Category: Memory

Introduction

Over the centuries, various kinds of metals have played a significant role in building constructions. With the immediate development of science and technology, there have also appeared different techniques of smelting, alloys, and forging. Science also managed to provide a deeper understanding of the metals microstructure and the effects of processing techniques on the material behavior. Engineers have been working on the properties of different metals leading to the creation of new composites and alloys. In that regard, the research on shape memory alloys constitute the centre of discussions among the engineers and scientists over three decades, as they are still examining their unique characteristics, behavior and common types (Lagoudas 1). The main objective of this particular research is to study the main types of shape memory alloys (SMAs), their transition temperature, unique features, their production, and application.

Main Discussion

Brief history of shape memory materials

The first mentioning of shape memory materials was with the discovery of martensite in 1890, which was the first step for phenomenal discovery of the shape memory effect (Ladouglas 4). This property is explained by such process as martensic phase transformation, which means that a molecular structure changes upon heating (Bhattacharya 4). This conversion is revealed through alloy deformation at a low temperature and its recovery to original form when heating the material to a specific temperature. The phenomenon was found by Chang and Read (Otsuka and Wayman 2). The marensic transformation phase gave answers to the origin of the microstructure observed in the shaper memory materials. To study them, it is necessary to consider the deformation processes in single crystals occurred in the austenite state and to describe different states of the materials during those deformations. Relying on the facts and formulas, the results of transformation processes depend on the energy density that influence on lattice distortion (Bhattacharya 46). The martensic phase transformation is a solid-to-solid stage without diffusion of atoms despite the temperature variation.

The above processes began to be widely studied by different scientists. The next breakthrough took place with the discovery of nickel-titanium alloys during the investigation of material designed for heat shielding (Lagoudlas 4). It has been established that the material has an extreme shape recovery property and, later, this phenomenon was named as shape memory effect. Other elements like copper and iron appeared later and caused considerable decline in transformation temperatures. Since the appearance of ‘smart’ materials, numerous commercial implementations have been introduced in electronic, medicine, and other fields. Nowadays there exist different types of shape memory alloys where copper-aluminum-nickel alloy, and nickel-titanium (NiTi). However, there exist other types of ‘smart’ materials including iron and gold composites.

Pseudo-elasticity and other properties of shape-memory materials

Pseudo elastic behavior is connected with stress-induced deformation leading to tension generation while loading and posterior reformation during a high-temperature phase. As a whole, the process itself consists in large deformation at high temperature and shape recovery when the pressure is eliminated (Ladouglas13). If looking this process in detail, it consists of several complicated process starting from austenite phase triggering the martensic transformation. The stressed induced deformation is succeeded by the development of inelastic strains proceeding to the stress level where the loading path encounters the end-phase transformation (Lagoudlas 13). Upon the transformation completion, one can observe that there is an evident increase of slope between the strains. Revert process begins with the unloading the path returning to the austenite stage and the recovery of shape.

It is also worth saying that the consequences of transformation can expose the shapes memory effect, which is disclosed super-elastic behavior and rubber-like behavior, different stages of yielding and diverse phase diagram (Hane and Shield 3901). However, the study of different shape memory materials has proved that a certain phase choice is valid for specific types of crystal polymers.

There are researchers dedicating their studies to different kind of behavior of the shape-memory alloys with the enclosure of such variable as electric current density and steady initial temperature of thermoelectric SMA. The results of the research on solution behavior and transient heat transfer have shown that the problem of constant temperature decreasing with electric current density of magnitude that cooling cannot last incessantly since it is another unique property of shape memory alloys (Ding and Lagoudlas 50). The researchers, thus, have managed to obtain the fixed the lowest temperature bound.

Manufacture of shape memory alloys

With regard to the application of smart and functional materials, these alloys are produced and required in different forms. Therefore, there are different methods are applied for processing and production of shape-memory alloys. Apart from this, the manufacturer generates different forms and shape-memory characteristics and properties (Srivatsan 43). Hence, some of the methods apply a combination of Ni and Ti produce the alloys, others use the powder of these chemical powders for further synthesis. In whole, the production process may imply casting methods, thin film and metal foam methods and powder metallurgy processes (Srivatsan). The alternative ways for ingot metallurgy have been chosen to solve the problems during such processes as melting and machining. Alloy process techniques, hence, involve vacuum induction melting, which is used from SMA production in large quantities for commercial application. Electron beam re-melting, that is used to manufacture super ingots, which is provides the advantage of carbon elimination from the alloy, as the melting is carried out in a copper crucible (Strivatsan 45). Other production methods involve solid-state metallurgy method, foam, and film manufacturing.

Practical application of smart materials

The modern application and development of ‘smart’ materials is reduced to the use of super-elastic effect of shape memory ingots. Hence, the medical application of the metals also relies on its pseudo-elastic property; this field takes advantage of such qualities as corrosion and biocompatibility of nitinol (Pons 101). Those ingot metals are applied in producing glasses with frame made of shape memory alloys. Such glasses can undergo significant transformations and suffer a minimum of losses. Shape memory alloys are also applied in the field of nuclear technology. They are used for protecting people working in a radiation environment (Rosinski 826).

Drawing a conclusion, shape memory alloys can be considered as one of the most important discovery in the field of technology and science. Their unique properties of elasticity and shape recovery have greatly contributed to the improvement of various fields of social and economic life. The studies of microstructure have also revealed other issues that should researched in future, as some of the properties are still concealed. In addition, shape memory materials are rather fascinating, as they have a potential for further application.

Works Cited

Bhattacharya, Kaushik. Microstructure of martensite: why it forms and how it gives rise to the shape memory effect. UK: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Ding, Zhondhai, and Lagoudas, Dimitris C. Solution behavior of the transient transfer problem in thermoelectric shape memory alloy actuators. SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics. 57.1 (1997): 34-52.

Hane, Kevin F., and Shield, Thomas W. Microstructure in a Copper-Aluminum-Nickel Shape-Memory Alloy. The Royal Society. 455.1991 (1999): 3901-3915.

Ladouglas, Dimitris C. Shape memory alloys: modeling and engineering applications. US: Springer, 2008.

Otsuka, Kazuhiro, and Wayman, Marvin. Shape memory materials. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Pons, Jose. Emerging actuator technologies: a micromechatronic approach. US: John Wiley and Sons, 2005.

Rosinski, Stan. Effects of radiation on materials: 20th international symposium. NJ: ASTM International. 2001.

Strivatsan, T. S. Processing and Fabrication of advanced materials, XVII, volume 1.New Delhi: I. K. International Pvt Ltd, 2009.

The brain, which carries the memory of the species, is a complex and delicate organ believed to carry the functions of the species. The process is called the reuptake process as expressed by Arnold (2005). The cardiac clock is believed to be involved in memory formation at night which is based on the “circadian modulation of long term memory formation” and “Long term Regulation of Glutamate Uptake in Aplysia” (Christopher, 1997). Myths in our society make people believe that the human brain has unlimited capacity for knowledge acquisition and storage, but this is disputed and psychologists explain that people can store only some information for a particular time, and the ability to change the contents of the memory over this time is limited. This paper will discuss the question of whether memory is biologically programmed and how it can be improved.

Researchers indicate that synapses in a young child’s brain, used in brain formation disappear if not used, making it harder for children to learn, for instance, language. The age of 10 is crucial in the development of attitudes of people, groups, or things (Nicole, 2009). Scientists have found ways of writing directly to memory in a living brain, this is by seizing control of brain circuits and creating a memory of an experience that has never occurred, but this was successful in insects but the human brain is complex and it is hard to do so. The human brain when monitored (neural activities), working out what is going on in the mind in terms of perceptions, actions and understanding make it a complex affair (Page, 2009).

To maximum use of the brain, one needs to combine or make the right side of the brain (right hemisphere) and the left side of the brain (left hemisphere) work together. The left hemisphere is responsible for words, logic, numbers sequence, linearity, analysis, and listing. The right hemisphere is responsible for rhythm, spatial awareness, imagination, daydreaming, color, and dimensions (Arnold, 2005). Generally, the human mind is difficult to predict since it is not fed with any information at birth, the brain is fed with the information as it grows. Programming the memory may be hard since it would involve changing the biological system of the brain which may result in distortion of the memory already stored.

Many experiments carried out are done on non-human species; this is because there is an assumption in biological psychology that organisms share biological and behavioral similarities which make it enough to give a conclusive summary across species. This is also similar to neuron -psychology which has a huge reliance on the study of human behaviors with the nervous system dysfunction. The biological memory of humans is complicated, unlike animals which have less complexity. Understanding the behavior of animals especially insects is done so that the memory of the insects can be programmed; the best thing is that by monitoring the social, behavioral, and functions of the insects the brain capacity can be established.

