the new ones, and this notion has been having some links with the notion of unconscious memory. There exist a large number of speculations in regard to unconscious memory. These speculations range from the explorations carried out by Freud to the present concerns with restrained memories. However, the direct measurements of the unconscious memory are not common and they bring in much controversy. According to what Desimone (1996) observes; “there has also been showing of the possible electrophysiological correlates of priming in recordings from single neutrons in monkey visual cortex. Some neurons in ventral areas, in particular, tend to show reduced responses during stimulus repetitions” (Desimone, 1996, pg 13497). Wiggs and Martin (1998) point out that neuroimaging in human beings as well indicate that priming may come about as a result of reduced neural activity that follows perceptual learning which may be the core of well-organized perceptual processing. The measures of the events of the brain that bring about recollection and priming offer fresh footing for theoretical initiatives concerning the crucial differences that exist between memories that are accessible to consciousness and those that are not accessible and in general terms, dissimilarities between those events that are conscious and those that are unconscious.
Conclusion
The studies that have been carried out in the field of neuropsychology have given an indication about which brain region are vital for various memory functions. However, taking a step further to establish a comprehensive understanding of how the implementation of these functions are carried out in the brain, and of their clear cognitive structure, will call for a joint working among several approaches. This will involve both healthy individuals and those whose brain has been damaged. The significance of electrophysiological as well as functional neuroimaging techniques, in this line, call for experimental designs that ensure capitalizing on the spatial and temporal decision offered by each of the techniques. The studies that have to be undertaken are not supposed to just consider the strengths and weaknesses of each method or technique for carrying out the measurement of the function of the brain but there is supposed to be there knowledge that the success in the use of these methods and techniques is reliant on whether or not the cognitive activities of the individuals can be sufficiently and effectively controlled.
Studies that involve human memory neural bases have the prospect for carrying out the expansion of the insights acquired from preceding cognitive studies as well as neuropsychological studies of memory. Differences between priming and recollection have especially brought in launching of immense theoretical development. As Paller (2001) points out “even if more work will be needed to sufficiently test and build up these ideas, a reasonable working hypothesis is that there can be characterization of priming and recollection as different kinds of neocortical memory that rely on neurophysological mechanisms that are distinct” (Pg 13). Priming tends to rely on separate occurrences of neocortical plasticity in a way that processing that follows in at least one of cortical regions is changed. On the contrary, “recollection is supposed to have the development of connections among sets of neocortical areas in the service of bringing about an “enduring declarative memory”” (Paller, 2001, pg 13). The confirmation that has been established about ERPs being used to carry out checking of the processes that are related to recollection and also the processes related to priming give a suggestion that this advance will be of great use in carrying out the development of hypotheses are of great help in this field of study.
Eventually, such attempts to acquire the knowledge about the “neural human memory bases” will make things clear not just in line with the kind of the memory processes arrangement in the brain but about individual understanding of conscious recollection as well. Nevertheless, having the knowledge about the neural implementation of the functions of the memory and also having knowledge about the cognitive structure of memory is supposed to be preferably not seen as two goals that are separate. These are basically two sections of the same undertaking. Initiatives that are taken in getting to understand neural performance incline towards the precision of assumptions about cognitive structure. As it has been established, the initiatives taken to acquire clear knowledge about cognition are supposed to be eventually rooted in conception that is correct of “neural substrates of cognition”. Taking moves to have the understanding of human memory is a very big challenge and this calls for the full power of brain science as well as cognitive science.
References
Cermak, L. S. et al, (1985), The perpetual priming phenomenon in amnesia. Neuropsychologia, 23, 615 – 622.
Desimone, R., (1996). Neural mechanisms for visual memory and their role in attention. Proceedings of the national Academy of Sciences USA, 93, 13494 – 13499.
Gabriel, J. D. E., (1998), Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 87 – 115.
Hamann, S. B., Squire, L. R., and Schacter, D. L. (1995), Perceptual thresholds and priming in amnesia. Nueropsychology, 9, 3 – 15.
Heb, D. O. (1949), Organization of behavior. New York, Wiley and Sons.
Mayes, A. R. and Downes, J. J. (1997). Theories of organic amnesia. East Sussex, U.K: Erlbaum.
