Encouraging the development of working memory (WM) is the first step toward improving one’s cognitive and analytical abilities significantly, yet negative stereotypes have been affecting the promotion of WM training extensively among vulnerable populations. A study conducted by Regner et al. (2010) is aimed at proving that gender cannot be viewed as a factor affecting one’s WM capacities or defining them. The study involves a quantitative analysis of the WM abilities of participants. The research results indicate that the effects of stereotyping on the development of WM and the relevant skills are direct and rather drastic.
The study, however, pointed to the fact that the environment created by stereotyping was significantly different from the one which the authors described as choking under pressure. To be more specific, the women that were subject to stereotyping managed to resist the threat quite successfully, thus proving that the gender issue remains one of the primary areas to address. The research outcomes indicate that stereotyping is linked directly to the fear of failure and the expectation thereof. Choking, in turn, is caused by the pressure to succeed, which female participants claimed to have experienced.
The study results also show that gender-fair conditions contributed to a rapid increase in performance rates among low-WM female participants. Consequently, it can be assumed that the focus in exploring the issue of WM development should be shifted from gender-related issues to researching a combination of gender- and environment-related factors. Thus, a comprehensive strategy for managing the problem can be built, and the further enhancement of WM skills development can become a possibility. As a result, a rapid increase in performance levels is expected.
Advantages of Working Memory Training
Although having been explored extensively, the phenomenon of WM remains to be studied more thoroughly, with a range of blank areas remaining in it. Particularly, contradictory information about the efficacy of WM training may indicate that an in-depth analysis of the subject matter is required. Although WM training used to be considered pointless due to the ostensible lack of effect on one’s cognitive abilities, it has recently received much attention as a possible means of improving one’s intellectual skills, as Kaufman (2013) explains.
Furthermore, WM skills are crucial for performing daily routine actions since they help retain essential information and use it successfully despite possible distraction factors that may impede a successful performance. In addition, WM helps one control one’s thoughts, therefore, making the process of thinking coherent and analytical. The identified characteristic of WM must be recognized as a crucial one since it defines not only the efficient functioning of one’s brain but also one’s emotional well-being.
Apart from defining one’s personality, WM also affects the neurotransmitter functioning of one’s brain. Consequently, the processes associated with the production, release, and transfer of dopamine can be enhanced with the increase in the WM activity levels. Moreover, the application of WM training techniques should also be viewed as a necessity for those that have suffered a traumatic brain injury.
Therefore, despite being often glanced over as controversial, WM-based training is likely to have a positive effect on one’s cognitive development. In addition, WM should be viewed from a multidimensional perspective. Once every single factor that may possibly affect the target population is taken into account, WM can be used to enhance one’s performance significantly.
Regner, I., Smeding, A., Gimmig, D., Thinus-Blanc, C., Monteil, J., & Huguet, P. (2010). Individual differences in working memory moderate stereotype-threat effects. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1646-1648. Web.
The situations in which unarmed black men were shot by mistake have frequently recurred over the past decades. It is a general opinion that black men are associated with crime and drugs and have more chances to be suspected of evil deeds and killed in the street by a police officer. There are many studies investigating a decision-making process that leads to the shooting. Some researchers state that racial bias plays a significant role in the decision to shoot and causes errors in identifying various objects in an individual’s hand as dangerous or suspicious (James, Klinger, & Vila, 2014). The analyzed article deals with studying the role of working memory capacity in threat-related situations and its impact on the police officer’s decision to shoot.
The major hypothesis tested in this research emphasizes that an individual’s actions in the threatening situation are connected with executive control, which reflects such an element of working memory as attentional control (Kleider, Parrott, & King, 2010). It means that individuals with high and low working memory capacity would react differently in the same situation related to danger. For this study, a police officer was chosen as a dependent variable, while a dangerous situation was chosen as an independent variable.
The subject of the study was limited to analyzing the shooting behavior of police officers in danger-related situations. For this purpose, various threatening situations were simulated to investigate the behavior of the participants. It was supposed that “individuals with low, relative to high, WM capacity likely possess a number of cognitive deficits, including fewer available cognitive resources to regulate behavior” (Kleider et al., 2010, p. 716).
The result of this research shows how different levels of working memory capacity influence the behavior of individuals. It is noted that every-day routine activity does not require a lot of mental efforts as it is performed automatically. Thus, a difference in the levels of working memory capacity is not so obvious as in threatening situations. The authors assume that in dangerous situations, people with lower working memory capacity tend to rely on automatic processes rather than control their actions knowingly (Kleider et al., 2010).
The main strong point of the article is that it discusses the reasons for shooting behavior in dangerous situations. These reasons are based on thorough scientific research which explains the abilities of police officers to make a controlled decision depending on their working memory capacity. It is supposed that officers with low capacity of working memory are more likely to shoot the unarmed individuals. This suggestion corresponds with the recent research on the influence of racism biases, which demonstrated that some officers were hesitating in shooting black suspects (James, James, & Vila, 2016).
Still, the study has not taken into account that the decisions made by police officers are based not only on the behavior of a suspect but also on racial stereotypes. Some researchers note that “people are typically faster when responding to stereotype-congruent information rather than stereotype-incongruent information” (Correll, Hudson, Guillermo, & Ma, 2014, p. 202). Therefore, shooting behavior is influenced not only by mental abilities of a police officer. It is also emphasized that intergroup bias is referred to a significant number of standard reactions to members that belong to the other group (Kawakami, Amodio, & Hugenberg, 2017).
The research in the analyzed article might be a basis for another expanded study of shooting behavior based on the further analysis of working memory capacities linked with the impact of racial bias on the process of decision-making among police officers. It is stated that implicit biases cause certain behavior and might influence the controlled processes (Ito et al., 2015). Thus, the hypothesis for the further study might be that decision-making process in dangerous situations involves both dorsal and ventral stream.
