The differences and similarities in remembering visual and auditory items are carried out in two researches, “presentation modality on false memory,” and “learning to remember music”.
Although the aim of both experiments targets the mental capacity or the faculty of retaining and recalling, it is quite clear that it is challenging to determine which of these two (auditory and visual presentations) is easy to recall.
First, it is important to discuss the similarities and differences in research methods. According to the article, “presentation modality on false memory”, two experiments are carried out to give proof to the case. According to an experiment carried out by Smith and Stun, audible presentations increased true memory and decreased false memory as compared to visual presentation.
This finding contradicts Penny’s’ research results that that portrays, audible presentation reduces memory loss. It is difficult to explain why the two have different results and have opposite effect of presentation.
Maylor and Mo, having the same results as Penny, proposed that the difference in the results was caused by the method research carried. Their use of within subject-design may have caused the difference. In the first experiment, a total of 48 students from psychology classes were required.
Critical targets were arranged in the order, from the highest to lowest. They went through three blocks of five study-recall trial. In the first block, study list were presented audibly as the experimenter sat in front of the computer and read them aloud while the screen was blinded form the participants.
In the next block, participants were asked to read silently while in the last block, they were asked to read the study list aloud (Clearly and Greene, 2002).
In the second experiment, the results from the first experiment were replicated. The procedure was the same as the first experiment except that all stimuli were presented twice in a row in massed fashion. This was to ensure that that all conditions had double presentation.
54 students from psychology classes participated. The material and design were identical with the first experiment. The only difference was in the presentation of the study items. In this particular experiment they occurred twice in a raw.
The similarity in the research findings is that, the pattern of results is almost identical in both experiments. Recalling of studied items did not differ significantly between conditions while on the other hand, recognition in visual and read-aloud conditions were different.
This is because the first experiment had both significantly higher hits and false alarm rates. The second experiment had double presentations, and this allowed familiarity to reduce false alarms.
Statistically, the results of the experiments were the same. The two experiments reported that false recall is higher when presented in auditory rather than in the visual form (Korenman & Peynircioglu, 2007).
Secondly, it is important to discuss the similarities and differences in research methods and instruments used according to the article, “individual differences in learning and remembering music”. Two experiments were taken. The first one was to gauge the musicians’ and non-musicians’ learning efficiency while the second was to test the effects of their respective memories.
In both experiments, musicians and non-musicians were used for the study case. However, in both experiments, the participants were selected having passed the musical experience and music-learning-style criteria specified.
The criteria they had to pass consisted of participants being American University students, and possessing extra credit in psychology classes. Non-students participated on voluntary basis. The participants were different in both experiments.
According to the instruments used, experiments differed in terms of the number of participants used. In the first experiment, 40 participants were selected from the initial pool of 46 people. In the second experiment, 44 adults were selected from a pool of 67.
The first experiment had melody length test while the second, the length was no longer a variable. Presentation was done through a 15 inch computer monitor in experiment 1 while in the other experiment presentation was done through a laptop and projected into a television monitor.
In the second experiment, participants were given paper sheets to circle the right answers whereas in the first experiment, the melodies were played using piano-setting and saved in wave format. Both experiments used PowerPoint presentations.
The first experiment differed from the second experiment in terms of the number of sentences used. 16 unfamiliar sentences were used in experiment 1 while in the other experiment 12 sentences were used and an additional 24 included.
In conclusion, auditory versus visual presentation in learning how to remember music presentation failed to show any meaningful difference but learning style preference did. Auditory learners comprehended audible items faster and remembered them better than visual learners (Bredart, 2000).
The vice versa applies too. Meaningful sentences were learned faster and remembered than less meaningful sentences. Different learning styles in music can affect the learning rate.
An example is the Suzuki method focusing on ear training and performance skills, whereas the alternative and more commonly used method focuses on music reading activities. According to memory loss false and recognition are higher following auditory study than visual study.
References
Bredart, S. (2000). When false memories do not occur: Nor thinking of the lure or remembering that it was not heard? Memory, 8, 123-128.
Clearly, A., Greene, R. (2002). Paradoxical effects of presentation modality on false memory. MEMORY, 10 (1), 55-61.
Korenman, L.M., & Peynircioglu, Z. F. (2007). Individual Differences in Learning and Remembering Music: Auditory versus Visual Representation. Journal of Research in Music Education, 55 (1), 48-64.
For a long period of time, the analyses of human brain have captivated most scientists and they have discovered various extraordinary abilities of the brain. Specifically, scientists have extensively analyzed the human memory through various approaches such as theoretical ideas, experimental finding and conceptual frameworks. In spite of conflicting and vast knowledge regarding memory, there are specific aspects that most scientists and psychologist can agree. One of the most imperative observations is that people memory is not perfect.
This suggests that the human memory is prone to errors, distortions and illusions. Secondly, is the idea that memory is constructive. This idea suggests that bits and pieces of information are collected and put together to come up with a comprehensive idea. In addition, this suggests that when an individual recall previous events at a later time, they have to reconstruct and recreate their memory to come up with a complete memory.
There are various problems that are associated with the constructive nature of memory. The process of memory retrieval is not only reconstructive, but it also involves other strategies that would assist in retrieving the original event or memory. Since not all information’s are stored in the long term memory, it becomes easy for most of important information disappear from the memory.
This creates a room for an individual to fit any information that may seem correct or possible to the previous event. In addition, prior knowledge is also known to facilitate memory, and at the same time hinder retrieval of the past memory because of its own reconstructive process. Furthermore, information is also forgotten because of gradual disappearance and transience that is information fades away quickly from the memory.
Thirdly, absent-mindedness and blocking prevent people from remembering something that they know but they can’t retrieve. Another challenge that faces the constructive nature of memory is the misattribution and biasness. This suggests that some people cannot remember where an event took place or heard what they had. Furthermore, most people tend not to remember painful experience or event.
These factors significantly influence the process of retrieving information from the memory. I have experienced several occasion with memory failures and inaccuracies. During examination period, I tend to forget most of the things that I have read, but remember them immediately I leave the examination room. In worse situations, I tend to confuse words that sound the same or have somewhat same meaning.
The knowledge of previous notes and knowledge usually have significant effect on understanding the current knowledge. Amusingly, sometimes I usually brush my teeth after I have already brushed them. This usually occurs when I am absent-minded or when my mind has been blocked trying to remember whether I brushed my teeth. Now that I am aware of the constructive nature of memory, it will significantly influence the way I encode and view my memory.
The brain is capable of classifying and sorting tasks activities in a systematic manner without confusion. The process of classifying objects is a complex, but imperative part of our every facet of life. The process of classifying object is important in my life because of several reasons. Classification skills are very important for many activities in higher learning institution. It would be virtually impossible for an individual to do practical activity without classifying objects in their field of study.
Many fundamental skills such as organization, thinking, word retrieval and note taking requires the brain to be effective in comparing and categorizing object for effective learning to take place. Currently, classifying plays an important role in my career especially in psychology. Classification skills therefore help me to improve my skills in classifying objects, observing patterns and learning hierarchal relationship of things.