Paller, A, K., et al, (1991), Indirect measures of memory in a duration-judgment task are normal in amnesic patients. Neuropsychologia, 29, 1007 – 1018.
Paller A. K., (1997), Consolidating dispersed neocortical memories: The missing link in amnesia. Memory, 5, 73 – 88.
Paller A. K., (2001), Neurocognitive foundations of human memory. The psychology of learning and motivation. Academic Press, San Diego, Vol. 40, pp 1 – 13.
Squire, L. R., (1987), Memory and brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Squire, L. R., and Paller, K. L. A., (2000), Biology of memory. In B. J. Sadock and V. A. Sadock, Kaplan and Sadock’s comprehensive Textbook of psychiatry (7th ed., 425 – 437). Baltimore, MD; Williams and Wilkins.
Wiggs, E. L, and Martin, A., (1998), Properties and mechanisms of perpetual priming. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 8, 227 – 233.
The cognitive concept of memory is an essential factor that can impact an individual’s life positively or negatively. The above notion implies that defects or limitations in memory retention and recall can drive an individual’s life to be extremely challenging.
It is imperative to note that the ability to remember is an essential parameter towards the well being of an individual bearing in mind that in t5yhe course of life, individuals are expected to remember who they are by positively identifying their past experiences alongside recognizing other people around them to promote fruitful social relations.
It is against this background that this essay critically analyses face recognition to capture crucial elements that come into play during this process as well as expose some errors that are likely to arise because memory retention and recall is liable to several limitations.
Empirical research studies have conclusively demonstrated that face recognition is an inborn capability. As such, there are quite several researchers in psychology who tend to justify this notion by portraying how infants respond to familiar faces (Robinson-Reigler & Robinson-Reigler 2008).
The notion above implies that face recognition is the most fundamental cognitive function during the entire course of human development. Nonetheless, face recognition is interestingly intertwined in several cognitive processes. It is imperative to mention that cognitive process is very significant in face recognition especially due to its role in storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory (Rakover &Cahlon, 2001).
Moreover, cognitive processes assist in the proper execution of the first and second order of information and how the two orders or levels of information relate top to each other (Li & Jain, 2005). The latter authors further expound that the first relational order identifies different parts of an object (face) while the second order strives to associate these features with a particular individual.
As a result, none of them can act independently since they fully rely on each other for optimal functioning. On the same note, concepts and categories of cognition play various roles in face identification, classification, and ultimate recognition. Categorization is an important cognitive process that demands a thorough classification of different objects based on their underlying similarities (Robinson-Reigler & Robinson-Reigler 2008).
Similarly, these categories are represented in mind in an abstract manner through concepts (Robinson-Reigler & Robinson-Reigler 2008). Li and Jain (2005) underscore that both concept and categorization go hand in hand whereby if one is absent, the remaining one cannot function independently.
However, the concept is superior to classification in the sense that ideas are the backbone to proper categorization during recognition and subsequent communication following positive recognition (Robinson-Reigler & Robinson-Reigler 2008).
It is imperative to mention that categorization which is informed via concepts is very significant during face recognition bearing in mind that without correct identification and classifications of familiar facial features, recognition will be greatly hindered (Li &Jain, 2005).
Moreover, grouping peoples faces in the right category will promote learning and understanding. Also, the very concepts will be stored for use in posterity. Concepts will be easily retrieved in case of an encounter with a familiar face (Li & Jain, 2005). Indeed, retrieval is an integral component of face recognition that may not be ignored at all.
Furthermore, the success or failure in face recognition is highly dependent on the crucial role of encoding and retrieval processes of the mind. Whenever an individual is introduced to a new person, the mind conceives some of the most outstanding facial features that are necessary for future recall.
As a result, the powerful role played by the encoding process is amplified in the long term memory until there is a necessity for retrieval (Li & Jain, 2005). Encoding is the most integral action before recognition; hence proper encoding is significant to ensure that no information is lost during storage or retrieval of facial features that aid in recognition (Rakover & Cahlon, 2001).
According to Robinson-Reigler and Robinson-Reigler (2008), memory retention and retrieval is greatly influenced by attention input during encoding process whereby distractions during prior encounters might hinder future recognition. Besides, if an individual’s memory is distracted by external or internal (emotional) stimuli during retrieval, some errors or total blackout is likely to arise when the necessity to recognize a certain face arises (Li &Jain, 2005).