The article analyzed in the given paper is related to bottom-up and top-down processing in the brain, as well as prototype theory, studied in this course. It also discusses some of the brain functions such as working memory capacity. Some aspects of cognition as information processing are affected as well.
References
Correll, J., Hudson, S. M., Guillermo, S., & Ma, D. S. (2014). The police officer’s dilemma: A decade of research on racial bias in the decision to shoot. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8(5), 201-213.
James, L., Klinger, D., & Vila, B. (2014). Racial and ethnic bias in decisions to shoot seen through a stronger lens: Experimental results from high-fidelity laboratory simulations. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10(3), 323-340.
James, L., James, S. M., & Vila, B. J. (2016). The reverse racism effect. Criminology & Public Policy, 15(2), 457-479.
Ito, T. A., Friedman, N. P., Bartholow, B. D., Correll, J., Loersch, C., Altamirano, L. J., & Miyake, A. (2015). Toward a comprehensive understanding of executive cognitive function in implicit racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(2), 187.
Kawakami, K., Amodio, D. M., & Hugenberg, K. (2017). Intergroup perception and cognition: An integrative framework for understanding the causes and consequences of social categorization. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 55(1), 1-80.
Kleider, H. M., Parrott, D. J., & King, T. Z. (2010). Shooting behaviour: How working memory and negative emotionality influence police officer shoot decisions. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 707-717.
Does WM allow one to control their train of thoughts so that one’s everyday intellectual functioning could be improved?
According to Kaufman (2013), encouraging the acquisition of WM-related skills contributes to a significant improvement in one’s intellectual abilities. Particularly, the adoption of WM-based strategies helps one control the thinking process successfully. Being one of the crucial multiple interacting cognitive functions, WM must be deemed as the skill that defines one’s cognitive development (Kaufman, 2013). Specifically, the opportunities for developing fluid reasoning need to be listed among the key advantages that the WM strategy has to offer.
Does WM help improve one’s critical thinking skills? Kaufman (2013) specifies that, while WM contributes massively to the improvement of one’s ability to focus, it does not affect one’s critical reasoning abilities directly. Apart from WM-related training, one should also participate in discussions, analytical tasks, and other activities that encourage critical thinking.
Regner et al. (2010)
Does a better understanding of the individual differences and the following drop-in stereotyping levels allow increasing the efficacy of WM-related training?
According to Regner et al. (2010), there is a direct link between the ability to develop WM skills and the degree of stereotyping to which one is subject. Regner et al. (2010) specify that gender-related biases have a tangible effect on people’s ability to acquire WM-related skills. Women are especially vulnerable to the threat of stereotyping as the primary barrier to the acquisition of WM skills, as the researchers declare (Regner et al., 2010).
Is the process of WM development affected by the phenomenon known as choking under pressure?
Regner et al. (2010) state that the process of developing WM may be impeded once a patient is exposed to significant pressure caused by stereotypes and similar social issues.
What Has Neuroscience Contributed to Our Knowledge of Working Memory?
Neuroscience as the discipline that studies the nervous system has created opportunities for developing an understanding of what WM is. Furthermore, with the help of neuroscience, it became possible to explore the phenomenon of WM from a cognitive perspective. For instance, the theory concerning data being encoded into WM by the long-term memory was developed based on the premises created with the help of the perspective provided by neuroscientists (Regner et al., 2010). Furthermore, the framework that cognitive neuroscience provides can be utilized to study WM and, therefore, identify the tools that can be used to improve it significantly. As a result, a range of myths about WM has been addressed and subverted successfully, including the one stating that WM –related training cannot be used to improve one’s intellectual abilities and skills (Kaufman, 2013). As a result, neuroscience has created opportunities for successful cognitive development.
What Might Be the Practical Applications of a Good Model of Working Memory?
By using an appropriate WM-based training strategy, one is likely to improve one’s learning skills. For instance, the ability to read and solve mathematical and logical problems can be viewed as a direct effect of engaging in WM training (Kaufman, 2013). Furthermore, the adoption of the identified model is likely to help one bypass one’s learning disability and acquire the necessary knowledge and abilities successfully despite possible problems with reading, analyzing data, etc. (Kaufman, 2013).
Furthermore, WM-based learning is likely to spur one’s progress as far as the development of reasoning ability is concerned. WM will help form coherent conclusions and identify logical connections between specific statements. In other words, WM can be used to help learners develop the skills associated with a logical deduction (Regner et al., 2010).
Regner, I., Smeding, A., Gimmig, D., Thinus-Blanc, C., Monteil, J., & Huguet, P. (2010). Individual differences in working memory moderate stereotype-threat effects. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1646-1648. Web.
The relationship between the brain and memory has been a subject of research for several years (Karpicke & Roediger, 2007). Despite all the efforts and energy directed to this field, memory science remains one of the areas that have not been well explained. This paper analyses some of the available knowledge to show that memories are not perfect. The paper discusses the process of memory formation and maintenance in the brain.
Working Memory and Long-Term Memory
Working memory keeps information for a brief period; normally a few seconds (Rose, Myerson, Roedige & Hale, 2010). Working memory enables people to pay attention to certain tasks at a given time. An example of a task that makes use of working memory is solving a mathematical problem without writing. As one continues to solve the problem, initial answers are stored in the working memory. This kind of memory comprises subsystems that keep and process information presented in the form of images, sounds, or both (Rose, et al., 2010).
The first similarity between working memory and long term memory is that in both cases, tasks retrieve information from secondary memory, although sometimes working memory tasks retrieve information from the primary memory. In this case, it has been claimed that working memory is an activated part of the long term memory that occasionally solicits information from the short term memory (Rose, et al., 2010).