Generally, everyday people are forced to classify objects such as colors, organizing playing things and coming up with new ways to simplify their work. Without classification ability it would become very hard for individual to comprehend and associate with other effectively in the society. Most careers like science and mathematics require individuals to have excellent classifying skills to enable them have good picture of the world. Furthermore, classification enables us to understand the relationship between different organisms in the society.
There are various factors that can affect the way a person classify objects in the environment. One major cause of poor classification ability is the development of health issue and diseases that attack the brain. An example is the pick’s disease which is rare and attacks the brain causing destruction of nerve cells. Some of the common symptoms of this disease include loss of speech and the ability to classify objects in the immediate environment of an individual.
A person suffering this disease may have difficult in speech, thinking and have behavioral changes that do not conform to the general society. Other symptoms include over-activity, wandering, inertia and poor etiquette. These symptoms make a person have poor relationship with people in the society.
In addition, the disease is associated with progressive non-fluent aphasia and semantic dementia. A person suffering from this disease has difficult in studying since they can differentiate things in class. Furthermore, the person cannot associate with other students effectively because of their poor etiquette and over reactive behavior.
There is various way of representing events, objects or things, which include either verbal representations or depictive (pictorial) representations. Both presentations differ in a number of ways, which some scholars argue that verbal representation is convectional. This means that there may be no similarity between the sentences, text or words with the object represented by the presentation. In other hand, pictorial representation is mostly based on the object depicted and picture.
Most scholars argue that representation of picture is more natural and convenient than representing by verbal means. In addition, most people are capable to remember pictorial representation easily than verbal description of the object. The next section will briefly describe an object.
The object is made up of wood and come in different shape, color and size. It has four stands that support it from the ground. Furthermore, it has a horizontal plane surface that is well furnished and smooth. It also has a vertical surface that is attached on one end of the horizontal plane surface.
The vertical surface is slightly inclined away from the horizontal plane surface that is both the vertical and horizontal surface meets at an angle more than ninety degrees. The vertical surface is made up of different patterns and shape.
From this description, pictorial representation produces a higher heterogeneity among individuals. Verbal representation seems to facilitate prediction and judgment from an individual perception. Pictorial representation improves the individual understanding of the object quickly than the verbal representation. Pictures facilitate reasoning and learning since they act as external memory aids, which allow quick processing of information in the memory.
Speech segmentation is considered to be the process of identifying boundaries between phonemes, syllables and words. This term is both used to imply the mental process and natural language acquisition process in an individual. During speech segmentation, individual must take into consideration semantics, grammar and context. Speech segmentation enables an individual to break continuous stream of sound into units that can be easily recognized and understandable.
Speech segmentation is considered as a necessary step in auditory language processing. Speech segmentation occurs in language that people are familiar with since it becomes easy for them to understand the language. It is very difficult to have speech segmentation in language that a person is not familiar with since identifying boundaries between syllables, words and phonemes is not possible. For example, it becomes hard to hear the different words in Chinese since the speech signal sounds continuous with no physical breaks.
McGurk effect is an occurrence that shows relationship between vision and hearing in speech perception. In McGurk effect, the images and visual representation perceived by a listener distorts how they receive sound from the individual who is talking.
If a person receives poor auditory information, but good visual information they may be experiencing McGurk effects. After viewing the video on McGurk Effect the initial syllable that the person is saying is “fa”. The syllable changes to “ba” when eyes are closed and the movement of the mouth also plays an important role in determining the syllable.
According to the McGurk effects auditory illusion is created when the mind prioritize the visual information over the auditory information, which in this case the mind decides to listen to what it sees as the correct information.
Aphasia is a condition where an individual is characterized by total loss or the ability to communicate either through written word or verbally. An individual suffering from aphasia may have difficult in writing, speaking recognizing shapes and communicating with others. The cause of the aphasia ranges from brain injury during accident to when the brain lacks enough oxygen. Some diseases like brain tumor, infections and alzheimers are known to cause aphasia.
Broca’s aphasia occurs as a result to the damage of the frontal lobe of the brain or frontportion. A person with Broca’s aphasia may be unable to use speech or may have difficulty constructing sentences. The reading ability of a person suffering from aphasia becomes hard, and they usually become stressed since they are aware of their condition. Wernicke’s aphasia is caused due to the damage on the side portion of the brain or the temporal lobe of the brain.
Individual with Wernicke’s aphasia like to speak in long uninterrupted speeches, which do not make any sense. They usually have difficulty understanding other people speech, and have poor reading ability. Their writing skills are maintained although they may write abnormal things. Unlike Broca’s aphasia, people suffering from Wernicke’s are not aware of their condition and language errors.
The sudden understanding of problem or concepts is usually referred has the “aha” moment. In most cases the insights remain for a long period of time in an individual mind long term memory. Most scientists argue that if individual gain knowledge through insights they are in good position to remember more things and knowledge from past experience. Everybody experiences the insightful moment through different way and pattern.
As soon as a person realizes that a particular problem cannot be solved by them in their path, they seek alternatives or other means of solving the feat. Once they discover new way to solve the problem they experience the “Aha” moment. Secondly, a person may be using unnecessary knowledge and constraints in solving their problem without success. Once an individual relaxes they come up with new knowledge and ideas to solve their problems.
Constant relaxation enables the individual to internalize and separate chunk information from required information. After trying to solve a mathematical equation for a long period of hours, I decide to relax for some few hours. After relaxation I found it easy to simplify the problems without difficulty that I experienced early.
Confirmation bias is the tendency of people to believe information that favors their prediction or hypotheses. Individual show this tendency when they selectively remember information that favor their prediction on a particular matter. Research show that most people are biased especially when it comes to court proceeding. Confirmation bias would play a significant role in perpetuating stereotypes in a number of ways.
Individual tend to test hypotheses in one side that favor their prediction, through searching evidence that would favor them. People should search for all relevant evidence that may support their hypotheses or disapprove them. This would provide a clear judgment that is not biased in one direction or favors only one person.
This selective attention on specific information causes some evidence to be sidelined or overlooked by an individual. On top of that, illusionary correlation is the attribute of a person to observe correlation between data sets which actually does not exist.
Memory is a very vital human tool without which many of cognitive processes cannot take place. Humans rely on memory to recount the past and help forge the future. However, at times the human memory is vulnerable to errors in that individuals can claim to report what they think took place when in reality it did not.
This could be as a result of outside pressures, great expectations or misleading perceptions. This essay presents a report on the controversial concept of false memory in which an experiment was conducted across a number of participants. Words were displayed and later the observers were expected to report what they recall.
The rate at which the observers included nonexistent words in their recollection of the initial study list was explored and represented in the experiment. This error was represented through percentages and tables. The idea that individuals are more often incapable of differentiating the memory of an actual happening from that of their perceived nonexistent one is also discussed.
This false memory is a result of machinations, illusions and metamemorial aspects. The consequences of such a procedure and their relation to the cognitive theory are also mentioned.
Metamemory -False memory experiment
The most fundamental aspect of any cognitive theory is the accuracy of a recollection or a memory. This is due to the fact that to some extent, almost all dimensions of the cognitive process are based on memory (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, p. 166).
Thus, in order to comprehend the problem solving, decision making, contemplation and discernment processes, it becomes necessary to understand the capabilities of the memory and how far it can go without losing its edge.