The memory of such animals is subject to change since they generally follow the same routines daily. This has been seen when flies are subject to fear certain odors when their mind is programmed (Page, 2009). The close observation of a species perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brain in controlled experiments will enable an individual to program the species so that it can change its routines. The question is whether memory can improve.

In the experiments that establish behavior connected to the brain, one of the variables should be biological, i.e. the nervous system is partially or permanently stimulated or affected. Lesions are the methods used to stimulate or affect the nervous system to induce performance. Lesions are categorized into three coordinates; electric lesions, where the neural tissue is affected by electric shock; chemical lesions, where neurotoxins are used; and temporary lesions, where neural tissue is affected by the use of anesthetics. There are other stimulations which are Trans-cranial magnetic stimulations which are induction of magnetic waves. The induction of the neural system is followed by monitoring other species’ behaviors including sensational, metabolic and emotional thus enhancing the scientists’ ability to establish the biological memory through this monitoring of behavior (Bertelson, Eelen, & Ydewalle, 1994 p. 9). The change of the behavior is widely used to biologically change the species brain memory, but the human species may be complicated as discussed earlier.

Theories have been put forward to express the survival, of the fittest, which indicates that the environment will bring up factors that will eliminate the less fit in the society. Generally, the factors that affect most species in the environment have a great influence on biological functions. The brain of the species is supposed to come up with the best form of survival tactic in order to survive the experience. To enable complete definition of an organism, then one has to describe the social, biological and physiological being of the species. Brain memory can be generally altered by the scientist to suit the environment which the species is located. The ecology of the species’ surrounding affects much the biological and physiological factors. Once the species is in an environment then the memory acts according to surrounding. This gives the scientist an upper hand to determine the memory of the species and can induce the brain to work in a different ecological environment (Arnold, 2005).

Biologically programmed memory is introduced to the environment when a species is born. Therefore, changing the species environment will automatically feed the memory of the species with details of survival in the new environment, and though it may take time for the specie to adopt and high mortalities may be noted, it will come to adopt new survival mechanisms be it biological, physical or social. Such memory of the specie may be said to be a biologically programmed memory. There are methods which directly affect the brain to change the memory of the specie, like neuro-chemicals which change the brains formations of the memory but to date; no chemical has been discovered to improve memory (Nicole, 2009). The use of cognitive science allows scientist to link behavior and brain functions and retrieve the information processed. One uses the reaction time, psychophysical responses and visualization.

Biologically programmed memory is very easy to understand since it will use biological factors that make the specie; the genetic part of the memory makes it more difficult to alter. Memory capacity is genetically passed from the paternal to the offspring. Hence one can change the memory biologically but the capacity remains the same. The input is different when it comes to change the capacity of the brain of any specie. In human the intelligence quotient (IQ) differs from one person to the other hence describing the genius community and the dull minds.

Biological programming of the mind may affect the well-being of the society either positively or negatively. It makes the species change in character, biologically and physically. This makes it more adaptive to the environment, socially and it improves its survival skills (Christopher, 1997). Though this change can be positive on one side, it is disastrous on the other; the specie will end up changing its form and losing its original specie characteristics. This affects diversity of species as well as the environment where the specie changes the food chain, making the energy flow in the environment to imbalance; this will create problems to the feeders and the members of the food chain above the specie. The diversity caused by the biological programming of the memory can be used to treat social disorders that are developed when development is not achieved totally, therapy is given using biological memory techniques to ensure that the social experience is gained for persons with social malfunctions e.g. shyness.

The answer to the question of biologically programmed memory is seen by the statements of Nicole (2009) that the brain has nothing during birth but it is fed with information which enables the specie to make critical decisions. Hence, the content of the memory of any individual species is filled with the contents of survival, environmental factors, physical and the general information, this is subject to change whether they are young or old. It is subject to improving by the monitoring of the individual and trying to improve the information in it. The changes made in the memory of individuals’ impacts may not be maintained but one can make sure that species are preserved in order to preserve diversity. Human scientist monitor the language, reasoning capacity, decision making and consciousness of the person but so far, the human brain can not succumb to the changes of programming.

There are various ways that mitigations can be applied to counter the above mentioned negative effects. The effects of these negative effects can be narrowed down to either controlled biological memory programming on any species, or scientist can form bodies to look at the programming giving light on the worst and effective biological programs which will have economic value. Decisions will be made following the said researches, hence informed decisions. Species should be maintained in museums for future generation just incase they disappear especially those that are already biologically modified. Leaving the species un-programmed is not an option for scientist since they will never discover the new worlds, thus giving the best technology to advance their skills is a better option. For energy cycles interruptions, they should be countered by introductions of other species to cover the gap.

Improving a species is better for its well being. Generally, improving memory will help individuals to improve their living standards, and the ethics of science should apply in all aspect when biological change of the memory of a species. It should be humane so as to minimize further effects to the species. Generally, not many studies have been carried out on human being, may be due to inadequate resources or the delicate and complex nature of the human mind. There should be a successive experiment in order to make the conclusions made in insects on biological memory experiments be transferred to man’s memory.

In conclusion, given the technology, involved people may say there is no need to bother the human mind and involve the already created improved memory of the computer (How You Can Unlock the Secrets, 2009), but people can do better if they have concrete information about the human brain (Page, 2009). Whether it affects the short term or long term memory, biological programming should be done with environmental and ecological factors in mind. Improving the memory of the individual may mean engaging in much of mental exercises daily. This will change our lifestyle and this can be achieved by giving the brain enough sleep, a good diet, avoiding drugs and avoiding life stresses.

References

Bertelson, P. et al. (1994) International Perspectives on Psychological Science: Leading themes. London, Psychological Press. Web.

Christopher, F. (1997). Programming on an already full brain. Web.

How You Can Unlock the Secrets to a Perfect, Computer like Memory in Just 5 Minutes a Day. (2009). How You Can Unlock the Secrets to a Perfect, Computer like Memory in Just 5 Minutes a Day. Web.

Nicole, S. (2009). A case for foreign-language programming in our elementary schools. Web.

Page, L. (2009). Write directly to memory’ of living brains: Implant false memories by ‘seizing control of circuits. Web.

Introduction

Participants

A total of 134 participants including Florida International University students, family members and personal acquittances of the investigator were recruited for the study. Of these 134 participants, 45.5% (n = 61) were male and 54.5% (n = 73) were female. Ages ranged between a minimum of 17 and a maximum of 59 with a mean of 25.4 years old (SD = 8.03). The sample included 43.3% (n = 58) of Hispanic Americans, 27.6 % (n = 37) Caucasians, 15.7 (n = 21) African Americans, 5.2% (n = 7) MENA, 4.5% (n = 6) Asians, and 3.7% (n = 5) Indigenous.

Material and Procedure

Before data collection, all the participants were informed about the possible risks associated with the study. The participants were approached either in person or through electronic means, such as email, social media, and online messengers. After receiving a verbal or written approval, depending on the means of approach, the participants were randomly assigned into one of three groups and asked to complete a questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. For the first part, all the participants were asked to imagine that they were approached by a best friend to respond to a social media post. The social media post was as follows:

“Hello there, my best friend! I know you see a lot of surveys and games on social media, but I need you to take this one seriously. Below is a list of words. I need you to look at each word and rate the extent to which you think that word describes _____. Be as honest as possible! Thanks!”

The blank in the social media post differed for three groups of participants. The first group, the blank was filled with “you,” for the second group, it was filled with “me, your best friend,” and the for the third group, the blank was filled with “the United States President.” Thus, the participants were asked to complete the questionnaire with different conditions. After the participants rated the words, they were asked to complete a distraction task, which asked to replace letters in the words with the numeral order. After the distraction part was over, the participants were asked to recall the twelve adjectives they rated from a list of 42 words. The number of correct recollections was registered as the score for the first part of the questionnaire.

The second part of the questionnaire asked the participants to rate how much they agreed with three statements on a scale from 1 to 7, where “1” stood for “Strongly Disagree” and “7” stood for “Strongly Agree.” The first statement measured how confident the participants were with the recall part, the second statement measured if they thought that they did better than average with the recall part, and the third statement measured if the participants believed that they remember things better if they relate it to themselves. Even though the questionnaire measured several variables, this study focused on the analysis of differences in confidence levels of participants from different groups.