In spite of the fact that face recognition is a significant cognitive process due to its necessity in creating and maintaining a healthy social relationship, Robinson-Reigler and Robinson-Reigler (2008) underscore that this process is sometimes prone to errors.
Researchers have incessantly attempted to link errors to the reconstructive characteristic of memory whereby they point out that errors tend to occur during re-creation processes in mind (Li & Jain, 2005). It is imperative to mention that as people reconstruct past encounters with familiar faces, events, or objects in preparation for some positive recognition, they are likely to be influenced by many variables such as the relationship between target memory and other memories/contexts stored in the brain (Li & Jain, 2005).
It is not surprising for an individual to positively identify a familiar face but fail miserably when trying to recall the context of prior interactions with that person (Li & Jain, 2005). Although, such an individual may be right about having a prior encounter with the familiar face, it not wonder if this familiarity is just an illusion of the brain.
Li and Jain (2005) refer to this error as misrepresentation. Misrepresentation is a common tendency that can be embarrassing to the parties involved. Moreover, distortion can have adverse effects in law whereby an eyewitness account if not properly scrutinized can lead to a miscarriage of justice is an innocent individual is positively identified via misrepresentation (Li & Jain, 2005).
On the extreme side, individuals can execute self-recognition errors whereby a person is unable to recognize own face due to problems in long –term memory mainly arising from medical conditions that inflict on the cognitive process of mind (Rakover &Cahlon, 2001).
In a nutshell, it is crucial to emphasize that face recognition, being a cognitive concept, is a complex process that involves identification, classification, and positive attention. Indeed, the aforementioned elements from the pinnacle of the entire face recognition concept.
Additionally, successful face recognition is not independent of cognitive concepts and most importantly, the categorization concept that determines whether the ends results will be successful or not. On the same note, the role of encoding and retrieval process cannot be overlooked in face recognition owing to their relationship with long-term memory and subsequent errors that arise following poor encoding and retrieval.
References
Li, S. & Jain, A. (2005). Handbook of face recognition. New York, NY: Springer.
Rakover, S. & Cahlon, B. (2001).Face recognition: cognitive and computational processes. Amsterdam: John Benjamin’s Publishing Company.
Robinson-Riegler, G. & Robinson-Riegler, B. (2008). Cognitive psychology: Applying the science of the mind (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Do you think that improvement in implicit learning tasks such as the serial reaction time task in the ZAP is due to cognitive factors (learning a rule), or to getting faster at carrying out the motor component of the task?
The easiest way to explain the difference between implicit and explicit types of learning is to think of the latter as active learning and of the former – as passive one (Bruneau, n. d.). The experiment at ZAP website focuses on implicit learning and stimulates the learners to think about the mechanisms that facilitate it. The question is whether it is our mind or body that works as an agent in implicit learning. During the experiment with the sequence of circles, implicit learning occurred due to exposure to a practical task.
In implicit learning no instructions as to the rule are provided, the learner gets to sort and process the new information on their own (Jenkins, 2012). In my opinion, reactions to the same sequence of circles over time minimize because our body memorizes the motions. As a result, it works like muscle memory (an examinee’s hand, eyes, and other muscles involved catch the pattern and follow it). This way, crossing one’s hands and repeating the same test with the same sequence shows slower results because a new hand needs to be trained to recognize and follow the sequence of circles all over again.
Why should using digits (numbers) typically yield the largest memory span, over that of letters, words, or nonsense syllables?
Sequences of numbers are easier to memorize than nonsense syllables, words, and letters because they contain universal meaning, whereas words and syllables have individual meanings that are specific from a person to a person. To improve one’s ability to memorize letters, it is best to break them into groups that would turn them into homogenous chunks (Pinola, 2012). In other words, adding some meaning to the meaningless sequences makes them easier to remember. Regular practice of memorizing strings of numbers may improve one’s memory and also help them raise overall mental abilities and become a better worker, student, professional (Goldberg, 2011).
Reference List
Bruneau, E. (n.d.). Implicit vs. Explicit Learning Activity. Web.
Cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) is a non-pharmacological treatment intervention for patients with dementia and associated disease. Surveys revealed that the CST is cost-efficient compared to other pharmacological treatment interventions. The CST session includes physical games, sound, current affairs, word association, orientation, food, categorizing objects, word games, number games, and a team quiz. The progressive deterioration of an individual’s health status leads to dementia.
A survey carried out in the US revealed that eight hundred thousand people have dementia. The increasing rate of dementia accounts for the creation of group intervention units. Previous literature showed that early diagnosis enhanced the patient’s cognitive reasoning. As a result, the individual becomes depressed and dies of hypertension.
Cognitive stimulation therapy is effective in mitigating the effects of dementia. Non-pharmacological groups supervise the CST session under standard practice. The therapy session comprises fourteen groups of sessions conducted in seven weeks. Facilitators recommend the CST program for mild and chronic dementia. The therapy session assists participants with exercises that support their cognitive abilities.
Research question: Cognitive stimulation in patients with memory impairment: do they improve?
Relevance to psychology
Psychology is an applied science that studies human behaviors and mental activity. As a result, psychologists explore the components of mental, behavior, and social structures of cognitive reasoning. The role of each component enhances our perceptions towards brain functioning and diverse orientations.
Psychologists use the same concept to improve the wellness of people with dementia. As a result, non-pharmacological approaches substitute pharmacological interventions for people with dementia. Non-pharmacological approaches include behavior, emotion-oriented, cognition-oriented treatment, and stimulation oriented treatment.
Khan, Z., Corbett, A., & Ballard, C. (2014). Cognitive stimulation therapy: Training, maintenance, and implementation in clinical trials. Pragmatic and Observational Research, 5(1), 15-19.
Zunera Khan, Anne Corbett, and Clive Ballard (from the Wolfson Center for Age-related Diseases, King’s College London), tested the “Cognitive stimulation therapy: training, maintenance, and implementation in clinical trials.” Previous research revealed that 35 million people suffer from dementia and their related diseases. Against this backdrop, the authors tested the implication and maintenance of cognitive stimulation on patients with dementia.
However, the pharmacological treatment for dementia has been ineffective for patients with Alzheimer’s disease. As a result, alternative measures have been developed to improve social care services. Surveys revealed that non-pharmacological treatment had been tested in recent times. The approach has been supported by a patient orientation exercise to enhance their cognitive stimulation. As a result, the researchers tested cognitive stimulation therapy in clinical trials.
The article revealed that reality orientation developed in 1950 tackled confusion, and the patient’s disorientation. However, clinicians raised concerns about its significance in social care services.
They argued that its impact was minimal compared with pharmacological interventions. As a result, treatment interventions did not improve the patient’s quality of life. The previous analysis revealed that cognitive stimulation improved the patient’s quality of life. As a result, the researchers tested the significance of cognitive stimulation therapy using randomized controlled trials.
The research findings revealed that two hundred and one participants responded to the assessment (Khan, Corbett, & Ballard, 2014). The researchers mapped a 7-week session to test the CST program on patients with dementia. As a result, participants were observed for six months to test their response scale. The research findings revealed significant improvement in the implementation and maintenance of cognitive stimulation therapy. To answer the research question, we can draw an analysis of the application and maintenance of the CST.
The research findings revealed that cognitive stimulation therapy improved the patient’s language function. As a result, cognitive stimulation therapy enhances the wellness of the individual. The authors revealed that the clinical transition to real-life interventions remains the major challenge for CST implementation. However, previous research suggested that clinicians support the development and implementation of the CST.
The article revealed that CST implementation would enhance the patient’s cognitive reasoning, social function, and body process. The benefits of the CST sessions include the patient’s communication efficiency, conversation sequence, and cognitive reasoning. Ongoing clinical trials will improve the follow-up limitation and reduce the cost of home care services.
Thus, the article relates to my research topic as it evaluates the implications of CST sessions on the patient’s wellbeing. Consequently, the research findings will facilitate further studies on non-pharmacological approaches to dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Aguirre, E., Hoare, Z., Streater, A., Spector, A., Woods, B., Hoe, J., & Orrell, M. (2013). Cognitive stimulation therapy (CST) for people with dementia–who benefits most? Int J Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(3), 284-90.