Another similarity between working memory and long term memory is that in both cases, delayed recognition of processing tasks is enhanced by immediate recall testing. For example, in long term memory, a person who is tested to remember a task immediately after performing it is likely to remember the task in the future. Similarly, in the working memory, testing if one remembers the completed parts of a processing task improves the chances of remembering such parts in later stages of the task (Rose, et al., 2010).
There are differences between working memory and long term memory. The first difference is that working memory holds information for a brief period while long term memory holds information for a long period (Kane, Hambrick, Tuholski, Wilhelm, Payne & Engle, 2004). In this case, working memory only holds information that is currently under the focus of attention. Sometimes working memory retrieves information from long term memory to perform certain tasks. After completion of such tasks, the information is released back to the long term memory (Kane et al., 2004).
Another difference between the two types of memories is that long term memory is affected by the level of processing while working memory is not. In this case, in long term memory, simple processing tasks lead to better remembrance than complex processing tasks (Kane et al., 2004).
Memory Formation in the Brain
The initial stage of memory formation is called encoding. This is the stage at which information is first registered through sensory organs such as eyes and ears (Kane et al., 2004). The collected information is taken to the hippocampus of the brain. The hippocampus, together with the frontal cortex, has the responsibility to decide the kind of information to be kept and the kind to be discarded. Information that is worth keeping is sent to long term memory (Kane et al., 2004).
After registering external information, encoding and storage are done through electrical and chemical languages (Kane et al., 2004). This is a process in which nerve cells are connected to other cells through synaptic points. A synapse allows electrical pulses that carry information to cross spaces between cells. The firing of pulses across spaces between cells leads to the production of neurotransmitters. In this case, the neurotransmitters cross intercellular gaps and implant themselves on the walls of other cells in the neighborhood. These links are called synapses and they connect brain cells. One cell can form up-to several thousands of synapses. The neighboring cells have structures known as dendrites that collect information from synapses (Kane et al., 2004).
Through synaptic connections, brain cells work together to accomplish certain tasks (Kane et al., 2004). In this case, when more signals are shared between two brain cells, the link between the involved cells becomes powerful. The process can be likened to a relationship between two people. Sharing things improve a relationship. In the brain, when a person learns new things, more synapses are built between cells as information is passed from one cell to another. This changes the structure of the brain cells. The ability of brain cells to change structure due to new experiences is called plasticity. As more information is accessed, more alterations take place at the synapses and dendrites, causing more connections in the brain. The reorganization of brain cells as new information is received from outside is what creates knowledge and memory (Kane et al., 2004).
The alterations in the structure of brain cells are enhanced by practicing the new experience. Learning and practicing new experiences leads to the formation of highly complex circuits of memory. In this case, the idea is that as cells repeatedly fire in a particular order, it becomes easier to fire in that order in the future. When one stops practicing, firing stops and it becomes difficult to fire in the same order in the future (Kane et al., 2004). This is why it is easier to sing a song that one sings daily.
These findings imply that memories are not perfect. The stored information can fade away if not used regularly. However, memories can be improved through continued practice. People suffering from memory problems can improve their conditions by regularly learning and practicing new experiences. Learning and practicing new experiences increases connections between brain cells, leading to an increase in knowledge and memory (Kane et al., 2004).
Adaptive Memory
Memories are meant to preserve information that may be needed in the future (Rose, et al., 2010). In this regard, it is adaptive for one to remember information that bears significance in his or her future. For example, a man who has been beaten by a mob for befriending another man’s wife is likely to remember the episode every time somebody’s wife smiles at him. This is adaptive remembrance because it helps the person to avoid getting into trouble again. On the other hand, it is adaptive to forget information that has no relevance in the future. It has been revealed that forgetting helps to remember important information (Rose, et al., 2010).
Role of Age and Environment in Memory Formation
Memory reduces as one gets older. This is believed to be caused by a reduction in the rate of protein synthesis. However, the exact connection between age and memory loss is still a subject of extensive research.
The environment can affect memory formation in two ways. Changes in Synaptic and dendrite structures that are responsible for memory formation are caused by the registration of external information. In this case, an environment that contains exciting information that can be learned improves memory formation. On the other hand, an environment that lacks exciting information compromises memory formation (Patel, 2012). Also, an environment that regularly brings a person into contact with certain information helps to maintain the memory of that information.
References
Kane, M., Hambrick D., Tuholski S., Wilhelm O., Payne T., Engle R. (2004).The generality of working memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 133,189–217
Karpicke, J. D., Roediger H. L., (2007). Expanding retrieval promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced retrieval enhances long-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 33:704–719.
Patel, T. R. (2012). Environmental enrichment: Aging and memory. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 85(4): 491–500.
Rose, N. S., Myerson J., Roedige H. L., & Hale S. (2010). Similarities and differences between working memory and long-term memory: Evidence from the levels-of-processing span task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 36(2): 471–483.
According to psychology, memory is the ability of a human being to store, retain, and recall information and experience that characterize life. Although Lewandowsky, et,al,(2004) notes “ several intermediate states are less well understood, short-term and long-term memories are accompanied by different biological states and mechanisms of retention and therefore there are two distinct forms of memory”. Human beings have two types of memory to hold information: the long term and short memory.
Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for a longer time than short memory: It is different from the STM in structure and function. “Biologically, short-term memory is a temporary potentiation of neural connections that can become long-term memory through the process of rehearsal and meaningful association” Parmentier, et al (2005). There is no researcher who is sure of the process but they say that it results in the transformation of the configuration of the neurons but the time that it takes is also debatable.
The short term memory is also referred to as active or primary memory as it holds minute quantity of data at a particular time and it only remains obtainable for a short duration. The duration is estimated in seconds and research has it that the short term memory keeps information for 7 seconds plus two or minus two depending on an individual because its length is about seven bits.