Precise and good memory is thus not only significant for practical purposes but also for important events in life that rely on human perceptions such as getting reliable witness accounts on judicial matters. Memory enables us recall our past, be it personal or pertaining to society and by so doing it helps us establish our position and role in the society.
Metamemory refers to both an individual’s cognitive abilities, including how memory operates, its components, approaches that can assist the memory, and the cognitive developments that are part of an individual memory self-regulation (Pannu & Kaszniak, 2005, p. 106).
This way, individuals are able to know and discover how to capitalize on their memories during emotionally and cognitively straining situations or stringent circumstances. While considering the past, individuals rely on their personal recollections and what people around them say about their past.
However, many a time our memories experience inconsistencies and oversights. These could be manifested in inaccurate recollection of events or even total loss of knowledge concerning a certain detail or event.
For instance, people may claim to recall something that never existed or happened in reality and sometimes people may agree on stories that never happened. Therefore, metamemory may encompass recalling things that never happened, or recalling them incorrectly as opposed to how they actually took place.
Various factors have been attributed to this trend; for instance being emotionally associated with an issue, predictions and alterations in the surroundings (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, p. 165). False information impacted on an individual, misrepresenting the original source of knowledge and the prevalence of other memories do obstruct one’s memory disposition, causing the individual to recall mistaken or completely inaccurate memories.
Unfortunately, there is no proven way to objectively analyze the correctness of memory. The subject of metamemory, especially the topic on false memories, has been an issue of controversy among many researchers and psychologists. Research shows that it is very easy to suggestively impact false memory, which grows clearer with time to the extent that it is perceived as true recollection.
At the same time, memories tend to fade or grow fuzzy with age while sometimes the initial memory can be altered to accommodate new knowledge or events (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, p. 63). Nevertheless, it does not matter how well and confidently an individual recollects an event as that is no basis for the truth (Pannu & Kaszniak, 2005, p. 121).
The point is not all memories are incorrect though most only come close to being accurate. However, in situations requiring preciseness of detail, memories should not be relied upon solely to establish a fact regardless of how the reporter deems their memory status to be.
Previously, studies aimed at assessing the effects of false memories. However, nowadays they are consistently focusing on their growing prevalence, which has proved to be disturbing. An experiment was carried out to illustrate a procedure that prejudices individuals into recalling events that never took place in the first instance.
These kinds of memories are known as false memories. False memories, also known as confabulation and they describe the remembrance of incorrect particulars pertaining to an event or recalling an instant that never really took place. According to Roediger and McDermott (1995), this is a common life phenomenon affecting both children and adults where for instance a situation is planted in one’s life making them believe they went through it and where participants claim the situation took place when in reality it never did (p. 802).
Methodology
The experiment was conducted to establish a common memory mistake in which the observer was supposed to view and recall some words.
In accordance with the memory experiment as propounded by Roediger and McDermott (1995), a sequence of words with regular distractors and semantically related distractors was verbally or visually presented one at a time for one and a half seconds each (p. 804). These distractors are also known as the critical lure.
The answer buttons were marked with words from the sequence and distractors that were not anywhere on the list. The observer was asked to establish or categorize the words among a number of distractors by clicking on the buttons. The aim of the experiment was to find out the kind of distractor the observer remembered the most.
There were dependent and independent variables in the experiment. The independent variables were characterized by the kind of word put to test on the list, a distractor that bore no relationship to the word and connected distractor. Dependent variables were characterized by the percentage of every word reported, that is the percentage of original word selected, the normal distractors selected and the themed distractors chosen.
Results
It was anticipated that the subject would recount the connected distractors frequently. It is assumed that individuals tend to sometimes report what did not exist in the first place. Compared to other memory experiments, this particular study’s progressions were particularly configured in a manner that observers were led to be biased in their observations and were influenced to present a certain word that was not part of the classified words.
The item type included the original list and critical lures such as ‘sleep, ‘sweet’, ‘and needle ’,‘ chair ’,‘ mountain’, ‘rough’. From the frequency percentage table presented, it was established that individual results in the experiment indicated no deviations from the standard expectations as no subject reported any distractions from the real words despite the fact that related words were present from the beginning. The individuals significantly remembered the presented list items.
Discussion
The experiment sought to establish false memory in humans. The experiment tested individuals’ ability to recall correctly. Compared to the global memory expectations, the original words ought to remain the same upon recollection, that is100 percent. Similarly, there should be no reports whatsoever of the normal or special distractors.
As predicted, from the experiment’s descriptive statistics, the results of individual subjects are similar to those of the class and the general global expectations. This is illustrated in the lack of deviation from the original words. All the words in the presented sequence were reported.
At the same time, despite the presence of distractors and the knowledge of their existence, the subjects did not confuse them with the initial words from the list.
Therefore, had the observers declared a forged deviation, they would have been experiencing a false memory. A false memory is a distorted account of facts or an imagination. It can be described as recount or a normal distractor or a special distractor. This is based on the premise that the special or normal distractor will be reported repeatedly despite the fact that it was not part of the sequence (Roediger & McDermott, 1995, p. 810).
This is a common occurrence among children but quite a common and disturbing phenomenon among adults too. Sometimes, individuals can relate that they clearly remember having seen or heard the word. However, despite the fact that the words provided are connected to the distractor, the individuals still did not deviate from the original words.
These results demonstrate that the individuals possess a strong memory as their judgments were not erroneous. Had individual reports deviated from the class mean and global expectations, it would mean that individuals more often than not report related distractors. This could arise because quite a number of factors such as emotions and previous knowledge or related memories (Read, 1996, p. 134).
Thus while being tested; an individual is more likely to think about the distractors at the time when the original items are being displayed. This is simply because one remembers thinking about the word and assumes it was a result of seeing or hearing the word being presented when in reality they had just thought about the word.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the human memory is a very powerful tool. It is a fundamental human ability to recollect knowledge that is stored inside from the past experiences. The learning process depends on it and so do other cognitive processes that determine our existence. Its usefulness however depends on its ability to remain accurate and objective.
However, humans are fallible and consequently, they may believe, not necessarily with a malicious intention, that their recollection is always sound. Memories are often mixed up with some aspects of it being precise and truthful while another part is not entirely true. Thus establishing the distinction between the two diverse recollections is quite a tasking undertaking.
Thus false memory is a condition where an actual event is misrepresented or confused with some other element that may have occurred at the same time or never at all. They are consequences of fallacious origin of a memory, fantasies or misleading accounts from other participants implanted in an individual’s memory as true when in actuality they are not (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002, p. 158).
In spite of the reasons for false memory, the phenomenon is quite widespread and replicable among many individuals. While there is no universally approved methodology of determining the accuracy of memory, research indicates that memory is not all that dependable owing to various internal and external mechanisms that create illusory memories.
As a result, individuals are susceptible to false memories in which they are biased towards presenting things that did not exist in the first place or provide twisted accounts of an actual event. As a result, memory alone cannot be entrusted to ascertain truths or facts as it is not reliable. However, future undertakings are still necessary to ascertain the differences between actual memory and false memory.
References
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory. American Psychological Society, 11(5), 164- 169.