According to Aguiree, E. (Mental Health Sciences Department, University College London), Hoare, Z. ( North Wales Research Institute), Streater, A. (Research & Development Department, NHS Foundation, London), Spector, A. (Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London), Woods, B. (DSDC Wales, Bangor University), Hoe, J. (DSDC Wales, Bangor University), and Orrell, M. (Research & Development Department, NHS Foundation, London), cognitive stimulation therapy improves the wellness of people with dementia. However, factors that influence patient response to CST vary among individuals.
As a result, the researchers investigated the predisposing factors to CST response. To further their research, they tested two hundred and seventy-two patients with dementia. The participants were observed for seven weeks. Each patient was given pretreatment and post-treatment assessment. Consequently, the sample population was randomly selected from eighteen community health centers (Aguirre et al., 2013). The research findings were compared with mean scores to determine the significance of each factor.
The research findings revealed that CST improved the wellness of each participant. Consequently, treatment interventions were not significant during the CST session. As a result, the benefits of CST did not reflect any treatment intervention. However, home care services, age, and gender affected the participant’s cognition and response to medication. The research findings suggested that predictors of change affect the wellness of each participant.
Consequently, the independent variables influenced the patient’s cognitive stimulation. As a result, elderly people benefited from the CST program. Thus, patients under medication will benefit from the CST sessions. We can answer the research question using the author’s recommendations. The efficacy of the CST program can be tested on patients with dementia. As a result, health practitioners can evaluate nursing interventions based on performance and quality of life.
Tuppen, J. (2012). The benefits of groups that provide cognitive stimulation for people with dementia. Nurs Older People, 24(10), 20-4.
According to Jackie Tuppen (Independent specialist practitioner, Broadstairs, Kent), government policy facilitates early diagnosis and nursing interventions for patients with dementia. Thus, early diagnosis and medication influence the quality of life for people with dementia. The article “The benefits of groups that provide cognitive stimulation for people with dementia” described the development of intervention groups for people with dementia.
As a result, the author analyzed Cogs club, policies, and government recommendations as it affects care homes and CST groups. The article tested the benefits of various stimulation groups and the factors that support their development. Consequently, facilitators use capacity building skills for cognitive stimulation therapy. At the end of each intervention program, an individual may be forced to withdraw from alternative medications.
The term “Cogs clubs or groups” refers to caregivers that support the elderly. However, the author used the term to qualify non-professionals that assist people with dementia. The Cogs club acts as facilitators during the therapy session. Physical actives such as sounds, music, word games, and current affairs were carried out in the first and second sessions.
To investigate the benefits of stimulation groups, the author collected responses from various facilitators and caregivers. As a result, questionnaires were distributed to non-professionals in care homes, mental institutions, and Cogs club. Responses from facilitators were used to analyze the effectiveness of the stimulation groups. The research findings revealed that facilitators enjoyed the CST program (Tuppen, 2012). Statistical analysis revealed that the responses from 8 facilitators were above 88 percent.
The responses showed that the facilitators were satisfied with their job description. Thus, Cogs club benefits from the stimulation therapy. The rating criteria include interest, social skills, job satisfaction, and humor. The facilitators were evaluated based on the statistical figures. As a result, they encouraged volunteers to be part of the initiative to improve service delivery.
The article relates to the proposed topic because it answers the research question. The research findings revealed that facilitators improve the wellness of people with dementia.
Consequently, early diagnosis and government policies facilitate the development of the CST program. Thus, the article relates to my research topic as it evaluates the implication of CST sessions on the patient’s wellbeing. Consequently, the research findings will facilitate further studies on non-pharmacological approaches to dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Elaborative process is an important subject in psychology. It involves reviewing new information and linking it to what already exists in the individual’s memory (Anderson, 2015). The process is significant in the study and retention of data. Another important topic in cognitive psychology is the concept of flashbulb memory. It is a situation where occurrences with emotional and mental impact remain clear in one’s memory. The two topics above are closely related to semantic networks and memory complaints and performance.
In this paper, the author will provide a detailed analysis of the four topics. In addition, the application of the concepts in the author’s learning process will be highlighted.