The memory works like a computers RAM memory; it provides a operating space then transfers the details to the other memory or discards it if its not necessary and the information is also vulnerable to interruption and interference. “Biologically short term memory involves the firing of neurons which depletes the Readily Releasable Pool (RRP) of neurotransmitter vesicles at presynaptic terminals.
The pattern of depleted presynaptic terminals represents the long term memory trace and the depletion itself is the short term memory” (Nairne, 2002).
The short term memory
The short term memory has three major operations: the iconic memory, the acoustic memory and the working memory. The iconic memory memorizes the visual images, the acoustic grasps the sounds and it more effective that the iconic.
Information can be easily recalled by this memory depending on the length, phonological effect, semantic categories and words familiarity. Short-term memory relies generally on an acoustic code than the visual code for accumulation of information because People always find it difficult to remember a series of words that are acoustically similar for instance, dog, hog, and log).
Davelaar, et, al, (2005) notes “short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe”. The working memory stores the information until it is used and not until it’s moved to the long term .For example, when memorizing a telephone number it keeps the digits until one dials the numbers. It therefore keeps information for immediate use and not for latter use.
The procedure of conveying information from STM to LTM entails the encoding and consolidation of information: it is not a task of time; the more the data resides in STM it increases the chances of it being transferred into the long term memory but multifaceted data is sorted out in the STM ahead of it being programmed into LTM.
The Long-Term Memory
Information is stocked up on the origin of sense and significance and it also has a huge capacity. Information from the short term memory is transferred to it through rehearsal and also information learnt over a period of time is transferred to the long term memory and can only be removed by interfering with it or through decay .
The information we store in it has to do with our understanding and views concerning issues around us. Significant information gained is also stored there and is retrieved according to need; for example learning new technology and applying the knowledge every time one needs it. Information is stored in mental models known a “schemas” the schemas are arranged in a manner that they are related through networks depending on the information that each contains.
One schema therefore activates the other which also does so to the next hence creating a link and therefore enabling people to remember the required information when similar data is presented. The schemas guide our minds to the relevant information while ignoring the irrelevant .Therefore for one to easily remember something it’s advisable to use questions or graphical presentations to activate the schemas.
The brain does not put everything together in a single compartment like it is in computer’s hard disk drive but instead there are different parts for storage. The long term memory is divided into two main regions: declarative memory and implicit memory also known as procedural memory. “Declarative memory comprises of all memories that are consciously available such as: the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere in the cortex” Scruggs, & Mastropieri, (1997).
The region also has further subdivisions: the episodic memory (precise events) and the Semantic memory which holds general information about outside issues. The other main region is the procedural memory: it involves knowledge involving use of objects and body movements and it is stored by the cerebellum and the striatum.
There is another type of memory that is found in both of the above regions that is, the emotional memory: these memories are knowingly accessible, but they draw significant, unconscious physiological response. Luck,& Vogel(1997) note “they also have a unique physiological pathway that involves strong connections from the amygdala into the prefrontal cortex, but much weaker connections running back from the prefrontal cortex to the amgydala.”
There are also other types of memories that researchers claim that they exist but have not proven it, such as: Prospective memory and retrospective memory. “LTM also has a strong influence on perception through top-down processing – our prior knowledge affects how we perceive sensory information. Our expectations regarding a particular sensory experience influence how we interpret it and it is the source of bias” (Brown, ET, al, 2007).
Factors affecting memory efficiency
To remember information one has to retrieve it from an unconscious level and take it to the conscious at will; most people always assume they have a physical problem with their memory when they do not remember things but actually it is a part of the memory system that is usually inefficient.
A well functioning memory system must register, retain and retrieve information efficiently and thus so as to remember things the three processes must take place. Failure to register or encode information can be due to distractions such as noise, stress, multi tasking or poor concentration. Retrieving issues usually occur if there is a problem in matching retrieval cues and the encoding of the information you searched.
There are two categories of information retrieval: recall (information is sourced from the memory) and recognition. When information has been presented and knowledge showing that it has been encoded appears, then that is recognition. Recognition is less complex because the information is provided as a cue while in recall retrieval cues have to be provided to ensure quick access of information.
Emotional factors also affect long-term memory but there have been arguments on whether the information gets lost or it only becomes difficult to access and as mentioned earlier: Information can sometimes be difficult to recall but can be recognized, or may be recalled only with prompting.
As people age the efficiency of their memory deteriorates leading an experience known as memory loss: this can be minimized at an early age by adjusting our lifestyles. People can also enhance their short term memory so that they remember more even information that was acquired two minutes ago. All of the above can be achieve by use of some methods and techniques recommended by psychologists and biologists.
First, one has to identify the factors that largely affect memory efficiency, some of which are: “stress, lack of sleep, lack of exercise and lack of proper nutrients essential for proper brain functioning” Davelaar, ET, al, (2005). It is essential to avoid stress or deal with it especially if ones’ lives or works within a stressful environment.
Regular people find themselves mostly around these two surroundings and therefore if they are stress inducers they can have a big effect on ones psychological health. People therefore need to get rid of that stress by use of: “De-stressing techniques such as; body massages, long baths, hanging out with friends. Consumption of vitamins such as B-complex, zinc and foliate will also be very helpful in such situations” Cowan (2001).
Another factor affecting memory efficiency is sleep; one of the core functions of sleep is to process information gained in the long term memory. Sleep also improves memory by ensuring proper functioning of the brain and eight hours of sleep are recommended for this. Sometimes people may not sleep due to stress, warm milk or chamomile tea can help in such situations. Another method of enhancing the brain’s performance is by exercise because it increases oxygen circulation in the brain.
The current working surroundings often are characterized by doing several jobs simultaneously hence the brain is forced to focus on many things at once.