The final section of the questionnaire included four demographic questions, which were used to collect the demographic data from the participants. The questions asked about the participants’ age, gender, ethnicity, and first language. Additionally, the last section asked the participants about how to encode the word list during the Social Media Post One.

Results

Using survey conditions (self-rating, friend-rating, and President-rating) as the independent variable and the attention check question as the dependent variable, a Chi-square analysis was conducted. The results of the analysis demonstrated that the manipulation had a significant effect Χ²(4) = 96.41, p < 0.001. The majority of participants from all three groups remembered correctly about the instructions of the recall part. However, the percentage of participants that were correct from the President-rating group (82.2%) was higher than the number of correct participants from the self-rating and friend-rating groups (69.6% and 60.5% correspondingly). The results suggest that the participants paid attention to the instructions.

The first one-way ANOVA test focused on the differences of mean recollection scores depending on the survey condition (self-rating, friend-rating, and President-rating). The results demonstrated that there was a significant difference in mean recollection scores with F(2, 131) = 10.62, p < 0.001. Post-hoc analysis demonstrated that that the mean scores were the highest in the self-rated group (M = 9.91; SD = 1.07), while the score in the friend-rated (M = 8.77; SD = 0.81) and President-rated groups were lower (M = 9.2; SD = 1.55). The differences between friend-rated groups and the President-rated group were statistically insignificant (p = 0.21).

The second one-way ANOVA test focused on the differences of mean confidence scores depending on the survey condition (self-rating, friend-rating, and President-rating). The results demonstrated that there was a significant difference in mean confidence scores with F(2, 131) = 8.94, p < 0.001. Post-hoc analysis demonstrated that that the mean confidence scores were the highest in the self-rated group (M = 5.65; SD = 1.14), while the score in the friend-rated (M = 4,84; SD = 0.82) and President-rated groups were lower (M = 4.84; SD = 0.9). The differences between friend-rated groups and the President-rated group were statistically insignificant (p = 0.73).

Discussion

The initial supposition was that the participants from the self-rated would be able to recollect more words in comparison with participants with other groups due to the self-reference effect. The results of this study supported the hypothesis, as the mean number of words was significantly higher in the self-rated group in comparison with friend-rated and President-rated groups, which implies that the self-reference factor was significant. Similarly, this study hypothesized that the recall confidence scores would be higher for participants from the self-rated group in comparison with other groups due to the self-reference effect. The ANOVA analysis provided empirical evidence for the hypothesis, confirming that the participants were more likely to be confident about their answered, if they referred to themselves during the assessment. However, it should be mentioned that the attention check demonstrated that while the majority of the participants were attentive to the instructions, 29% of the participants were not attentive to the instructions (n = 39). This brings the question of whether the results would be different if more participants were attentive to the instructions.

Introduction

Honeybees being such small insects exhibit an astonishing level of intelligence. They are simple but their brains can learn and remember complex tasks (Zhang, Bock, Si, Tautz, & Srinivasan, 2005). They have a sharp memory to recall the previous locations of food, the scent, and the color where they can get the best nectar and pollen. Honeybees can even detect the time of day when they can get the best nectar or pollen. It has been found that these bees are quick to learn and remember complex tasks such as finding their way in a maze or learning how to group different types of visual objects (Wise, 2003).

Honeybees can keep the memory of scents

Honeybees can learn to discriminate between different scents and keep the memory of the correct scent for a long time. To do this they use the two antennae on their heads. The right antenna can recognize the correct scent after being exposed for a short time, say after an hour. The left antenna gives a significantly higher correct response after being exposed for a long time say a day (Anon, 2008).

Honeybees can be able to sense the flower that provides the best nectar or pollen. For the foragers, the first three seconds on arrival to a flower are vital for memory formation. First, the flower color enters the short-term memory, and later it is converted to long-term memory. This long-term memory can be stored for more than six months but if the short-term memory is disturbed before it is converted to long-term memory, then that memory will not be retained (Reinhard, Srinivasan, Guez, & Zhang, 2004).

Honeybees can locate food sources

Honeybees can learn visual signs to direct them to a food source. Research has found that if honeybees are trained to a feeder with one scent at a given place, then they can be able to find their way back there if that scent is blown into the hive. If they are trained on two feeders with two different scents in different locations, when only one scent is blown to the hive then they can follow it to the feeder corresponding to that scent and not the other one. But it could be difficult for them to locate any of the feeders if a different scent is blown to the hive. This shows that the taste and scent of nectar help the honeybees navigate their way to that food source (Reinhard, et al 2004).

Ability to find their way in a complex maze

From research, it has been found that honeybees can learn difficult tasks such as learning to find their way through a maze. Honeybees have the capability of flying even in a complex maze by the use of a trail of dots that are colored. They are first trained to follow the colored dots on a part of the maze and afterward, they can use that cue to fly to the rest of the maze. Even after removing these dots, the honeybees can still find their way all around the maze (Zhang, Lehrer, & Srinivasan, 1999).

Ability to learn Dance language

Honeybees are capable of learning a language. Although the dance language is one of the most difficult languages in existence, honeybees are capable of learning it without difficulties (wise, 2003). The honeybees can start at any arbitrary location in a familiar area and all of them can be able to fly sequentially to any two specific locations that they may choose.

They can form the rich map-like organization of spatial memory. If the honey bees are captured and then released to an unexpected area, they will initially form straight flights and fly towards the course they were before they were captured. They then make slow search flights in an attempt to get their bearing and finally they make rapid and straight flights directing to the hive or the feeding station (Zhang, Bock, Si, Tautz, & Srinivasan, 2005).

Grouping of visual objects

Honeybees can put together natural, similar, or visual images. This can be through training for example they can be trained to differentiate and group scenes that occur naturally such as plant stems, flowers, and landscape. If testing a few days after the training, they will still remember how they were trained (Zhang, Srinivasan, Zhu, & Wong, 2004).

Conclusion

Honey bees have provided us with evidence that insects are not simple and impulsive creatures but can learn and keep memory just like other animals. The honeybees demonstrate that as simple as they are, they can be able to display essential elements of complex behaviors. Although their brains are small, they can memorize and learn new things. They can be taught how to use rules to navigate through a complex maze and be able to apply these rules (Zhang, Lehrer, & Srinivasan, 1999). They have an acute memory to remember the location of flowers with the best nectar and pollen, the scent and color of such flowers, and the time of day when these flowers can produce the best nectar. They can learn dance language. If the honey bees are captured and then released to an unexpected area, they will initially form straight flights and fly towards the course they were before they were captured. They can also learn how to group visual objects.

Reference List

Anon. (2008). Memory in honeybees: What the right and left antenna tell the left and right brain. Web.

Reinhard, J., Srinivasan M. V., Guez D., & Zhang W. S. (2004). Floral scents induce recall of navigational and visual memories in honeybees.The journal of Experimental Biology 207, 4371-4381. Web.

Wise, S. M. (2003). Drawing the line: science and the case for animal rights. Merlyoyd Lawrence Book: Basic Books.

Zhang S., Bock F., Si A., Tautz J., & Srinivasan M.V. (2005). Visual working memory in decision making by honey bees. PNAS April vol. 102 no. 14 5250-5255. Web.

Zhang S., Srinivasan M. V., Zhu H., & Wong J., (2004). Grouping of visual objects by honeybees.Journal of Experimental Biology 207, 3289-3298. Web.

Zhang S. W., Lehrer M., & Srinivasan M.V (1999).Honeybee Memory: Navigation by Associative Grouping and Recall of Visual Stimuli. Neurobiology of learning and memory 72, 3, 180-201. Web.

The article under discussion was written in 2002 by C. J. Brainerd and V. F. Reyna and is titled “Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory.” The aim of the paper was to present an organized summary of findings that explained false memory using the Fuzzy-Trace Theory (FTT). The article seeks to present FTT as an adequate and parsimonious theory that explains false memory intelligibly despite the theory’s predictions veering markedly from conventional expectations. This critique will explore the consistency of the evidence presented and evaluate the sensibility of arriving at the conclusions that the writers arrive at.

The first thing that the writers of the article embark on is showing that a theory, as a scientific tool, ought to explain as many phenomena as possible with as few assumptions as possible. The problem the writers are dealing with emanates from the phenomenon of false memory being studied using varied means, under dissimilar conditions, and using unrelated subjects for the studies. The writers set out to show the common ground for all these varied scenarios and convincingly show that false memories are a result of an interaction between memory (and forgetting) and the cognitive process of reasoning.