Topic 1 of 2: Elaborative Processing
Elaborative Processing
Overview
Anderson (2015) provides a working definition of elaborative processing. According to Anderson (2015), the concept describes a discerning process where information is keenly revised and linked to what is present in the long term memory. It encompasses linking two ideas in an attempt to give them meaning. Elaborative processing helps a person to remember new information by connecting it with something simpler that is already in their long-term memory (Cook, Limber & O’Brien, 2001). It leads to enhanced reminiscence. The reason is that it comprises of meaningful examination of, for instance, thoughts and images and their association to prior knowledge.
Learners can use the concept to contemplate on a given subject in a meaningful way. They interrogate and expand the presented ideas, a process that enhances memory (Cook et al., 2001). Studies have showed that elaborative processing among learners with a vast information base encourages incorporation of freshly assimilated information into the existing foundation. It provides a rational illustration of a learning item.
PQ4R study method and elaborative processing
PQ4R is a common reading technique. It was established by Thomas E.L and Robinson H.A in 1972. The acronym stands for preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review. It helps students with reading difficulties to take an active attitude towards learning. Previewing involves getting an overall map of the material before reading starts (Anderson, 2015). On its part, questioning entails drafting queries about the material after reading the preview. The process creates learning goals.
Reading follows with the goal of answering the drafted questions. It involves noting of key words that will act as reminders of the answers. Reciting comes after reading. It involves reading the just answered questions silently or loudly to oneself or to a study group (Anderson, 2015). The next step is reflection. It entails relating fresh data to timeworn information, which may involve events in one’s life or people close to the individual. The final phase is reviewing. It involves revising the information repeatedly.
Application of Elaborative Processing
I use elaborative processing when studying. I find it to be an effective strategy due to its high level of information retention. In addition, comprehension of prior is made easier and fast (Anderson, 2015).
Topic 2 of 2: Flashbulb Memory
Analyzing Flashbulb Memory
Flashbulb memories are recollections that are vivid, detailed, precise, and concrete. They are memoirs of unexpected and shocking events that took place in the life of a person. Flashbulb memories are remembered with a clear recollection of the setting in which they happened (Toichi & Kamio, 2002). Unlike photographic memories, which are more permanent, the forgetting curve of flashbulb recollections is rarely affected by time (Winograd & Neisser, 2006). They are stored on a single juncture. However, they persist for a lifetime. The memories are special because they lead to emotional provocation at the time the event was recorded into the memory.
Reactions stimulated by flashbulb memories increase the capacity to remember the specifics of the occurrence. Recollection of such events is affected by their tendency to be recapped over time. The reason is that the happenings are usually important historical occurrences (Winograd & Neisser, 2006). The memories are not precise. However, they exhibit the emotional composition of an occurrence that can significantly augment the strength of the recalls made. An event that I can regard as a flashbulb memory in my life is the birth of my nephew. The reason is that my sister-in-law was visiting for the Christmas holidays and it was snowing heavily when she went into labor.
Events that Can Make Flashbulb Memories Memorable
As already indicated, the ‘memorability’ of flashbulb memory is closely related to the nature of the associated events. Such occurrences include those that lead to emotional arousal. They include the loss of loved ones, life threatening accidents, and birth. The confidence of those who remember the events makes them unique (Toichi & Kamio, 2002). It also enhances their ‘memorability’.
Studying Flashbulb Memories
An investigation was conducted on the flashbulb memories associated with the Loma Prieta earthquake (Anderson, 2015). The research established that people who constantly talked about their individual stories and matched them with those of other persons remembered the events better compared to those who had little to say about how they went through the ordeal. It was established that flashbulb memories are not accurate even there is no rehearsal. The reason is they depreciate with time (Berntsen & Thomsen, 2005).
Topic 1 of 2: Semantics Network
Semantic Networks and Memory
According to Anderson (2015), studies have found that categorization of items enhances recollection compared to rote memory. I believe this is true because categorizing items involves using previously acquired knowledge to classify the memories (Toichi & Kamio, 2002). During classification, recall and retrieval of information becomes easier. In contrast, rote memory involves repetition. In this case, the more the learner repeats the content, the more they are able to comprehend. The process makes the method weak. The reason is that it is based on words rather than ideas and association of mental concepts.
My Preferred Memory
In spite of the limitations associated with it, I prefer to use rote method when memorizing. I find it easier compared to categorization.