The best way to handle such work is to remember it in the short term memory for efficiency and the only way of achieving this is by being alert. One of the mostly recommended strategies in enabling the short term memory to perform is use of mnemonics especially if a large amount of information is involved. It is vital to note that the memory makes use of mnemonics to activate definite physiological responses which are mostly related to senses.
These senses are: images, sounds, colors, tastes, smells, touch, language and emotions. Miller, (1956) notes “associating a pleasant, frightening or funny image, color or sound to certain information also helps people to recall better” After the mnemonics are well understood, steps to improve the short term memory starts and the first step should be memorizing new information, then teaching that information to others follows, this enables one to know what information has been stored and that which has not yet.
The next step is to re-organize the information so as to strengthen the short term memory; “ it involves writing down information, reading out loud, listening, and Writing down information; seeing also helps to engage more than one sense at the same time” Oberauer and Kliegl (2006). In addition, use of graphical information as said earlier increases the brain’s speed to process information.
Another strategy is use of chunking: “it has been proven to be a significant aid for enhancing the STM transfer to LTM because the STM’s capacity is limited to about seven items, regardless of the complexity of those items” Jonides, et, al, (2008).Chunking permits the brain to routinely assemble certain items simultaneously, consequently enhancing the ability to remember and learn better.
It usually involves organizing information in groups before encoding it in the memory. For example, when trying to memorize a phone number it is advisable to divide the seven digit number into twos or threes and may be depending on their meaning: Such numbers have the area codes, then six other digits which can be divided into threes hence making it easier to remember the separated digits instead of 10 of them.
Regular use of information in the long term memory also increases the efficiency of memory: Nairne, (2002) notes “In one testing session, an American cross-country runner was able to recall a string of 79 digits after hearing them only once by chunking them into different running times for instance, the first four numbers were 1518, a three-mile time.”
There are many other ways of improving memory efficiency this include; taking medication and some drugs that should be recommended by a physician for instance, nicotine has been previously recommended but it has to be legally prescribed. Critical thinking can also improve the memory’s efficiency while also accompanied by making rational decisions.
Another activity that would be suitable is writing; people can make a habit of writing down information directly from their minds; small, simple journals would be appropriate. People facing traumatic experiences that are affecting their memory should seek psychiatric help to assist them deal with the problem.
The short term memory can only keep information for about seven seconds but depending on the individual it can be plus or minus two. The information then decays after that, but it can be kept longer by rehearsing or saying aloud. Researchers have not yet discovered the real reason as to why the information decays and yet the memory can take new information a second after the other has been deleted.
The long term memory is said to keep information permanently but it also depends on the importance of the information and its utilization. Important information and frequently used information is easily recalled while that which is not really important can get lost over a period of time. The long term memory can however keep information for the entire life time of a person’s existence with the help of a protein known as kinase.
In conclusion the human memory is divided into two as said earlier; the two memories have their specific functions and they are interdependent since information has to pass through the short term memory before it goes to the long term and it is the duty of the latter to store it.
Memory efficiency varies in human beings depending with everyone’s daily experiences. However everyone should ensure that their brain is functioning properly because it is the core organ determining memory efficiency. People should also avoid stress, feed on a balanced diet and exercise regularly to keep the brain healthy and active.
Reference List
Brown, G. D. A., Neath, I., & Chater, N. (2007). A ratio model of scale-invariant memory and identification. Psychological Review, 114, 539-576.
Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 97-185.
Davelaar, E. J., Goshen-Gottstein, Y., A., A., Haarmann, H. J., & Usher, M. (2005): The demise of short-term memory revisited: empirical and computational investigation of recency effects. Psychological Review, 112, pp. 3–42.
Jonides, J., Lewis, R. L., Nee, D. E., Lustig, C. A., Berman, M. G., & Moore, K. S. (2008). The mind and brain of short-term memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 193-224.
Lewandowsky, S., Duncan, M., & Brown, G. D. A. (2004). Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 771-790.
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997). The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279-281.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
Nairne, J. S. (2002). Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 53-81.
Oberauer, K., & Kliegl, R. (2006). A formal model of capacity limits in working memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 55, 601-626.
Parmentier, F. B. R., Elford, G., & Maybery, M. (2005). Transitional information in spatial serial memory: path characteristics affect recall performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 412-427.
Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A., “Mnemonic instruction for students with learning disabilities: What it is and what it does,” Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 1990, vol. 13, 271-280.
From a psychological point of view, the human memory may be said to be the capability on one to store a piece of information and retain or recall it as of when appropriate. The study of this very important phenomenal started with philosophers’ investigation of such possibilities as an artificial enhancement of the memory. Over the years, particularly by the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, there was a lot already done by scholars particularly in the area of cognitive psychology’s paradigm.
Knowledge of memory has developed so rapidly of late so that it is the fundamental pillar of cognitive neurosciences. With the rapid development of cognitive psychology, there are several alternatives to testing of one’s brain. These include testing for audio receptivity or for image receptivity, or for both. This paper is a report of a test of memory for visual receptivity and retentiveness through a conceptual model that was designed to help retain pictured images.
The Concepts of Working Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-term Memory
For one to articulately understand the concepts of working-memory, short-term-memory, and long-term-memory in present days, he or she has to streamline the three memory types to specifics of what constitutes or makes a difference or similarity in working-memory, short-term-memory, and long-term-memory (Schacter, 1996). This, of course, is because there are numerous confusing arguments regarding the three from different scholars.
From a general point of consideration, however, short-term memory constitutes 2 distinct properties including a demonstration of chunk-capacity limits, and the ability to decay temporarily. There is equally a significant controversy on the differences between these 2 properties (Schacter, 1996).
One’s understanding of the concept of working memory is therefore build around 3 slight discrepancies. These discrepancies, according to Atkinson & Shiffrin include ‘short-term memory applied to cognitive tasks, a multi-component system that holds and manipulates information in short-term memory, and the use of attention to manage short-term memory’ (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, p. 95).