The entire paper is a discussion of how verbatim traces and gist traces interact under varied conditions to either increase or decrease the likelihood of false memories being reported. The writers use five principles to achieve the explanatory role of their theory: verbatim and gist traces are stored in a similar manner and are stored almost simultaneously, the occurrence of false memory depends on the difference in the retrieval of verbatim and gist traces, verbatim and gist traces can both support false memory, the effect of developmental difference on false memory, and how vivid-but false-remembering can be brought about by both verbatim and gist processing.

FTT predicts several things that deviate markedly from the norm of how false memory is thought to work in a pragmatic situation like witness testimony. An intriguing prediction the writers make is that higher development is likely to result in more false memories. However, this is consistent with the assumptions that higher development increases remembering (especially gist traces in this case) by increasing the likelihood of ascribing meaning to events. These two factors of developmental advancement point toward a grown-up having a likelihood of having more false memories than a child (Ceci and Bruck, 1993).

Another prediction made by FTT is that false memories are as persistent as true memories are (Toglia, Neuschatz, and Goodwin, 1999). This prediction challenges the commonly held notion that true memories are more likely to be remembered than are false memories (Payne et al., 1996). The writers proceed to also predict that false memories can emanate from testing, thus testing does not necessarily rid one of false memories; testing might actually strengthen false memories (Brainerd & Reyna, 1996). Experiments based on FTT theory challenge the assumption that repetition does not necessarily strengthen verbatim traces; it might actually weaken the verbatim traces, consequently leading to a higher likelihood of false memory (Seamon et al. 2002). For example, cross-examination of a witness might strengthen a false memory especially when the witness is relying more on gist traces than they are on verbatim traces.

The writers of the article challenge orthodox views on how false memories are created and perpetuated. The article provides evidence-based reasons why assumptions about false memory might be wrong, this is significant from a pragmatic as well as an academic point of view.

References

Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (1996). Mere memory testing creates false memories in children. Developmental Psychology, 32(3), 467–476.

Ceci, S. J., & Bruck, M. (1993). Suggestibility of the child witness: A historical review and synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 113(3), 403–439.

Payne, D. G., Elie, C. J., Blackwell, J. M., & Neuschatz, J. S. (1996). Memory illusions: Recalling, recognizing, and recollecting events that never occurred. Journal of Memory and Language, 35(2), 261–285.

Seamon, J. G., Luo, C. R., Schwartz, M. A., Jones, K. J., Lee, D. M., & Jones, S. J. (2002). Repetition can have similar and different effects on accurate and false recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(2), 323–340.

Toglia, M. P., Neuschatz, J. S., & Goodwin, K. A. (1999). Recall accuracy and illusory memories: When more is less. Memory, 7(2), 233–256.

Language is a unique attribute among human beings. Its usage is as old as human history. A simple outlook on the role of language indicates that human beings use language to facilitate communication from one individual to the other. However, updated and current researches have unearthed various functions of language as discussed later in this essay.

Most importantly, researchers have been interested in establishing the relationship between language and semantic memory and most findings indicate that semantic memory precede language acquisition due to the fact that semantic memory is like a granary where words and meanings present in one’s language are stored.

Contrastingly, the above presupposition has fueled emergence of contrasting debates between linguists and cognitive psychologists since each side tries to prove that language precede memory and vice versa. Needless to say, the human brain is a complex entity whose functioning remains a mystery among psychologists.

However, it is not within the scope of this paper to explore the mystique behind human brain, but to explore the relationship between semantic memory and language production. In order to explicitly explore the above concept clearly, other subtopics such as the nature and function of semantic memory, basic functions of language and stages of language production will also be investigated.

Nature and function of semantic memory

According to Newmeyer (2005), semantic memory is a dynamic and complex concept, yet it is very significant in child language acquisition.

The fact that semantic memory is part and parcel of long term memory that is responsible for storing words, symbols and interpreting their respective meaning further reinforces its significant role in the process of language acquisition (McNamara, 2009). The formation and functioning of semantic memory commences the moment a child starts recognizing words and symbols as they are being used by those around them (Newmeyer, 2005).

Once acquired, words, symbols and their meanings, representations and context of usage is stored in the brain via semantic memory. Apparently, being a long term memory, semantic memory may take some time before words and symbols in the input language can be effectively stored and encoded in this memory.

Better still, a child needs to be consistently exposed to words and symbols to facilitate full development of semantic memory. Newmeyer (2005) explains that one characteristic that sets out semantic memory from other types of memory is that semantic memory only stores the acquired concept minus the personal experiences that comes into play along the process.

For instance, a child will learn the meaning of the word ‘dog’ and its associated symbol, and never forget its meaning while the underlying personal experiences he/she went through during learning are easily forgotten. Correspondingly, the above notion implies that semantic memory is widely used during childhood when new language ideas and concepts are being acquired.

Basic functions of language

Researchers in linguistics concur that language performs three basic functions. To begin with is the obvious function of language is communication purpose whereby individuals exchange information amongst themselves (Newmeyer, 2005). This function of language is usually referred to as the informative function of language that enables individuals to exchange of factual or false ideas.

The latter may be visualized when giving directions in news reports or engaging in debates (Newmeyer, 2005). Secondly, language serves the expressive function whereby it either articulates or evokes feelings and attitudes towards the addressee (Newmeyer, 2005).

This particular function of language is most utilized in lyrics, literature and poetry either to articulate or evoke feelings of sadness or happiness, joy or pain ,anger or calmness and so on (Newmeyer, 2005). Lastly, language performs the directive function whereby an individual uses language to prevent or initiate some action (Newmeyer, 2005).

Newmeyer (2005) underscores that the directive is more of a command and request concept whereby the truth or falsity of the statements does not matter. For instance, telling someone to ‘close the door’ is directive. Additionally, it is imperative to mention that the three functions come into play interchangeably in any given communication context.

Stages of language production and their relationship to semantic memory

Similar to numerous controversies that encompass understanding of various aspects of language, the process of language production has not escaped from a similar tussle.

However, although the precise nature of language production is yet to be agreed upon by researchers, there is wide consensus view that the process of language production is not haphazard. Rather, it undergoes through four systematic stages that is conceptualization, planning , articulation and self-monitoring (McNamara,2009).

The underlying consensus behind language production accentuates that it’s a complex mental process that translates thought into speech via the stages named above (McNamara, 2009). In the conceptualization stage, an individual determines what he/she wants to say during a specific communication context (McNamara, 2009).

The above stage borrows heavily from planning process since it’s during this process when the pre-determined conceptualization concepts are arranged into a systematic order before they can be transferred to speech (McNamara, 2009).

The actual production of conceptualized and planned concepts is done in the articulation process (McNamara, 2009). Finally, an individual will commence reflecting on the effectiveness of the articulated speech in fulfilling the intended language function and by so doing such an individual is performing the self-monitoring process (McNamara, 2009).

The above analyses positively indicate that language is a complex process and the fact that it takes place within human mind further complicates its understanding.

On the same note, researchers have been at pain to shed light on the relationship between semantic memory and language production. Mostly, such researches tend to focus analyzing errors made during the articulation process of language production (McNamara, 2009). The fact that words, symbols and meanings are stored in semantic memory indicates that any internal or external factor that hinders the encoding process will also affect language production.

Research has shown that external and emotional elements have the ability to hinder memory reproduction and recall hence language production will also be inhibited due to the fact that language cannot function independent of memory (McNamara, 2009).

Additionally, successful language production process depends on semantic memory ability to link ideas and concepts especially during conceptualization process since any error will also be present during articulation process (McNamara, 2009).

Although some errors during language production are forgivable, some of them have devastating effects on an individual. For instance, a driver might be unable to link the stop symbol to its associated meanings and end up causing an accident. The above errors are likely to arise if the symbol, color or word in use is new from what was originally stored in the brain (McNamara, 2009).

Conclusion

In a nutshell, it is worthy to note that although there is no clear linkage between the concept of semantic memory and language production, the two entities portray some inseparable relationship. Whereas semantic memory acts as a granary for stored words, symbols and their underlying meanings, it is during the process of language production that actual ideas and concepts are put to test.

References

McNamara, T. P. (2009). Semantic priming: Perspectives from memory and world recognition. New York: Psychology Press.

Newmeyer, F. J. (2005). Language form and language function. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Background

The memory of human beings stores information which is regularly retrieved when needed. As a matter of fact, some pieces of information are indeed stored in human brain while others are not. This largely depends on the interests of an individual in terms of various styles of information being encountered from time to time. In addition, it is worth noting that there are some types of information that are stored for a longer period of time while others just for a short time (Loftus, 2005).