Topic 2 of 2: Memory Complaints and Memory Performance
Memory complaints refer to a situation where individuals realize that their recollections and discerning aptitudes are not as good as they used to be. Observed memory, on the other hand, involves recall and recognition of previously observed stimuli (Pearman, Hertzog & Gerstoff, 2014). The Berlin study conducted by Pearman et al. (2014) indicated that memory complaints are projected by neuroticism and depression. The researchers found that the concept was not associated with memory performance. Latent growth curves centered on time and age in the Berlin study indicated that the level of memory complaints did not change with time or age. In addition, there was no substantial connection between variations in memory complaint over time and age. However, an autoregressive latent variable curve highlighted a parallel effect of recall on memory complaint that governs initial complaints on the third event.
According to Pearman et al. (2014), variations in memory complaints among the aged is not an indication of concrete age-related changes in recollections. On the contrary, the shifts are affected by other variables. The facets include age-based typecasts, depression, neuroticism, and aging concerns.
References
Anderson, J. (2015). Cognitive psychology and its implications (8th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing.
Berntsen, D., & Thomsen, D. (2005). Personal memories for remote historical events: Accuracy and clarity of flashbulb memories related to World War II. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 134(2), 242-257.
Cook, A., Limber, J., & O’Brien, E. (2001). Situation-based context and the availability of predictive inferences. Journal of Memory and Language, 44(2), 220-234.
Pearman, A., Hertzog, C., & Gerstoff, D. (2014). Little evidence for links between memory complaints and memory performance in very old age: Longitudinal analyses from the Berlin Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, 29(4), 828-842.
Toichi, M., & Kamio, Y. (2002). Long-term memory and levels-of-processing in autism. Neuropsychologia, 40(7), 964-969.
Winograd, E., & Neisser, U. (2006). Affect and accuracy in recall: Studies of ‘flashbulb’ memories. London: Cambridge University Press.
Sensory, working, long-term, and short-term memory are basic human cognitive abilities. Yet, their nature is not completely understood beyond the well-recognized fact that human memory consists of various systems depending on several distinct brain regions. Still, the fractionation of these memory systems is grounded in scanty, insufficient research. One of the compelling subject areas that have been gaining traction in the field of psychology and neuroscience is the impact of age on the human memory systems. This report syntheses evidence from three recent scientific papers to demonstrate that lifespan memory decline cannot be ascribed to a unitary cause but rather stems from diverse determinants.
Memory lapses and forgetfulness are some of the most common complaints among senior citizens. Henson et al. (2016) argue against the pre-existing deterministic notion that such decline is linear, pre-programmed, and inevitable regardless of a person’s life choices. The purpose of the research by Henson et al. (2016) was to deepen the understanding of differential aging of the brain on differential patterns of memory loss. According to the scholars, provided the findings are meaningful, they could serve as a valuable contribution to future strategies for age-related memory loss prevention.
For their study, Henson et al. (2016) recruited 430 participants between the ages of 18 and 88 years old. They were offered memory tests while their brains were undergoing MRI imaging for GMV (gray matter volumes) and WMI (white matter index) measurements. Interestingly enough, the scholars rejected standardized memory tests that do not make a distinction between three types of memory – associative, item, and priming. The findings demonstrated that age negatively affected the former two types, with the latter being the most resilient to aging effects. However, the three memory factors appeared to have differential sensitivity to age insofar as different contributions from gray- and white matter in the investigated brain regions.
Despite the obvious contribution of this paper, it is important to keep in mind the limitations of its design. Henson et al. (2016) admit that the data used for the present research is cross-sectional, in other words, collected at one point in time. Indeed, a longitudinal design might have served the research purposes better as it would be able to capture the changing dynamics and distinguish the true effects of age. Many socioeconomic factors such as nutrition, lifestyle, and culture shape brain health outcomes that persist into old age. To the study’s credit, however, Henson et al. (2016) became the pioneers in memory research that included individuals ages spanning between 18 and 88 years old. This choice is refreshing when contrasted with studies that only focus on comparing younger participants’ (20-30 y.o.) performance to their older counterparts (60-70 y.o.).