But even if one fails to consider this Atkinson & Shiffrin’s point of view, he or she will note that there is an expression of short-term memory that appears to be routinely conducted and would by no means show any clear relationship with cognitive measures (including the ones that are known of the expression ‘working memory) which possibly demand a higher level of attention and as well correlate better with the aptitudes.
Distinctively, the possibility of any existent differences between short-term-memory and long-term-memory stores happens to be with duration and with capacity. According to Cowan, ‘a duration difference means that items in short-term storage decay from this sort of storage as a function of time. A capacity difference means that there is a limit in how many items short-term storage can hold’ (Cowan, 1995, p.103).
In cases where there are capacity limitations, few articles which are below limits of the capacity may be left to be stored in short-term pending their replacement by fresh events. But these limits have quite a number of controversies. For one to determine how useful short-term storages are, it is pertinent to consider capacity limits as well as required duration for such storages.
The use of ‘working memory’ has often meant temporary memory as considered in terms of functionality. But this angle at which working memory is looked at does not product a clear line that separates the understanding of what stands between working-memory and short-term-memory. The 2 differ specifically in terms of property demonstrations: chunk-capacity limits and temporal decay. Where there is significant information on the earlier, idea on decay has continued to be notional.
Description of Selected Test and Results
For many years now, several tools and machinery and techniques have been applied in memory tests by different persons at different instances. The Rhyme/number technique, for instance, is used for memorizing a list of things in a specified sequence while effort is made not to forget items as they appeared. The shape/number technique has also been structured in almost the same way as the rhyme/number technique and works similarly.
Several years ago, the Romans used the roman-room mnemonic in recollecting data that was not structured. Over the years these techniques have continued to evolve. In 2004, Memtest developed and used memtest86+ for memory testing. For most memory testing tools, there is an effort to make their usage as simple but effective as possible. Memory testing mechanisms could be designed to incorporate both or either of verbal or word and/or visual or pictorial receptivity and retentiveness by the brain.
In case of our study here, visual receptivity test was conducted through a conceptual model that was designed where 20 pairs of different alphabets were painted with varying colors- a pair had the same color- totaling 40 alphabets altogether. And one out of each pair was picked and dropped in a tray and then the tray was shaken vigorously to enable the alphabets rearrange themselves at random.
These were then observed for a set period of 5 minutes after which the remaining units of the pairs were arranged in a second tray to reflect the placement and color position of the alphabets in the first tray. In a first effort to reproduce exactly the alphabets in tray 1 in tray 2, 10% of the alphabets in the first tray were perfectly positioned in the second tray in corresponding color and alphabets.
The time for observing the position of the alphabets in tray 1 was increased to 10 minutes after the alphabets were vigorously shaken again. During this time, 25% of the corresponding alphabets in tray 2 were arranged both in color and alphabets. The time for the observation was increased to 15 and the 20 minutes, and 60% and 80% corresponding positioning of alphabets in tray 2 were achieved respectively.
This simple but effective memory test indicates that there is usually an improvement with one’s ability to score higher as one keeps on with practice- even though it might not necessarily reflect a general improvement in one’s memorizing ability. A memory test at the first instance of trying must be taken very serious since it best reflects one’s most honest ability.
Explanation of the Role of Encoding and Retrieval in the Memory Process and how They Relate to Selected Test and Results
There is an intricate connectivity between encoding and retrieval memory processes. In his studies, Broadbent referred to this as, ‘…the processes of moving information to and from short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), respectively (Broadbent, 1975, p.86).
The interconnectivity linking encoding/retrieving processes and memory has been presented in an information-processor form as follows:
Figurative representation of interconnectivity between encoding and retrieving processes and memory
Encoding has to do with connecting fresh information with what has been known previously as an effort to modify the fresh information to a better appreciated one. Broadbent reviewed that, ‘the quality of this process is related to the degree with which new information can be integrated or assimilated with existing knowledge’ (Broadbent, 1958, p. 62). Equally, Baddeley notes that, ‘much encoding involves labeling thoughts with words, but pictorial or other forms may be used as well’ (Baddeley, 1986, p.100).
The fundamental aim of engaging any encoding strategy is based on an attempt of improving the capability with which one transfers short-term-memory information to long-term-memory (Hebb, 1949). Based on the fact that testing has proven to be the simplest tool for evaluating data and information, encoding and retrieving models and tools such as the conceptual model used earlier has the capability of enhancing performances by students in practical tests and exams.
Evaluation of Variables Associated with Encoding Information and Ease of Retrieval as they Relate to Selected Test and Results
The findings form our studies are an indication of the role played by regions in encoding/retrieval of intermittent information ahead of that needed for uncomplicated recognition of items.
Conclusion
The human brain exhibits the capacity of storing information in varying degrees depending on individual’s receptivity, storage, and retrieval potentials. The stored information could be in the form of working-memory, short-term-memory, or long-term-memory. Generally, short-term memory constitutes 2 distinct properties including a demonstration of chunk-capacity limits, and the ability to decay temporarily.
It applies to cognitive tasks, a multi-component system that holds and manipulates information in short-term memory, and the use of attention to manage short-term memory. The possibility of any existent differences between short-term-memory and long-term-memory or even working-memory stores happens to be with duration and with capacity.
This paper deliberates on the subject matter of memory through a visual receptivity test that was conducted using a conceptual model that was designed where 20 pairs of different alphabets were painted with varying colors. The result from the test indicated that there is usually an improvement with one’s ability to score higher as one keeps on with practice- even though this might not necessarily reflect a general improvement in one’s memorizing ability.
Reference List
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: a proposed system and its control processes. In: Spence KW, Spence JT, editors. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory. New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Oxford Psychology Series No. 11. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and Communication. New York: Pergamon Press.