Pannu, J. K., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2005). Metamemory experiments in neurological populations: A review. Neuropsychology Review, 15, 105-130.
Read, J. D. (1996). From a passing thought to a false memory in 2 minutes: Confusing real and illusory events in Seamon, J.G., Luo, C. R., Schlegel, S. E., Greene, S. E. & Goldenberg, A.B. (2002). False Memory for Categorized Pictures and Words: The Category Associates Procedure for Studying Memory Errors in Children and Adults. Journal of memory and language, 42(1), 120-146.
Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B. (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory & Cognition, 21, 803–814.
It is often the case that people associate memories as a collection of neurons and synapses working in conjunction with each other in order to record pertinent information on a daily basis yet few think of the way in which the concept of memory can be comparable to that of a library where information is stored, recorded and categorized based on its type and attributes.
For example, have you ever thought of something which brought up a memory of something else which then subsequently brought on a whole host of other memories? Didn’t it feel oddly like the same experience you went through when you borrowed a book from the library where you went in, did a search through their book database then found the book you wanted?
This particular experience can be classified as a type of retrieval mechanism which we all use on a daily yet it is surprisingly similar to the way in which people utilize their local library however in the case of memories it isn’t “you” per see that does the searching rather it is the “thought” that was created that can be considered the patron that does the searching within the library of your mind.
It is based on this that it can be assumed that the various components and processes seen in a library today can actually be comparable to the processes that make up the storage and retrieval of memories within the human mind.
Fiction and Non-Fiction and Other Categories of Separation – The Separation of Memory Categories within the Mind
Within any library you’ll find the classic separation of fiction and non-fiction, it is an ubiquitous aspect of any library no matter the location, culture or size.
Going even further, each section has its own individual set of groups such as the non-fiction section being subdivided even further into the sciences, recent events, history, philosophy, culture, etc. The reason such categories of separation exist is due to the fact that it makes finding exactly what you need that much easier.
If books weren’t classified into individual sections and were instead placed depending on the order in which they were received what would result is a chaotic system of filing wherein hundreds, if not thousands of books, would be placed in whatever shelf or cabinet space is free making it next to impossible to be able to find anything within an appropriate span of time.
The reason this particular facet of library operations was brought up is that similar to the way in which books are arranged based on their category within a library; memories also have a distinct level of separation between them.
The most obvious of course is the separation between long term and short term memory which is comparable to the separation between fiction and nonfiction sections within a library catalogue.
Delving even further into the concept of categorization and separation is the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) multi-component model of memory which states that working memory operates via a system of “slave systems” and a central controller which supervises the transmission and coordination of information (RepovŠ & Baddeley, 2006).
The first “slave system” of the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model is called the phonological loop which stores the sound of language.
This system operates via a method of continuous repetition where in order to prevent the decay of accumulated words, phrases, meanings etc. the system continuously repeats the content thus refreshing it and ensuring that a person doesn’t forget it (RepovŠ & Baddeley, 2006).
For example, remembering people’s names, numbers and associated information regarding a particular individual is governed by this system. The second “slave system” is called the visual-spatial sketchpad which is involved in the storage and retrieval of visual and spatial information (RepovŠ & Baddeley, 2006).
Aspects related to this system come in form of visual images such as colors, shapes and the location of various objects and places of interest.
The Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model is one of the best methods of understanding how memories are separated in much the same way as the books seen in your school library since through separation and categorization this makes memories easier to store, classify and then subsequently bring up when the need arises.
The Library Card/Computer Catalogue and the Retrieval of Stored Memories
If libraries have a form of storage and classification then they must also have a form of information retrieval, in most cases this comes in the form of a card/ computer catalogue where students can easily find the precise book they’re looking for based on the classification indicated within the catalogue.
The reason behind the existence of this particular mechanism is quite simple, even if books have been classified based on their type there are still hundreds of books within each section.
Through the use of system of numbering and classification the process of find a book speeds up immensely since it enables a person to bypass dozens of books during the search and look for the book within the number section that it is supposed to be found in.
The reason this was brought up is due to the fact that the storage of memory within the mind works the same way however instead of a numbered classification what is used instead is a series of retrieval mechanisms.
One of the best models which enable people to understand the concept of memory storage and retrieval is the Ericsson and Kintsch (1995) model which explains that all individuals utilize skilled memory in everyday tasks however most these memories are stored in long term memory and then subsequently retrieved through various forms of retrieval mechanisms.
Ericsson and Kintsch explain that it would be impossible to “hold” so to speak all memories within our working memory rather what occurs is that individuals hold only a few concepts related to a task within their working memory and then use those as indicators to retrieve the information from long term memory.
This process which they described as “long term working memory” is easily comparable to the card catalog within a library which stores information regarding particular books and then directs people to which specific shelf they are located (Gobet, 2000).
This actually makes a great deal of sense since it is normally impossible to be fully immersed in all the memories we have created in our lives and need some form of “trigger” in order to bring these memories into the forefront of our present thought processes.
The Presence of a Central Controller – The Librarian
Most high school, college and university libraries come equipped with a librarian whose duty is to categorize the books, update the collection, assist students when need be in finding particular books and overall ensure the continued upkeep of the various books within the library.
Going back to the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model presented in the previous section, it is particularly interesting to note that this model on how memory works states that there is a “central executive” which facilitates the proper operation of the memory storage systems describe by directing the processes related to systematizing information towards relevant processes while at the same time minimizes or outright eliminates inappropriate or irrelevant information from being disseminated.
From a certain perspective this particular role is similar to what a librarian does in terms of ensuring the books are within their appropriate sections, ensuring that the proper types of books are obtained that conforms to what students need for their lessons while at the same time ensuring that what is present within the libraries vast collection is continuously placed where it should be.
As such the central executive within the mind can actually be comparable to a librarian and as such further deepens the metaphorical representation of the process inherent in the storage of memories being similar to what is found in a library.
Conclusion
Based on the examples presented it can be seen that the various processes and systems utilized within a library are actually quite comparable to the methods used to store memories in the human mind.
This could be due to the fact that just as a library tries to store as much information as possible within a limited space the mind does the exact same thing hence the fact there are similar processes behind their operation.
Reference List
Gobet, F. (2000). Retrieval structures and schemata: A brief reply to Ericsson and Kintsch. British Journal Of Psychology, 91(4), 591.
RepovŠ, G. G., & Baddeley, A. A. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory: Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience, 139(1), 5-21.
There is little knowledge on the effect of autobiographical memory on moral behavior. This research focuses on childhood memory as a type of autobiographic memory.
Conclusions drawn from research on moral psychology and memory propose that moral purity is elicited by childhood memories. It is a state where people feel they have clean morals and that they are innocent. As a result, when moral purity is heightened, pro-social behavior becomes great.
In the first experiment where participants were expected to remember their childhood experience, those memories aided the experimenter more than they let the participants take control. Moral purity mediated in this event. In another experiment, manipulation increased money donation (Aarts, and Dijksterhuis, 2003).
This effect came as a result of clear and inherent measures of moral purity. Experiment three further links moderation of childhood memories and pro-social behaviors with the fourth experiment. It indicates that child hood memories compromise others’ ethics. Finally both positive and negative valences increased aid as compared to control action (Edwards, and Lambert, 2007).