The logical question that the reader might have after becoming familiar with the study by Henson et al. (2016) is what life factors shape memory outcomes in old age, even if at least some decline is seemingly unavoidable. Voluntary lifestyle choices that affect memory in old age are exactly the topic of a paper by Klaming et al. (2017). For their study, the scholars narrow the scope to the impact of lifestyle on episodic memory, defined as an individual’s ability to encode and fetch information in the context of time and place. Episodic memory is crucial to running errands and performing daily tasks, which allows for enhanced autonomy and self-agency in the elderly. The significance of the research lies in its practical implications for memory improvement in old age.
Klaming et al. (2017) retrieved data from Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam (LASA), an ongoing prospective population-based study taking place in three geographic locations in the Netherlands. Cognitive function, as well as lifestyle choices information, was collected every three years between 1995 and 2009, making the present study longitudinal. The sample was almost exclusively limited to senior citizens who, at the moment of the first data collection, averaged 74.6 years old. Lifestyle was operationalized as a combination of factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption, sleeping habits, social engagement, and the level of physical activity. Like Henson et al. (2016), Klaming et al. (2017) did not study human memory as a whole but as a system of elements. In the context of this study, the evaluation memory was broken down into memory learning score, memory delayed recall score, and memory retention score.
As expected, Klaming et al. (2017) discovered a positive association between moderate to high levels of physical exercise and episodic memory function. The participants of the study drank 7.5 alcoholic beverages per week, and yet, alcohol consumption did not affect their memory measurements. In fact, alcohol abstinence was associated with worse results as compared to light drinking. Smoking, on the other hand, was a predictor of worse learning abilities. Normal sleep that is not too short or too long in duration and social engagement were determinants of functioning memory in old age. While these findings can be used for the development of intervention programs, it is important to remember that all data were self-reported, which means a possibility of bias.
The connection between lifestyle choices and memory in old age is justifiably optimistic. One may wonder what else could be in a person’s power to make sure they retain their cognitive abilities as they grow older. Apparently, self-image and positive thinking may as well be at play. Stephan et al. (2016) conducted a compelling study investigating how an individual’s perception of age may affect their memory. From the literature on the subject matter, it is known that older adults feel younger than they actually are. The question arises as to whether it is self-delusion or a powerful defense mechanism against age-related brain deterioration.
Stephan et al. (2016) recruited participants from the HRS, a nationally representative longitudinal study of Americans aged 50 and over. The main variables evaluated by Stephan et al. (2016) were subjective age, physical activity, memory, and depressive symptoms. The study also included covariates such as baseline age at the start of the study, sex, BMI (body-mass index), educational background, and medical history (diabetes, hypertension, and others). Even after controlling for covariates, Stephan et al. (2016) were still able to confirm that the perceived younger age was associated with better memory function and slower cognitive decline. Feeling younger was also related to fewer depressive symptoms. In contrast to the study by Klaming et al. (2017), physical activity had no mediating effect on memory function. The present study makes a contribution to the existing knowledge of memory and its determinants in older adults. However, the positive selection of the longitudinal participants is an inarguable caveat as admitted by the authors themselves.
Forgetfulness, confusion, and scatter-mindedness are socially and culturally associated with old age; it is a popular trope and a subject of many anecdotes ranging from entertaining to disheartening. However, the exact mechanisms of such changes have yet to be elucidated. This critical analysis discussed and synthesized evidence on lifespan memory in older adults, changes, and determinants. The existing body of literature confirms the inevitability of age-related cognitive decline. However, it is less linear as previously imagined since memory is far from uniform and regulated by several distinct brain regions. The other two studies challenge the deterministic view on aging and provide practical implications on what interventions can slow down memory decline. There is some debate about specific lifestyle choices and their impact. Yet, the very idea of being in control of one’s brain health can inspire more rigorous, evidence-based memory preservation strategies.
References
Henson, R. N., Campbell, K. L., Davis, S. W., Taylor, J. R., Emery, T., Erzinclioglu, S., & Kievit, R. A. (2016). Multiple determinants of lifespan memory differences. Scientific reports, 6(1), 1-14.
Klaming, R., Annese, J., Veltman, D. J., & Comijs, H. C. (2017). Episodic memory function is affected by lifestyle factors: A 14-year follow-up study in an elderly population. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 24(5), 528-542.
Stephan, Y., Sutin, A. R., Caudroit, J., & Terracciano, A. (2016). Subjective age and changes in memory in older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 71(4), 675-683.