Therefore, the human memory can be compared to that of a computer system that often works in a similar way. For instance, both the human brain and a computer system do disseminate, store, process, retrieve and transmit information in more or less the same way. There are myriad of similarities between the two systems in spite of alight differences.

The process of storing information begins the very moment when information is acquired. This is referred to as encoding. After the process of encoding, the next stage entails the storage of the given information until at that time when it will be needed. When the stored information is required, it is retrieved from source.

Unlike in the case of computers whereby all information can be stored for long, the time of storage for any given piece of information among human beings largely depends on the circumstances at which it is stored. In other words, a human being has the capability to store information, which includes memory of the senses, memory that store information for a short time as well as that which stores information for a longtime.

The sensory memory behaves like a cell storage place, which stores information shortly and then it is forgotten after the occurrence of an event. The brain is not able to interpret and relate the information it receives from sensory memory (Brandon & Green, 2008). In addition, the short term memory is based on the senses just like the sensory memory. It has the information which has just taken place.

Though it depends on the senses like the sensory memory, it lasts a little bit longer than sensory memory. In this case, the brain can interpret the information received for comparison reasons. Furthermore, the human brain has the long term memory. This form of memory is responsible for long term storage of information within the brain. As usual, it can be retrieved whenever needed for other purposes.

Human beings can fail to remember stored information in different circumstances. For instance, when distracted by other events, they are not able to associate correctly. One can choose what they don’t want to remember, such as some information that includes painful memories, bitter endings, and grief and thus they push them out. We also have the case where one suffers from amnesia, which can be psychological or physiological. The latter condition can also interfere with both short and long term memory.

Discussion on the false memory syndrome

There are unusual types of memories that are not stored in the human brain. In any case, they are created by an individual who, in one way or another, strongly believes in them in spite of the fact that they are false.

This condition is referred to as the false memory syndrome (Loftus, 2005). In most cases, individuals suffering from this syndrome are adults who concentrate on memories of traumatic encounters from their childhood which may not necessarily be real. It is believed that most people do experience moments of false memories although not all may be categorized as suffering from this syndrome.

When a person’s life is affected by these memories and no longer lives and thinks normally, it progressively and gradually leads to the condition referred to as the False Memory syndrome. This syndrome makes a person not to be able to confront problems encountered in real life, and they focus on the false memories. Nonetheless, the condition has not yet been classified as a mental disorder yet.

There are many controversies surrounding the condition of false memory syndrome. According to Sigmund Freud in his deliberation of the psychoanalytic theory, the personality development of an individual is largely influenced by the past childhood experiences.

Freud believes that an individual’s personality depends on the different interactions of the id, ego and the super-ego. He further explains that repressed painful memories are not entirely deleted from the human mind, but they are sent to the powerful unconscious memory (Leigh, 2001). These memories can influence an individual’s behavior on a day-to-day basis.

Freud’s findings bring the idea that some of the memories that are categorized to be false memories that emanates from the unconscious memory. It is worth noting that the unconscious memory of a human being may either be realistic or unreal and therefore cannot be depended or relied upon for making sound judgments. These memories are able to be remembered in a therapy, and their remembrance depends on the surroundings of a person.

If memories can be influenced by environment, then research studies shows that there is a possibility that in a therapy session, what a therapist communicates to a patient may be a source of false memory syndrome. Research shows that therapists have a significant influence on their patients.

Therefore, professionalism is a crucial tool to them when dealing with sensitive issues on their patients’ memories. Other than therapy, most empirical studies on human psychology has shown that other factors like hypnosis and people’s suggestions can create false memories in an individual.

Freud suggests that not all human behavior is depended on an individual’s childhood experiences. A collection of factors altogether results into an individual’s behavior. This research concludes that the condition of false memories is possible to occur to persons who have never had such experiences in their early lives. Evidence to this is that, when we look at our self when we were young and now, we are totally different because of the transformations, which take place with time.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in children explains that children intellect development takes place in stages. In the development of an individual, the memory of an adult is more developed compared to that of young ones. The infant’s brain is not fully developed and, therefore, according to Jean Piaget, it is not able to keep some memories.

Piaget argues that since the inferior prefrontal lobe is responsible for keeping information for a long time, and it is not fully developed in children then any childhood memories which comes up when one is an adult are false memories (Piaget, 1999). Memories of an abuse are complicated and for an infant to remember such is impossible. Piaget explains that such memories are memories of other memories.

In adults who experience traumatic experiences, they can push these memories from their mind. The human brain does push those disturbing memories from the mind automatically to avoid shock and nervousness. In later stages of the life of this individual, they may experience exaggerated version of the real encounter. These individuals believe that these memories are what they experienced even if they have proof that they are false (Piaget, 1999). This is a case of the false memories syndrome resulting from an experience.

According to the trait theory, different people’s behavior is explained in terms of opposite fixed characteristics. As such, and there are two types of people. One of the groups is assumed that their feelings and thoughts influence their behaviors. The other group is believed that their behavior is determined by their perception. This idea explains why some people have false memories while others behave differently.

The group of people who are guided by their thoughts and feeling they are bound to experience false memories syndrome. Once they encounter a traumatizing experience, from their feelings they can create a false memory (Brandon & Green, 2008). In addition, seeing a traumatizing act being done on another person can influence their feelings hence creating a false memory of the act being done to them.

The group of people whose behavior depend on their judgments, are usually not prone to false memory syndrome condition. For judgment to be made there should be a process that involves consideration of a number of options. These may include other people’s opinions as well as well informed individual opinions. If a person in this group experiences memory which is not distinct, one can consider other people’s ideas on the same and from their judgment they are likely to believe in the right ideas.

The behaviorist theory explains how persons develop certain traits in their life time, opposing Freud’s theory. The theory states that a person develops a trait or a certain attitude as a result of response or the consequences of the trait.

A reinforcement of attention may lead to persons developing false memories, which make them believe that they are who they are not. In this case, the false memory syndrome is not due to traumatizing memories but due to wishes or dreams not achieved in a person’s life (Leigh, 2001). The result of this is fantasies of what they think they have achieved, and they are convinced it is the truth.

From the research and findings on the false memory syndrome, it is clear that the condition revolves around a human’s memory accuracy, completeness and effects of suggestions on it (Dallam, 2002). First it is essential to understand how complete our memories are. This can be answered by considering information given to a group of people and the reports given by each on the same information.

Assessing the reports, they appear a little different from the original information, either some details are omitted or they have additional information.
It is clearly shown that our memories are not complete, when it comes to retrieving what is stored in them, or they don’t record all details.

The only information remembered is the basics, forgetting the small details. This explains the origin of false memories, where one only remembers that an abusive act took place, but details like who did it, and to whom, are not remembered (Brandon & Green, 2008). One adds false details to the little they can decode hence false memory syndrome.

Our minds accuracy is the other bit, which is highly essential to understand in order to explain the issue on false memory syndrome. The accuracy of our memories depends on the situation being used to test its accuracy.

For any test to be administered, it is reasonable to alert an individual that a test is being performed. In recording any given information, it is necessary to highlight the salient details for completeness of our memories. If they don’t focus on the minor details of an occurrence then in time of retrieval only what was emphasized will accurately be obtained, and the gaps are filled, which may be filled with false information, resulting to false memo syndrome.

Lastly is how our minds are prone to suggestions, research has revealed that, in a normal situation, human memory can be prejudiced. Memories can be influenced by happenings or ideas surrounding a person (Dallam, 2002).

However, false memories can be created by considering other people’s suggestions, a case which mostly affects under a lot of pressure. Research also shows that false ordinary memories are easier to suggest to a person than false traumatic memories. This supports the idea that memories of trauma are hardly false memories unless they are exaggerated from what happened.

From the findings, the issue becomes more complicated for the more contradicting information is obtained each day. Studies come up with extremely diverse ideas depending on the methods of study used in the different researches. There are methods of study, which can be used, the outcome is positive, and other which give negative outcomes. The context of study also gives different ideas, which before any conclusion is drawn it needs to be understood.

From the discussion, it is clear that the personality of an individual depends on different issues, which include, environment, explained by the behaviorist theory. Genetics and the self concept factor are also explained. The last is the health of an individual which apart from influencing the personality of an individual, it also can lead to the occurrence of false syndrome.

To recap it all, it is imperative to note that a lot of empirical studies that have been carried out in the past on false memory syndrome are quite unanimous in terms of findings and research conclusions. In addition, much information has been gathered about the false memory syndrome condition.