The participants in the first experiment were one hundred and thirteen. They were graduates from a university. There were instructions to read on computer screens after which they were to write about a particular occasion that took place at a certain time in the past. The provided time was 5-10 minutes and they were to start by describing their morning routine which was to enforce the true purpose of the study.
The reports on how the participants felt ten positive and negative emotions were given on a scale of seven. In the second experiment, eighty seven undergraduates with a mean age of 20.89 years old were selected for the experiment. First they were given a fifteen minute bogus task after which they received a compensation of $5. Thereafter, they did a different question from the one in experiment one.
The third group of participants comprised of one hundred and one people; both students and staff members. There were forty two male students with a mean age of 23.82 years and their purpose was to first do the task in experiment two after which they were to choose from a list of forty words containing their favorite words (Aarts, and Dijksterhuis, 2003).
The fourth experiment had one hundred and twenty adults with forty two females with a mean age of 44.20 years. They first did the activities in experiment two and three for ten minutes after which they had a different question to test on the negative and positive effects; including a question testing on nostalgia.
Findings of the first experiment showed that participants could write a lot about their favorite music and their first time experiences like bicycle riding from childhood memories. The manipulation was effective because the participants admitted that such actions like writing made it easy for them to draw back to their childhood memories.
Conditioned report proved a higher mean moral purity level than controlled participants. It also came out clear that the participants could do more when subjected to questions than when they were alone and not under conditions. From the second experiment, there were no guesses made on the hypothesis. Therefore, no participant was excluded from the analyses.
As in the case of first experiment, the second also showed that participants who wrote about their task easily remembered their childhood life. In terms of amount donated, more money was donated by participants who wrote about their childhood life. There was a significant manipulation in the third experiment where no participant was excluded.
Amount donated and moderated mediation were significantly and positively correlated. The two last experiments were characterized by same results except for the fact that having children for moderation in experiment five did not have any effect at all (Aarts, and Dijksterhuis, 2003).
There are various limitations to this research. Although nostalgia, moral purity and mediums through which pro-social behavior are promoted by childhood memories, there are other areas that were not covered in this research. Future research may widen our knowledge on additional mechanisms. Secondly, only a single manipulation for childhood memories was used in the experiments (Cialdini, 2001).
Each participant was expected to write about his own childhood memories. This type of memory ignited the concept of childhood. In future, it is important to test general findings like in a case of an office setup where participants can be asked about their preferred color or choice of furniture. The third limitation is failure to investigate the role of moderators.
For instance, they could have been asked about the effects and impacts of having their own children. Many important factors, both trial based and institutional based, may also moderate the investigated relationships in this research.
For example, importance of one’s moral identity can lower the chances of one remembering their childhood. Finally the research had little or no interest on the benefits of having childhood memories on potential costs. It only dwelled on the benefits of having the memories.
Conclusion
Moral identity is, therefore, important in moral motivation. It is also important to conduct a detailed examination on the two moderators considered in the last two experiments (4 and 5). One could perhaps consider comparing two participants with complicated childhood experiences.
References
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). The silence of the library: Environmental control over social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 18–28. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.18
Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ED). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12, 1–22. Doi:10.1037/1082- 989X.12.1.1
The area of semantic memory involves stored information regarding the features and characteristics, which determine the processes of retrieving, using, and producing information in various cognitive processes such as thought and language comprehension/production (Martin & Chao, 2001, p. 194).
In the period before the development of mechanisms for studying brain functioning such as brain imaging techniques, most researchers studied the domain of semantic memory using different attributes of patients suffering from brain injury or diseases.
The research findings identified two major brain areas in the left hemisphere, which determine various functions of semantic memory. For instance, some studies document that patients suffering from damages to the brain (particularly the left prefrontal cortex, LPC) demonstrated various difficulties in retrieving words relative to various cues related to different semantic categories (Martin & Chao, 2001, p. 194).
It then follows that the left prefrontal cortex (LPC) plays a major role in semantic memory relative to the process of retrieving semantic information. On the other hand, patients with damaged temporal lobes demonstrated the inability to name objects and various difficulties in retrieving information regarding object-related attributes.
These findings also suggest that the function of storing object-specific information is limited to the temporal lobe. Consistent with these studies, recent brain imaging studies regarding semantic functioning show that the function is limited to certain regions of the brain including the left prefrontal, posterior, and the parietal temporal lobes.
Additional studies demonstrate that semantic representations particularly object concepts are determined by sensory and motor attributes, which come about as a result of experience. For example, in studies involving word-generation, it is documented that object-specific information may be stored in the ventral and lateral regions (posterior temporal cortex).
This suggestion relates to experiments whereby the subjects were asked to generate object-specific information, and in the process, it is reported that these subjects demonstrated increased activity in the posterior region (Left middle gyrus).
Although there are some differences in brain activity within the ventral and lateral regions (posterior temporal cortex) relative to the type of retrieved information, different studies converge on the notion that object-specific information is stored in different neural systems, which show heightened activity during perception (Martin & Chao, 2001).
The Basic Functions of Language
According to a body of research studies, the human ability of reading and writing, which underlie speaking and understanding language, may be a secondary process that partly arises from visual identification of objects (word forms) and the primary language system (Witruk, 2002, p. 9).
Here, language comprehension is based on various aspects of the primary language system including the morphological, semantic, phonological, and syntactic information. Accordingly, the initial stage in comprehending language entails the phonological processing level, which involves assembling of phonological information to aid the development of phonological representations.
The phonological representations act as a window through which lexicons are accessed by matching the representations with lexical entries. Subsequently, the lexical level entails assembling of semantic, morphological, and syntactic information, which form the basis for sentence formation.
At the sentence level, syntactic structures are developed through relating various thematic elements of the sentence to produce sentence representations. Finally, language comprehension is the product of integrating sentence representations into prior knowledge discourses (Witruk, 2002, pp. 9-11).
Accordingly, language comprehension plays a major role in ensuring that different language forms achieve their functions, which include informing, expressing, and directing. Basically, the informative function of language entails the process of communicating information. Therefore, the informative function of language can affirm or deny a proposition put forth in a sentence.
Moreover, this function can be used to describe a world of knowledge or explaining the state of affairs in the real world besides providing the underlying reasons. On the other hand, the expressive function of language involves reporting the feelings and/or attitudes of the speaker or writer. Moreover, this function can evoke feelings and/or emotions in the listener or reader.
Here, literature and poetry provide the best examples in which language discourses are employed to deliver emotions, feelings, and attitudes. Overall, the expressive function of language entails two major aspects of language, which include evoking and expressing feelings. Finally, the directive function of language underlies the process of using language to cause or prevent overt actions.
Therefore, this function is widely used in delivering commands and requests, and in most cases, the function is considered to be neither true nor false (Witruk, 2002, pp. 11-15). For example, if someone says, “Close the windows”, the directive may be taken to be a request or command besides being declarative.
The Stages of Language Production
As indicated earlier, language comprehension follows a series of stages whose end result is the utilization of sentence representations (meanings) in the real world by relating them to the existing body of knowledge. This constructive process may follow a top-down or bottom-up processing approach to arrive at the desired language meaning.