Broadbent, D. E. (1975). The magic number seven after fifteen years. In: Kennedy A, Wilkes A, editors. Studies in Long-Term Memory. Oxford, England: Wiley.
Cowan, N. (1995). Oxford Psychology Series No. 26. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hebb, D. O. (1949). Organization of Behavior. New York: Wiley.
Schacter, D. L. (1996). Searching for Memory: The Brain, the Mind, and the Past. NY: BasicBooks.
Amnesia is a mental condition that is characterized by loss of memory. The affected individuals may not have a good memory of an event that occurred in a short period prior to the reference time. Amnesia manifests itself differently and the kind of information that is lost by individuals may differ as well.
The memory is disturbed and a piece of information that had been acquired may be blurred or appear completely. In other cases, amnesiacs may only recall new events or newly acquired information and lose the information that had been in the memory for a long time.
In some scenarios, an individual loses memory for a particular event. In other cases, the individual is able to have a good memory of given information but cannot recall its roots. An amnesiac may recall tragic event like road accident that occurred in his or her life. However, he/she may not be able to recall the events that occurred just before and after the scene. Other individuals may have good memory of skills learned in school while they are not able to develop a cognitive ability for their personal identities.
Several factors can cause amnesia and more studies carried out psychology pertaining to amnesia reveal causal factors. There are individuals who experienced such problems since their childhood. The condition could be acquired at a later stage in life following the causal factors. The condition could result from drug use, mental disorder, stress, and depression following a traumatic experience, or physical damage to the brain following an accident or shock.
Abuse of drugs such as excessive use of alcohol may interfere with an individual’s cognitive ability. Drug effects could also be witnessed in the situation where a patient is induced with a drug before an operation. Wrong use of such drugs may pose problems to the patient’s memory. A traumatic experience like a tragic car accident may interfere with the victim’s memory of the events that occurred before or after the accident.
These factors interfere with the function of hippocampus, the section of the human brain that is responsible for the development of memory, storing and organizing information. Information could be present in one’s memory but cannot be accessed. The inability to recall an event may occur just because the information is not organized in the memory area for proper retrieval.
Lack of proper long-term memory is a hindrance to the learning process and acquisition of new skills. It also impedes the individual’s personal development. An area of interest is thus a mechanism that is to be used to manage this condition.
The research question
This paper is based on the previous studies and seeks to determine which criteria (if any) are the most appropriate in the management of amnesia to enhance long-term memory. It attempts to find out if the subjects of amnesia can be made to acquire new semantic information after and attack. A brief look at the types of amnesia, their causes and how they are manifested in different individuals provide a basis for the studies that have been carried out to investigate the appropriate remedy.
Types of Amnesia
Amnesia can be categorized according to their nature and effects or according to their causes. Based on the nature, amnesia can be categorized as anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia. In anterograde amnesia, an individual experiences loss of short-term memory.
He or she is not able to retain new information or event in the memory and transfer it into permanent temporary. The information that was received after the attack cannot be retained for long in the memory. The attack results into disorder in the functioning of the brain that bars the transfer of information from the short-term memory to long-term memory. In retrograde amnesia, an individual is not able to recall the events that occurred before the attack. Both the types of amnesia can occur in an individual.
Based on the causal mechanism, there are different types of amnesia. These include hysterical posttraumatic amnesia, transient global amnesia, dissociative amnesia, childhood amnesia, among many others. Posttraumatic amnesia follow a traumatic event and could be anterograde or retrograde (Cantu, 2001, para.12). Transient global amnesia occurs spontaneously with irregular causes.
Causes of Amnesia
The occurrence of this condition may follow several factors. Some of the factors are mental disorder and posttraumatic stress. The condition could result from organic factors like trauma, a disease, or an effective drug that damage to the brain (Sharma, 2011, para.2-7). Amnesia could also follow psychological factors resulting from the traumatic experience.
Some forms of amnesia are witnessed from the childhood of an individual and could be attributed to the gene factors of the parents. Other types of amnesia occur spontaneously like the transient global amnesia. It could be an effect of a defense mechanism following a traumatic experience.
Effects of Amnesia
Amnesia has a number of effects on the victims. Some of these effects may be seen shortly after the attack whereas the others may take longer to be seen.
One of the common effects is the inability the affected individual to see into the future. The individual cannot recall past events and thus cannot have an imagination of what the future events might be like. The damage that is caused to the hippocampus in the brain does not allow the victim to recollect the past in order to picture the future. Besides, the condition usually results in a psychological problem in the end.
Management of amnesia
Various studies have been carried out to determine the most appropriate mechanism to manage amnesia and the fate of these victims after the attack. What emerges from the studies is that the management of the condition will highly depend on the cause and subsequently the type of amnesia identified.
As has been stated, some forms of amnesia are short-lived and may only occur once in a lifetime. Such conditions may improve even without an intervention. Others would prevail for a longer period and require some form of therapeutic intervention or medication. Change of an individual’s lifestyle following a directive by an occupational therapist may provide a good remedy for some forms of amnesia.
The management of transient global amnesia may not be the same as that of dissociative amnesia. An effective method that has been observed for the management of most types of amnesia is through psychotherapy. Dissociative amnesia could be managed through this method. It is necessary that the clinician be very comfortable with the different types of psychological interventions to be used such as behavioral therapy, hypnotherapy, cognitive therapy or psychopharmacological management (Sharma, 2011, para.14).
There have been false perceptions that psychotherapy could lead to the cases of corroboration of memories. In their study of amnesia, corroboration and dissociation in relation to childhood abuse, Chu et al (1999) found out that recovery of false memory was very common in the victims of child abuse that were not under therapy. The study followed arguments that the therapeutic services provided by the clinicians contributed largely to the development of false memory, especially in the victims of child abuse (Chu et al, 1999, p.749).