The findings are quite categorical that false memory syndrome is a condition that exists. What is not yet clear is the way in which the syndrome occurs (its etiology). Besides, differentiating the condition from real memory is still a challenge in the field of human psychology. In the first theory by Freud, he emphasizes that adult memories are as a result of experiences drawn from their childhood experiences, which can also be false.

Moreover, concluding that false memory syndrome exist or does not exist at this moment may not be fully justified since there may be lack of proper and adequate substantiation of the stated claims. Therefore, additional research should be extended in this field of human psychology in order to understand the condition in a different context while applying various methods of research.

References

Brandon, S. & Green, R. (2008). Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse: implications for clinical practice. British Journal of Psychiatry 172 (4): 296–307.

Dallam, S. (2002). Crisis or Creation: A systematic Examination of false Memory Claims. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 9(3): 9-36.

Leigh, G. (2001). The limits of autobiography: trauma and testimony. London: Cornell University Press.

Loftus, E. (2005). Memory: Surprising New Insights into How We Remember and Why We Forget. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Piaget, J. (1999) Plays, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton.

Abstract

The key purpose of this study was to measure reaction time and accuracy of responses to a certain stimulus (digit) during a memory-scanning task. This research originates from a series of experiments, conducted by Saul Sternberg, who examined the relation between the reaction time and the size of the set. This research aims to test a hypothesis which postulates the reaction time is directly proportionate to the size of the set.

Introduction

Mental chronometry has long been of great interests to psychologists and neuroscientists; in particular, they study those factors that determine the response time (RT). Such studies are usually based on the so-called stage theory according to which perception and reaction to a stimulus or irritant consists of multiple-processes or mental operations, and RT depends on the number of these operations (Donders, as cited in Sternberg, 1969, p 61).

Overall, RT may also be determined by the type of stimulus, its intensity, duration, or the type of reaction, needed (Rosenbaum, 2009). Furthermore, one should not forget about individual characteristics of a person such as his age and the state of his health. In this paper, I would like to describe an experiment that has recently been conducted. Its key objective was to measure the reaction time, needed for a memory-scanning task.

This experiment is similar to that one conducted by Saul Sternberg in 1968. He hypothesized that the reaction time, required for a memory scanning exercise is influenced by the type and number of mental operations, performed by the respondent (Sternberg, 1969, p 454). The essence of this experiment lies in the following: respondents are required to memorize a set of digits (the number of items in the set ranges from two to five); afterward the subjects are provided with a stimulus also in the form of a digit, from 0 to 9.

The responds need to determine whether the probe was present in the previous set of digits or not (Sternberg, 1968). By conducting such experiments, Saul Sternberg ascertained that reaction time was directly-proportionate to the number of items within the set of digits; in other words, if the experimenter increases the digit set, the response time will also increase, and vice versa.

He also postulated that the subject usually conducted exhaustive serial search, rather than self-terminating search, which means that he/she checked all items in the digit set, even despite the fact that the stimulus had already been identified (Sternberg, 1968). This is the key hypothesis, which needs to be tested in the course of this research.

On the whole, his experiments support the stage theory, which relies on the idea that reaction time is a sum of mental processes and that it is possible to decompose the reaction time into several parts (Sternberg, 1969, p 421). Sternberg relies on the idea that the reaction time is determined by the total amount of mental operations, such as recognition of the stimulus and organization of the response (Sternberg, 1969). In his study, he excludes such factors as the type of stimulus or its intensity.

Methodology

The subjects for this experiment were seven students from an experimental psychology class. They were briefed on the purpose of the study and the experiment. Afterward, each of them was directed into an individual cubicle so that their attention was not distracted to any other stimuli such as light or noise. In the course of this research, the following tools were used: Windows XP desktop computers, placed in each room, and such program as SuperLab Pro which is quite suitable for such experiments.

The participants were asked to follow instructions that flashed on the screen. At first, they needed to memorize a number, (the number of digits ranged from one to six). Afterword, they were digit a digit.

They were asked whether this digit was present in the previous number or not. If they answer was positive, the participants needed to press slash (/) located at the right side of the keyboard, and if the answer was negative they needed to push Z, located at the left side. The task of the subjects was to respond as quickly and as accurately as possible. Finally, the participants were completely debriefed about the experiment. These are the key steps, taken in the course of this study.

It should be noted that in this experiment, the participants were allowed a limited amount of time in order to memorize the digit set; namely, they had only sixty seconds. The thing is that this mental scanning exercise is designed specifically for a short-term memory, which lasts for several seconds.

Furthermore, short-term memory can only hold 7±2 symbols, as it was ascertained by George Miller (1956, p 344). Although this article is not directly related to Sternberg’s experiment, it is crucial for our understanding of short-term memory and its functioning. It shows that the individual capacity of a short-term memory varies, and subsequently this individual characteristic impacts the reaction time.

In this research, it is possible to single out two independent variables:

1. the size of the initial set;
2. presence or absence of the stimulus (digit) in the initial set.

In turn, the dependent variables are the reaction time and accuracy of responses. This study aims to measure the relations between these variables.

It should also be noted that the focus of this study is on digit recognition, not letters or any other symbol. The thing is that digit recognition and letter recognition are separate processes, and different parts of human brain are responsible for them (Polk & Farah, 1998). This is one of the reasons why the findings of this experiment cannot be applicable in all cases.

Findings

This experiment has demonstrated that the response time is longer when the stimulus (digit) is present in the set. In this case, mean (M) equaled 3371.83 milliseconds, while standard deviation was 3447.54.

In turn, when the stimulus is not present in the set, the average response time was 2135.68 milliseconds, while SD equaled 1176.20. Sternberg explains this phenomenon by the fact that the subject has to cope with an item recognition task, which increases the response time (1968, p 424). Yet, I would like to say that in my study the effect of present of absence was not statistically significant.

In this case, F equaled 1,6, or 3.246 milliseconds. In turn, p-value was 12. Under the circumstances, it is possible to speak about the so-called null hypothesis, which means that there is no relationship between the presence or absence of the stimulus, on the one hand, and response time, on the other. Interaction effect of presence and size was only marginally significant.

On the whole, these findings are in line with the hypothesis, proposed by Saul Sternberg who believed that while doing a memory-scanning task, a person relies on the exhaustive search rather than self-terminating search (1968, p 454). In other words, he/she checks all items (digits) of the set, even despite the fact that the probe has already been identified.

This experiment has also indicated that there is some marginal interdependence between the size of the initial set and response time. The findings of this research show that the main effect of size was also not very significant (5, 30) = 1.673, p=.17. It could be observed that the reaction time had been shorter if the initial set consisted of a smaller number of digits.

Nevertheless, there is another factor, which needs to be considered; it is the sequence of the digits within the set. We do not know what kind numbers the participants were required to memorize, we only know that they could consist of one to six digits. Let us suppose that that the number to be remembered is 612389, while the stimulus is 6; in such scenario, it is quite possible that the subject will not do a self-terminating search rather than exhaustive serial search.

As soon as he detects the stimulus, he will press the necessary button, and his reaction time will be much shorter. In part, this idea is supported by the findings of this study: in one case, the subject had to identify a stimulus within five-digit set, and it took them 7243.93 milliseconds; in the other case, they needed to do the same task but the set consisted of six digits and the reaction time was actually shorter 2553.9 milliseconds. This inconsistency can be accounted by the fact that the digit was at the very beginning of the set.

As far as accuracy of responses is concerned, I would to say that the effect of present was not statistically significant. In this case, F equals 1, 6 or 337, while p-value is 58. This data indicates that participants were equally accurate in their responses to the stimuli irrespective of their presence of absence within the initial set. In addition to that, the findings suggest that the interaction between the presence and size did not affect the accuracy of responses.

Therefore, the key findings can be summarized in this way:

1. the presence effect is only marginally significant; it affects the reaction time and accuracy only to a small extent;
2. subsequently, the set size is also of little statistical importance.

Nevertheless, these results do not refute the hypothesis, formulated by Saul Sternberg. The reaction time is directly-proportionate to the number of digits in the set. Still, one has to bear in mind that some these results can be partially explained by the limitations of this study, which will be discussed in the next section of the paper.

Discussion

On the whole, the results of this experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive due to several reasons. First, while selecting the subjects for this research, I did not take into account the individual differences of short-term memory. Again, as George Miller (1956) points out it can hold 7±2 symbols items; this means that some people can easily memorize a set of six or five digits, whereas others cannot cope with this task. Thus, it is quite probable that memory-scanning exercise would more or less difficult for some of the participants.