In contrast, language production entails the process of constructing language meanings and expressing those meanings (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 37). Accordingly, language production can be divided into three major stages, which include construction, transformation, and execution.
In a nutshell, the construction stage involves selection of communication goals before identifying appropriate meanings while the transformation phase involves application of various rules in transforming meanings into messages. Subsequently, the execution stage entails the expression of messages in various forms (audible or observable forms).
Just like in language comprehension, language production is influenced by various mental processes. For example, in the construction stage, the writer or speaker sets communication goals after which, the goals are converted into facts through searching for declarative knowledge and identifying various information sources that reflect the established goals.
Subsequently, the speaker or writer decides on the structure of facts and information selected using discourse knowledge and sociolinguistic rules. On the other hand, the transformation stage involves instances whereby the speaker or writer uses the facts or information selected in the construction stage to come up with meaningful sentences (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 40).
This process is analogous to the parsing process of language comprehension in that the incoming information is subdivided to different meaningful units. Subsequently, the language production systems will allow an action to be expressed in the presence of certain conditions.
For example, writing can only occur after various plans and intentions have been converted into meaningful mental representations, which may include sentences or sentence fragments. On the other hand, the execution stage is the work of the hand and mouth.
For example, after the plans, ideas, or intentions have been converted into meaningful mental representations, it is up to the speaker or writer to communicate them through writing them down or delivering them in form of a speech (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 45).
The relationship between Semantic Memory and Language Production
A myriad of studies document that during speech (language) production, information can flow in either the vertical or horizontal direction. In the vertical flow direction, the information is said to follow through various processing stages within a single unit (single word).
On the other hand, in the horizontal flow direction, the information flows from one sentence unit to the other irrespective of the processing stage of the sentence elements (Yang & Yang, 2008, pp. 267-284).
Therefore, studies on the horizontal flow of information are more concerned with the production of phrases or sentences (multiword utterances) as opposed to those dealing with the vertical flow. Here, several eye-tracking studies have tested whether the access of multiple-words occurs in a serial or parallel form.
As a result, some studies document that multiple-word access occurs in a serial manner. For example, in order to produce the phrases, ‘arm and boat’, the studies show that the subject processes the second word (boat) immediately after the completion of the semantic and phonological processing of the first word (arm) (Yang & Yang, 2008, p. 268).
It then follows that the serial processing of information allows room for spreading of the processing load during language production. However, this process is vulnerable to disfluency. Other studies have tested the parallel and interactive view of producing multiple-word phrases.
In these studies, it is documented that the access of one lemma in a sentence may interact with, and therefore, be influenced by the access of others (lemmas) within the same sentence.
Therefore, the interaction of semantic and grammatical information could influence the process of language production relative to various existing conditions. Overall, there is evidence to suggest that semantic interference and phonological facilitation play a major role in information flow, and thus, language production.
References
Martin, A., & Chao, L.L. (2001). Semantic memory and the brain: Structure and processes. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 11, 194-201.
O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Witruk, E. (2002). Neuropsychology and cognition: Basic functions of language, reading and reading disability. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Yang, J., & Yang, Y. (2008). Horizontal flow of semantic and phonological information in Chinese spoken sentence production. Language and Speech, 51(3), 267-284.
Considering that relationships form the core of human needs, it is obvious that interpersonal relationships influence people’s psychological functioning, mental health, and wellbeing. For example, individuals experiencing attachment security are known to possess high levels of self-esteem and excellent adaptive or coping strategies.
On the other hand, individuals experiencing attachment anxiety and/or avoidance have been found to suffer from psychopathology and emotional distress (Sutin & Gillath, 2009, p. 351).
Therefore, many studies demonstrate the relationship between various attachment styles and the subsequent psychological distress, particularly depression. However, to demonstrate this link, many researchers have had to rely on the way people predetermine, store, recover, and use different memories in their interpersonal relationships.
Accordingly, Sutin and Gillath (2009) deviated from the previous studies by proposing that some measurable aspects of the autobiographical memory determine the relationship between attachment styles and psychological distress. The proposed components of the autobiographical memory measured by these researchers include the phenomenological experience and the emotional content of the memory.
In their study, Sutin and Gillath (2009) tested the two components of the autobiographical memory in two separate studies.
In the first study, 454 participants took part in a two-session survey whereby in the first session, the participants’ experiences were evaluated relative to different measures such as self-defining relationship memories, phenomenology, adult attachment, and depressive symptoms while in the second session, the participants were asked to retrieve and rate their self-defining relationship memory experiences regarding romantic interactions.
In the second study, 534 participants were introduced to one of the three priming conditions; attachment security (195 participants), attachment insecurity (157 participants), and the control condition (182 participants). After priming, the participants retrieved and rated their experiences regarding a self-defining memory (Sutin & Gillath, 2009, pp. 353-358).
The research findings show that memory phenomenology (memory coherence and emotional intensity) determined the relationship between attachment avoidance and depression, while the negative affective content of the autobiographical memory determined the link between attachment anxiety and depression (Sutin & Gillath, 2009, p. 355).
On the other hand, priming the participants with attachment security made them to show more coherent relationship memories, while attachment insecurity made the participants to show more incoherent relationship memories.
Analysis
The concept of autobiographical memory has been shown to mediate the association between different attachment styles and psychological distress. In fact, different aspects of autobiographical memory seem to be the product of a reconstructive process that underlies an individual’s emotional and motivational functioning.
Here, various aspects of autobiographical memory play a major role in constructing and maintaining an individual’s self-identity and promoting the development of intimacy. However, these memories are not always related to positive human functions.
In some cases, the retrieval style for the autobiographical memories is susceptible to various depressive symptoms in that various intrusive memories can promote psychological distress, particularly the post-traumatic stress disorder (Sutin & Gillath, 2009, p. 352). As a result, autobiographical memories can determine the path to depression vulnerability and psychological distress.
According to Sutin and Gillath (2009), two major aspects of autobiographical memory, that is, phenomenology and content, demonstrated a consistent relationship with psychological distress. Therefore, there is evidence to suggest that the two aspects mediate attachment avoidance and anxiety.
For instance, memory coherence and emotional intensity, which are related to phenomenology, play an important role in terms of mediating distress for avoidance as opposed to anxiety. On the other hand, memory incoherence is closely associated with attachment avoidance.
As opposed to avoidance, attachment anxiety is closely related to the memory’s emotional content. Overall, this study provides provocative evidence to suggest that there is a link between attachment styles and autobiographical memory, which in turn mediates psychological distress.
Reference
Sutin, A. R., & Gillath, O. (2009). Autobiographical memory phenomenology and content mediate attachment style and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(3), 351-364. Web.
Complex cerebral mechanisms guide the process of abstracting meanings from various utterances consisting of sentences, words, clauses, or phrases, which are communicated between individuals (speakers and listeners) in different contexts. Accordingly, studies note that different meanings to utterances are stored in semantic memory.
Therefore, semantic memory is a mental glossary consisting of an individual’s organized knowledge regarding verbal symbols and words on one hand, and their referents and meanings on the other hand.
Moreover, semantic memory encompasses various relations and rules that inform the process of manipulating the verbal symbols, meanings, and concepts (Gonzalez, 1984, pp. 1-6). On the other hand, the nature and function of semantic memory has been widely studied over the years.
For instance, different researchers have reviewed the process of retrieving information among adult subjects, and in the long run, they have documented that the process of storing and retrieving semantic lexicons requires two elements, which include lexical nodes and arcs that encode the relations linking various lexical nodes (Gonzalez, 1984, p. 6).
Here, the researchers noted that individual words possess specific groups of lexical nodes, which are connected through relational arcs.
As a result, the development of the lexical-semantic system requires that an individual possesses the ability to link suitable lexical items to the target word using relational arcs. This process underlies the development of the lexical and syntactic aspects of semantic memory. The lexical and syntactic semantic memory provides both the contextual and structural frames for storing lexical items.
Conversely, studies regarding the relationship between word meanings and memory note that semantic memory plays a major role in terms of actively recovering stored information. The process of recovering stored information recruits various selective mental processes, which determine the amount and type of data required to generate a response.
In most cases, the interaction between local rules and various lexical and syntactic rules plays a role in imposing limitations on the process of interpreting utterances (Gonzalez, 1984, p. 10). Overall, semantic memory is very flexible and therefore, it allows a person to recognize active and passive utterances.
The basic functions of language
From the foregoing discussions, it can be deduced that the nature and function of semantic memory is closely related to the process of language comprehension. On the other hand, language comprehension follows through various steps, which recruit the morphological, semantic, phonological, and syntactic frames of information in interpreting various utterances.
Therefore, language comprehension is the first step toward ensuring that any language performs its intended functions. In studies involving children learning their first language, it is documented that the language performs various functions categorized as instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative, and representational.
These language functions permit children to perform various tasks in that the instrumental function allows them to obtain things, the regulatory function helps them to control behavior in others, the interactional function enables the children to create relationships with others, and the personal function guides them in expressing feelings and meanings (Witruk, 2002, pp. 1-9).
Moreover, the heuristic function of language enables children to learn and discover new ideas in their surroundings, the imaginative function permits creation of the world through imagination, and the representational function allows the children to communicate information.
As the children enter adulthood, the language functions are narrowed down to three, which include informing, expressing, and directing. Here, the informative function of language enables a person to confirm or deny any proposition and explaining different phenomena in the real world.
Conversely, the expressive function of language involves expressing feelings and attitudes by the speakers and evoking emotions among the listeners. Finally, the directive function of language enables the speaker to cause or prevent overt actions among the listeners. This function is widely employed in giving commands and requests (Witruk, 2002, pp. 11-15).
The Stages of Language Production
Language production is the process through which various word meanings are constructed and expressed. This process follows a series of steps including construction, transformation, and execution. In the stage of construction, communication goals related to word meanings are selected using selective mental processes followed by the identification of suitable meanings.
Subsequently, the transformation phase of language production entails the application of various local rules and lexical/syntactical rules in transforming the identified word meanings into messages. These messages are then expressed in form of audible or observable actions in the execution phase of language production (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 37).
Relative to language comprehension, the stages of language production are also subject to the influence of mental processes. For instance, the construction phase of language production begins with the speaker or writer setting communication goals, which are in turn converted into facts on the basis of an existing body of knowledge incorporating the semantic memory.
Consequently, the next step after setting goals and facts entails restructuring the facts using various knowledge discourses and sociolinguistic rules. In the transformation phase, the restructured facts are converted into meaningful expressions or sentences (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 40).
Here, the incoming information or facts are subdivided into various meaningful units, which can only be expressed in the presence of certain limiting conditions. For instance, writing occurs after the writer has converted the plans and intentions into meaningful mental representations (sentences or sentence fragments).
Conversely, the execution phase is the final step in language production considering that it entails the work of the hand and mouth. For example, various mental representations of information or facts can be communicated through writings or speeches (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990, p. 45).
Semantic Memory and Language Production
The relationship between semantic memory and language production has been a subject of interest for many researchers over the years. This follows the proposition that when a person produces a word, the underlying process entails selection of suitable lexical concepts from a variety of other concepts, which are also active in the mental lexicon (semantic memory).
The proposition arises from studies regarding speech errors conducted in the 1970s and 1980s. The current studies regarding the nature of language production and processing systems employ various paradigms to investigate the process of semantic retrieval during language production. The most widely used model entails the picture-word interference (PWI) in which participants are expected to name pictures in the presence of superimposed words on the pictures.
The printed words on the pictures serve as distractors, which cannot be ignored by the participants during the naming process. As a result, studies document that the semantic relationship between the picture and word influences the naming latencies.
For example if the word and picture fall into the same semantic relationship, the participants will take a longer time to name the picture than otherwise. Here, researchers note that the word increases the semantic competition, and thus, prolonging the reaction time.
Similar studies have been conducted relative to word access, semantic activation, and activation of phonological codes with the results showing that lexical retrieval embeds the process of language production, and that, lexical retrieval particularly from the frontal and temporal cortices is subject to various influences including distractors.
Moreover, lexical retrieval of the semantic memory and phonological facilitation are imperatives in language production (Spalek & Thompson-Schill, 2008, pp. 1-9).
O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Spalek, K., & Thompson-Schill, S.L. (2008). Task-dependent semantic interference in language production: An fMRI study. Brain and Language, xxx (xx), 1-9. Web.
Witruk, E. (2002). Neuropsychology and cognition: Basic functions of language, reading, and reading disability. Norwell, Massachusetts: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
The first model which attempts to explain how working memory functions is the Ericsson and Kintsch (1995) model which explains that all individuals utilize skilled memory in everyday tasks however most these memories are stored in long term memory and then subsequently retrieved through various forms of retrieval mechanisms
(Gobet, 2000). Ericsson and Kintsch explain that it would be impossible to “hold” so to speak all memories within our working memory rather what occurs is that individuals hold only a few concepts related to a task within their working memory and then use those as indicators to retrieve the information from long term memory (Licata, 2009).
This process which they described as “long term working memory” can actually be compared to the card catalog within a library which stores information regarding particular books and then directs people to which specific shelf they are located (Gobet, 2000). This is a faster and more effective system as compared to merely stacking all the books within a library on tables and expecting people to find exactly what they are looking for.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) multi-component model
The second model for understanding the processes involved in working memory is the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) multi-component model which states that working memory operates via a system of “slave systems” and a central controller which supervises the transmission and coordination of information (RepovŠ & Baddeley, 2006).
The first “slave system” of the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model is called the phonological loop which stores the sound of language. This system operates via a method of continuous repetition where in order to prevent the decay of accumulated words, phrases, meanings etc. the system continuously repeats the content thus refreshing it and ensuring that a person doesn’t forget it.
For example, remembering people’s names, numbers and associated information regarding a particular individual is governed by this system (RepovŠ & Baddeley, 2006). The second “slave system” is called the visual-spatial sketchpad which is involved in the storage and retrieval of visual and spatial information. Aspects related to this system come in form of visual images such as colors, shapes and the location of various objects and places of interest
(Baddeley, Allen & Hitch, 2011). Facilitating the proper operation of both systems in the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model is the central executive system which is responsible for directing the processes related to systematizing information towards relevant processes while at the same time minimizes or outright eliminates inappropriate or irrelevant information from being disseminated (Baddeley, Allen & Hitch, 2011).