This is why a researcher has to pay more attention to the choice of subjects, as these people must have the same capacity of short-term memory. For this purpose, one has to carry out a set of preliminary tests that evaluate memorization skills of the person. The second limitation of this research is insufficient sampling. This research included only seven subjects; while as a rule, such studies encompass at least fifty participants; otherwise, it is hardly permissible to make any generalizations.

Again, this discussion leads us to the debate as which type of search the subjects usually undertake while doing memory-scanning exercises. It can be either a serial exhaustive search, which means that the search does not cease as soon as the digit is identified, more likely, the search goes on until all items in the set have been checked or it can be a self-terminating search that ends as soon as the target has been located (Townsend, 2001, p 1102).

Even at this point, scholars cannot state for sure which type of search, a person does while doing memory scanning exercises. The study by James Townsend (2001) has indicated that the type of search may depend upon the position of the stimulus within the search set.

Another issue, which should be discussed, is that reaction time strongly depends upon the type of stimulus. For example, Thad Polk and Martha Farah believe that the reaction time for letter and digit recognition is not the same, and that a person requires less time to recognize a letter rather than a digit (1998, p 852). Furthermore, the authors argue that the neural substrates, which are responsible for letter recognition, are separated from those ones, underlying the recognition of letters (Polk & Farah, 1998, p 852).

This research does not cast doubt on the validity of our study; however, it does suggest that there are some other factors, affecting the reaction time, namely, the type of stimulus. To a large extent, this study by Polk and Farah extends the scope of Sternberg’s experiments as it shows that there is another factor that influences reaction time and it is the type of the stimulus.

Moreover, one should not forget that such in itself, such research method as a controlled experiment has several disadvantages; one of them is the so-called observer effect, which means that the behavior of a subject changes when he/she is aware of being observed.

One should remember that the participants were informed about the tasks that they will need to perform prior to the start of the experiment, which means that to some extent, they were ready for this memory-scanning exercise. There is great likelihood that this circumstance could have affected the results of the experiment.

These are the major drawbacks of the study, and one can argue that aspects of the research design should have been changed. First, the number of participants should be much larger because the initial sample size is sufficient for such studies.

Secondly, the short-term memory of each subject should be tested beforehand because the participants of such studies must have similar memorization skills. Finally, it might be prudent to test not only digit recognition but letter recognition as well, because the reaction time for these processes may vary.

Conclusion

Mental chronometry still remains one of the most thought-provoking issues in psychology and neuroscience. There are several questions, which have yet to be answered, for instance, scholars have not ascertained which type of mental search a person undertakes, while performing a memory-scanning task. The choice is between two options: self-terminating search or serial exhaustive search.

The results of Sternberg’s experiments support exhaustive search hypothesis, however, this assumption, even now but this assumption has not been proved completely. Another area of research that is of great interest to psychologists, linguists, and neuroscientists is the difference between digit recognition and letter recognition. Apart from that, it is necessary to examine the impact of short-term memory capacity on recognition process and reaction time.

The experiment which has been conducted for this study substantiates the hypothesis, which we have advanced at the very beginning: namely, the size of the digit set increases the reaction time. Furthermore, the present or absence of the stimuli within the set also influences accuracy of responses and reaction. Nonetheless, one should take it into consideration that the statistical data in support of these assumptions is only marginally significant.

Reference List

Miller G. (1956) The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two Some Limits on OurCapacity for Processing Information. Psychological Review, (101), 2, pp. 343-352. Web.

Polk T. & Farah M. (1998). The neural development and organization of letter recognition: Evidence from functional neuroimaging, computational modeling, and behavioral studies. The National Academy of Sciences, pp. 847-852. Web.

Rosenbaum D. 2009 Human Motor Control. NY: Academic Press.

Sternberg S. (1969). Memory-scanning: mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. American Scientist, (57), 4, pp. 421- 457.

Townsend. J. (2001). A clarification of self-terminating versus exhaustive variances in serial and parallel models. Perception & Psychophysics. (63), 6, pp. 1101-1106. Web.

Abstract

Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved. Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information.

Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using techniques such as operant conditioning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm.

Memory

Memory is a mental function that enables humans to keep information for later use. It can also be described as a term used in cognitive psychology to describe how people encode, store and retrieve information about the environment (Gazzaniga, Ivry, & Mangun, 1998). This essay will begin with a discussion about memory processes.

This will be followed by a section on classification of memory into sensory, short term, and long term memory. The various types of memory will be discussed in detail. Methods of studying memory will also be examined in this paper. Finally, it will end in a section on personal reflection.

The stages of memory formation include encoding, storage, and retrieval. Information passes the three stages sequentially. Encoding generates information that can stored. Stimuli reaching the brain are received and processed into forms that can be used to represent the stimuli. Encoding generates verbal, acoustic, and image codes. These codes provide avenues by which information can be retrieved. Therefore, it can be said that retrieval relies on encoding. Interpretation of the codes is a function of memory.

Storage

Storage can be described as creation of a long term record in the brain. Storage is a complex stage of memory formation that involves other sub-stages. At this level, the coded information is received and packaged in a manner that will allow its retrieval later. Information may be stored in a hierarchical manner.

For example, skills that are frequently used may be moved to the subconscious portion of the mind. Depending on how long information has been in storage, memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory is a part of memory that holds information from the environment for a short time. The information is stored for a period of time ranging from a fraction of a second to about a minute. It provides temporary storage for information generated by the sensory organs. It stores the information in the original sensory form.

Examples of sensory memory include iconic memory and echoic memory. Iconic memory carries visual information and lasts for almost 25 seconds. It is a temporary storage for visual information. Echoic memory is a temporary storage for information coming from the ears. Echoic memory lasts for several seconds. Haptic memory is creates a temporary record of tactile information. Information coming from the sensory system is rich in content. However, human beings cannot convert all the information into memory forms.

Short term memory

Short term memory also known as working memory is a form of memory that lasts for several seconds to a minute. Rehearsal can improve short term memory. Short term memory can store a limited amount of information at a time. It can store up to five distinct items at any given time (Cowan, 2001).

However, it has been found out that grouping items like numbers can improve short term memory. Short term memory enables the manipulation of information when attending to activities like decision making and problem solving. It is the form of memory that is constantly in use and allows an individual to interact effectively with the environment. Short term memory may rely on acoustic codes. However, this is not true for all types of information.

Long term memory

Long term memory is a relatively long term form of memory where vast amounts of information are stored. Its capacity is thought to be limitless. Long term memory enables us to recall events that took place several years back. Long term memory is our main repository of information. It shapes our understanding of the environment. Types of repositories in the long term memory include declarative, procedural, and flash back memories.

Declarative memory also known as explicit memory is a form of long term memory that requires the conscious recall of information that can be verbalized. For example, describing the process of neurotransmission to students. Declarative memory is further classified into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory involves storage of information regarding events that were personally experienced.

It enables an individual to recall events that happened at a certain time in the past. It is a form of memory that stores personal experiences. Semantic memory is personalized. It stores general, factual, and abstract information. Information about ones area of expertise, academic knowledge, knowledge of places, knowledge of people, and knowledge about meaning of words is stored in semantic memory. Learning relies on semantic memory.

Procedural memory is memory that stores psychomotor skills. Information needed to execute certain skills like driving and playing a musical instrument are stored in procedural memory. It stores knowledge that cannot be verbalized but is important in the performance of some activities. It has been described as memory that stores information about how to do things.

Flash back memory stores information that is associated with emotional moments. Events that are linked to certain emotions can be recalled quickly and more accurately. For example, asking people where they were when a close family member passed away. Flash back memory is concerned with storage of unusual events. It tends to be personal in nature.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of accessing and taking information out of storage. Typically, information is pulled out of storage when it is needed. Retrieval can be complicated by factors like lack of concentration and interference. Retrieval is associated with certain recall states like tip of the tongue, and serial position effect.

Tip of the tongue refers to a state in which one cannot recall all the information. In such a case an individual is able to only retrieve or recall some characteristics of the information. Serial position effect refers to a situation in which an individual can recall either the first few items (primary effect) or the last items of a list (recency effect). Recall can be prompted using either specific or general retrieval cues.

Memory problems

Forgetting is described as difficulty in retrieving information. Inability to recall information has been linked to some factors like decay, interference, lack of cues, and presence of disorders like amnesia. Decay refers to inability to recall due to disappearance of information over time. This happens when information is not frequently rehearsed or used. Information that is not needed can interfere with retrieval of information (Ellenbogen et al, 2006). This can occur when retrieval cues are no longer specific.

Factors facilitating memory

Rehearsal: repeating and reciting information enhances the number of meaningful associations that can be formed. Memory improves with the number of rehearsals. Self-questioning strategies can be used to enhance this technique. Self-questioning strategies increase the number of associations that can be formed by learners.

Organization: information can be arranged in a particular way to enhance memory. Chunking is one of the strategies used to organize information. Meaningfulness: this strategy encourages students to personalize information by giving personal meaning to it. This strategy is superior to reciting and rehearsing. It is easy to recall information that has meaning. This strategy enables a learner to relate what is being learned with real life situations thus forming long term memory.

Mnemonic devices: these memory aids include loci, acronyms, and key words. Loci method involves positioning of items to be remembered in specific areas of the house. An individual will use a mental map to locate the items in the house thus aiding memory.

Activity: this strategy is used to enhance memory by encouraging students to actively participate in their learning.

Attention/concentration: attention and elimination of distractions enhances learning and the formation of memory.

Methods used to study memory

Techniques used to study memory differ for infants and adults. The methods used to study infants are unique because infants cannot report on what they have learned. Methods used to study infants’ recognition memory are: operant conditioning and visual paired comparison procedure. The methods used to study infants’ recall memory are: deferred imitation technique and elicited imitation technique (Barr, Dowden, & Hayne, 1996).

Methods used to study adults: paired associate learning, recognition, free recall, and detection paradigm. Paired associate learning is a technique that involves learning to associate one item with another. Free recall involves asking subjects to learn some words. The subjects are then asked to recall the items. Detection paradigm tests the ability to remember visual information.

This paper discussed memory in detail. Memory is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the process by which information is coded, stored and retrieved.

Encoding involves the conversion of sensory stimuli into forms that can be stored. Storage is the process of forming long term mental records of the information. Retrieval is the process of extracting information from memory. Memory can be classified into sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory. Long term memory is the storehouse of knowledge about our surroundings.

Memory can be enhanced using techniques such as rehearsal, paying attention, use of mnemonics, and active participation. Active participation is thought to be better than rehearsal. Memory can be tested using various techniques. The techniques used to test infants are different from those used to test older children and adults. This is due to the fact that infants cannot verbalize what they have learned. In infants, recognition memory and recall memory are tested separately. Therefore, it is difficult to study children.

References

Barr, R., Dowden, A., & Hayne, H. (1996). Developmental changes in deferred imitation by 6- to 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 19, 159–170.

Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behav Brain Sci, 24(1), 87–114.

Ellenbogen et al. (2006). Interfering with theories of sleep and memory: sleep, declarative memory, and associative interference. Curr. Biol., 16 (13), 1290–4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.05.024

Gazzaniga, M., Ivry, R., & Mangun, G. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind. London: Norton.

Introduction

Memory is often associated with remembering past events or information learned. It is the ability to recall and utilize information or a skill learnt at an earlier period. Matlin (2012) defines knowledge as the information stored in our memory, the cognitive functioning of our memory and the ability to utilize the acquired information.

This description implies that memory constitutes only the conscious awareness of past events. When browsing or playing video games, the brain is bombarded with a plethora of information and images, which reduce the brain’s ability to retain much information (Douvtlle, 2009). Much of the information is retained in the subconscious memory.

Memory is an essential part of our daily life. Thus, it is important to identify memory strategies that suit different content or scenarios. For the writer of this paper self-reference, episodic memory, procedural memory and semantic memory are most useful memory strategies. Understanding the different memory strategies helps one to evaluate and predict his or her learning or performance on a particular memory task.

Self-reference Effects

According to Matlin (2012) self-reference occurs when a person remembers information that has relevance to the self. The writer of this paper easily recalls events that, in some way, relate to him. For example, whenever the writer encounters a new item in a shop like a pair of shoes or clothing, the writer first reflects upon his needs and desires before deciding whether to buy the item or not.

Thus, the writer’s approach reflects self-reference effect, which enhances a person’s ability to remember information associated with the self. In light of this, Sandoz (2005) notes that psychotherapists often use mental images of particular items to enhance focus on personal traits in relation to the event. This facilitates one’s memory to remember desirable or undesirable personal attributes.

Self-reference effects also work for the writer of this paper especially when learning new information. Often, the writer tends to connect any new content with old known content. This helps the writer to remember things by relating them with his perception or prior knowledge on the topic.

For example, regarding master content taught in class, the writer of this paper relates it with what they have already learned in class. Besides personal knowledge, the writer relates new information with personal experiences to enhance his long-term memory. The writer tends to have a better memory of information that relate with his personal experiences. For example, when learning about global issues, the writer of this paper understands them better if the issues are explained within the local context.

Semantic Memory

Semantic memory or map is another memory strategy that the writer uses to link a central idea to related concepts. Matlin (2012) defines semantic memory as a long-term memory that allows an individual to remember concepts or ideas that have no direct relationship with personal experiences.

Often, people need prior exposures to a given concept for its meaning to stick in the long-term memory. A study by Ojemann (2010) revealed that semantic memory involves different parts of the brain; the frontal cortex stores facts and concepts while temporal cortex stores visual images Personal factors such as mood and attitude affect the formation of semantic networks and the retrieval of existing semantic memories.

Semantic memory is the memory strategy the writer of this paper uses when learning new ideas or concepts in class. He finds clustering of concepts an effective way of remembering interconnected ideas. In particular, when learning a new concept, the writer tends to connect it with familiar concepts, hence, making the writer to forget rarely.

However, the writer does encounter difficulties when the concept is entirely new or unrelated to what is already known. When unrelated items are clustered together, the writer finds it difficult to understand the main concept and relate it with other minor concepts. Moreover, when information is accompanied with images, the writer rarely forgets important concepts because it is easy to link related ideas when visual display is used.

Episodic Memory

Episodic memory refers to an individual’s ability to recollect information or an event experienced in an earlier time (Matlin, 2012). It stores events of relevance to an individual as well as events related to interpersonal interactions. Episodic memory and semantic memory constitute the declarative long-term memory. However, unlike semantic memory, episodic memory is rather explicit (Matlin, 2012). Procedural memory is another type of long-term memory that helps one to remember specific skills or procedures.

The writer of this paper uses episodic memory when performing tasks such as driving or swimming. Episodic memory enables one to remember particular experiences associated with the present task. For example, when driving, the writer of this paper usually recalls road trip experiences, where the writer had driven to a remote area for a picnic. In addition, episodic memory allows the writer to remember how it feels to take a flight or board a train and recall specific events from experiences.

Additionally, the writer of this paper employs episodic memory to remember facts and global events such as football and tennis as well as sports and media celebrities. However, the episodic memories sometimes affect him negatively. For instance, remembering unpleasant events such as horrific events, fights, scenes of war or famine that the writer watches on various media channels.

Procedural Memory

Procedural memory allows an individual to recall the procedure for doing a specific activity or task. According to (Matlin, 2012) procedural memory is explicit and information stored in this memory can be clearly stated and explained. It develops through a gradual process of learning and practice to achieve a particular level of performance. Procedural memories are largely subconscious; one can do a particular task such as driving without actively thinking about it. In addition, procedural memories are not easily expressed verbally.

The writer of this paper uses procedural memory when performing physical tasks such as riding a bike, driving a car, playing a guitar, or swimming. When doing all these tasks, the writer does not consciously reflect on them. The writer uses procedural memory when typing or taking notes.

One benefit of procedural memory is that it does not require full attention. As such, an individual can engage in other activities when performing tasks that rely on procedural memory. The skills such as driving skills are acquired through learning and practice. These skills are then stored in procedural memory and only retrieved when one is performing such tasks. Procedural memory allows the writer to learn and retain new skills, and apply them in different settings.

Conclusion

The cognitive psychology approach establishes the relationship between brain processes and memory types and functioning. Different memory strategies suit different memory tasks. Thus, it is important for one to understand the different memory strategies as a first step in enhancing one’s memory.

Procedural and episodic memories reflect different manifestations of long-term memory. They help an individual to recall experiences and specific skills. On the other hand, semantic memory allows one to retain concepts and ideas while self-reference is useful in learning new information.

References

Douvtlle, P. (2009). Use Mental Imagery across the Curriculum. Preventing School Failure, 49(1), 36-39.

Matlin, M. (2012). Cognition. New York: Wiley.

Ojemann, G. (2010). Cognitive mapping through electrophysiology. Epilepsia, 51(1), 72–75.

Sandoz, J. (2005). Mental Imagery and Metaphors for Recovery. American Journal of Pastoral Counseling, 8(2), 44-53.