It must also be noted that under this particular model the central executive also handles the delegation of processes when more than one activity is being done at the same time.
Cowan model
The last model for explaining how working memory functions is the Cowan model which is rather unique in that it considers working memory as not being a separate system but is actually part of long term memory unlike other models and explanations which indicate a separation between the two (Sörqvist & Rönnberg, 2012).
Combining the Concepts
One way of combining the various models into a cohesive whole is to consider that working memory is indeed the result of retrieval mechanisms as indicated by the Ericsson and Kintsch (1995) model however by integrating the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) model we can come to understand that these retrieval mechanisms are in fact part of the central executive as described by Baddeley and Hitch.
As such it can be assumed that memory is the direct result of a complex relationship between retrieval mechanisms, the central executive and the slave systems which comprise the long term storage of memories which are only retrieved when necessary via “memory triggers” within working memory (Hamamé et al., 2012).
When combined with the Cowan model it can be assumed that working memory and long term memory are indeed integrated with working memory acting as a means of triggering long term memory to function thus indicating some form of inherent connection between the two.
Reference List
Baddeley, A. D., Allen, R. J., & Hitch, G. J. (2011). Binding in visual working memory: The role of the episodic buffer. Neuropsychologia, 49(6), 1393-1400.
Gobet, F. (2000). Retrieval structures and schemata: A brief reply to Ericsson and Kintsch. British Journal Of Psychology, 91(4), 591.
Hamamé, C. M., Vidal, J. R., Ossandón, T., Jerbi, K., Dalal, S. S., Minotti, L., &… Lachaux, J. (2012). Reading the mind’s eye: Online detection of visuo-spatial working memory and visual imagery in the inferior temporal lobe. Neuroimage, 59(1), 872-879.
Licata, I. (2009). A Dynamical Model for Information Retrieval and Emergence of Scale-Free Clusters in a Long Term Memory Network. Emergence: Complexity & Organization, 11(1), 48-57.
RepovŠ, G. G., & Baddeley, A. A. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory: Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience, 139(1), 5-21.
Sörqvist, P., & Rönnberg, J. (2012). Episodic Long-Term Memory of Spoken Discourse Masked by Speech: What Is the Role for Working Memory Capacity?. Journal Of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 55(1), 210-218.
Memory can be broadly classified into three; semantic memory basically associated with factual knowledge, procedural memory which takes care of learning and acquisition of skills and episodic memory which is in charge of recalling past events. The paper offers an explanation of the nature and functions of language, an examination of the stages of language production and the relationship between semantic memory and language production.
Nature and Functions of Semantic Memory
Semantic knowledge as described is primarily concerned with facts. Communication through language is made possible through this memory. It is usually characterized by the brain storing information about words. According to Schacter (2001), the appearance and representation of these words is of importance as far as semantic memory is concerned.
It is usually a funny scenario to see a person trying to recall a name James by mentioning John or Jack and not Moses. Semantic memory has been found to group words that share the same letters. The appearance of an object cannot evade the mind of a person once the name of the object is mentioned (Schacter, 2001).
A mere mention of an object brings about a coordinated response by the brain and a person is able to figure out the appearance of the mentioned object. A long-term memory system is achieved once words recorded in the semantic memory are used to generate episodic memory.
Functions of language
Language forms a major component in the effective functioning of semantic memory (Robinson-Riegler & Robinson-Riegler, 2008). It is therefore important to understand the various functions of language in order to fully appreciate its role as a memory tool. Basically, three functions are significant and shall be discussed in detail. The informative language function serves to communicate effective information.
Logic is of importance due to the fact that sentences are based on a true or false platform. Expressive language function is important because feelings and emotions are evoked and expressed. It is through poetry and literature that a speaker is able to air out his/her feelings and a reader consequently understands the circumstances that prompted the generation of such works (Schacter, 2001).
Fiction may also find itself a place in this language function. Directive language function plays a crucial role in causing or preventing an action. It is usually not based on a true or false platform but a logical precision is required. A statement like “Your airtime is getting low” implies that you are supposed to recharge your cell-phone to continue enjoying calling services.
Other language functions include; ceremonial functions which find their place in weddings and court sessions. Performative utterances employ the use of verbs and are important in ensuring that an action is taken thereafter. Phatic language is used mainly to bring about emphasis on the intended subject.
It may be accompanied with head nod, a hand wave or even a gesture. It is important to ensure that the context of a statement is understood in order to relate it to the intended language function. A statement like “My bedroom is hot” can be informative (based on observation), expressive (to communicate one’s feelings then) or directive (to ensure that all windows remain open).
Development of Language
Language develops just as children do. The development is based on four pillars namely; conceptualization, planning, articulation and self-monitoring (Robinson-Riegler & Robinson-Riegler, 2008).Conceptualization, according to Robinson-Riegler and Robinson-Riegler, is the one’s ability to understand what he/she wants to say.
It can also be termed as the pre-production stage because silence dominates. Planning stage involves putting all that is to be communicated in a systematic way. All ideas that one feels that should be part of the speech are clearly stipulated. Articulation ensures that the correct arrangement of words is ensured. It is obvious that in the word “chair” the syllable “cha” precedes the other.
It is at this stage that the actual speech emerges. Self-monitoring is usually a post-development stage. It is at this stage that a person is able to know whether fluency has indeed been achieved. Whether a person is at the intermediate or advanced stages of fluency depends on the levels of self monitoring as well as the action taken thereof.
The Relationship between Language and Semantic Memory
The relationship between language and semantic memory is important. The ability to correctly retrieve information may at times depend upon one’s ability to apply proper phonology (Solomon, 2004).
Phonological priming observed among the old and the young indicated that the olds’ word retrieval level deteriorated after reading first syllable primes. Spelling and the causes of error associated with it have in the past been used to evaluate the declines in language production processes. Recent studies have shown that the detection levels of spelling errors deteriorated with age (Ralph, 2000).
The old especially those past 60 years old registered low detection levels as far as spelling errors are concerned. It is however funny to note that the low levels in spell detection did not have a negative impact on the ability to remember what was read. The more a person makes spelling mistakes, the more that person recalls the information.
Conclusion
Semantic memory usually determines one’s ability to gather knowledge. Language is a key to effective acquisition of knowledge. The ease with which an aspect is understood plays a crucial role in the retrieval process by the brain.
It is therefore important to ensure that language rules are adhered to for a reliable semantic memory to be in place. It can therefore be concluded that both memory and language are interrelated. The presence or absence of one affects the functionality of the other.
References
Ralph, M. (2000). The relationship between semantic memory and speech production. Center for Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, USA
Robinson-Riegler, G. & Robinson-Riegler, B. (2008). Cognitive psychology: Applying the science of the mind (2nd ed). Boston, MA: Pearson/ Allyn and Bacon
Schacter, D. L. (2001). The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Houghton Mifflin Co.
Solomon, E. S. (2004). Semantic Amalgamation and Syntactic Development in Language Production. Elsevier Customer Service Department, Orlando