The study involved an examination of dissociative symptoms and details of child abuse among the participants. Indicators of amnesia following a traumatic experience were also sought from the participants. Different aspects of the victim’s recovered memory were also examined. The results that were obtained from the study suggested that psychotherapy treatments are not behind the development of pseudomemories after an attack (Chu et al, 1999, p.754).
Tsai (2011) provides a brief report of an individual who suffered amnesia and is not able to recover from the situation. Despite the medical intervention that the patient has undergone for over seven months, Dr Theresa Wang is still not able to forget the horrible car accident in which he sustained severe injuries (Tsai, 2011, para.3).
She has obtained various forms of medical treatments and therapy all to no good. As such, the medical practitioner has set given up her job to go and relax with the family members. The necessity of psychotherapy is evidenced in this case. The healing process should also not focus on the cause of the accident as was maintained by the husband of the doctor. In this scenario, a psychological intervention (through group therapy) may do better than the medical approach in management of amnesia.
Effective management of the amnesia also consists in the identification of the condition. The different types of amnesia like TGA should not be confused with other medical conditions like cerebrovascular accident (CVA) and subarachnoid hemorrhage. In a case study, Harrison and Williams (2007) provided an insight on the proper management of transient global amnesia (TGA).
It requires a proper identification of the signs and symptoms that are associated with the condition. Transient global amnesia is characterized by a temporary loss of anterograde memory (Harrison & Williams, 2007). The affected victims are not able to recall the events that have occurred in the immediate past.
The condition may or may not last for long. TGA is believed to have relation with epilepsy, transient ischaemic attacks (TIA), and intracranial venous stasis (Harrison & Williams, 2007). A criterion had been developed by Hodges and Warlow in 1990 to manage the situation. In the case study, the duo illustrates how a wrong diagnosis was given to a woman who suffered transient global ischaemia and how their intervention to give the proper diagnosis helped the woman recover.
The woman was performing a chore that was tiresome when she froze all over sudden. Afterwards, she lost her memory and could not recall the events that occurred in the last two hours. She could retain some information for only a few minutes before it disappeared (Harrison & Williams, 2007). She was later diagnosed with TIA and given the proper medication. However, her condition did not improve prompting her husband to seek help elsewhere.
The criteria developed by Hodge and Warlow require that before a diagnosis with TGA, the patient must have shown signs of anterograde amnesia when she was attacked. It also required that the condition be resolved within one day (Harrison & Williams, 2007, para.11).
The patient is required to have no history of active epilepsy or head injuries before the attack. There should be witnesses of the attack and an evidence of the attack being reported when it occurred before a TGA diagnosis (Harrison & Williams, 2007, para.11). All these conditions need to be met by a patient before he or she can be diagnosed with TGA.
Harrison and Williams (2007) also pointed out that since transient global amnesia is less likely to reoccur, providing psychological support to the amnesiac and the affected/related individuals like family and friends play big role in resolving the condition (Harrison & Williams, 2007). It involves meeting the psychological needs of the patients and his or her relatives to avoid memory of the unfriendly event that led to such a condition.
Recent developments also show that an examination of the human pupil during the learning process could also be used to identify if an individual has a memory loss. Researchers at the University of Sussex observed the changes in the size of the human pupil when the individuals were subjected to recognition memory instructions (Anonymous, 2001, para.2).
The researchers concluded that the size of the pupil had a strong association with the recognition of new or old items. Other methods could include the use of La Trobe Communication questionnaire for adolescents with difficulties in communication following a brain damage (Douglas, 2010, p.171).
Some researches and theoretical perspectives held out that subjects of amnesia are not able to learn and acquire new semantic information after an attack by even a very mild amnesia. However, a study by Tulving, Hayman, and MacDonald (1991) showed that this is not always the case.
In their study, they found out that under special conditions and extensive training, an amnesiac is able to acquire purely semantic information (Tulving, Hayman & MacDonald, 1991, p.597). The research revealed that the condition under which an amnesiac is trained greatly affects their ability learn and acquire information.
Conclusion
Amnesia is seen to take different dimensions following different causal factors. The signs and symptoms that indicate the mental condition may also differ depending on the cause of the disease. Some types of amnesia occur in a short period and the victim is able to resolve the situation after a short period without an intervention. Other forms would require and intervention by a psychotherapist and later by an occupational therapist.
The poor perceptions by certain researchers that psychotherapy contributes to development of pseudomemories have been invalidated by recent researches. The proper management of the different types needs a proper identification signs and symptoms associated with the condition. Care needs to be taken so that this condition is not confused with other problems associated with the central nervous system. This will ensure that a proper diagnosis is provided to the amnesiacs.
The management of the amnesia also requires psychological intervention. After a diagnosis with amnesia, the affected victims should be subjected to psychotherapy. A psychological and occupational therapist will help the patient and the patient’s relatives to recover from the situation by avoiding the memory of the past episodes.
References
Anonymous. (2011). Cognition; Researchers at University of Sussex Publish New Data on Cognition. Health and Medicine week. Web.
Douglas, J. (2010). Using the La Trobe Communication Questionnaire to Measure Perceived Social Communication Ability in Adolescents With Traumatic Brain Injury. Brain Impairment 11(2); 171-182. Web.
Human’s memory is often compared to a “computer’s information-processing system” (Myers 272). People’s memory stores certain facts in certain places, and whenever it is needed some facts are retrieved. However, sometimes it is difficult to find the necessary information in one’s “computer”. Fortunately, various researchers have conducted numerous experiments and surveys which enable to work out effective strategies to improve one’s memory.
One of the major principles of memory is that the process memorizing is divided into three stages encoding, storage and retrieval (Myers 272). One of the most effective ways to memorize some information is based on the research concerning working memory (Myers 273).
Thus, if a person needs to memorize some information, he/she should repeatedly retrieve the necessary data. For instance, if a student needs to memorize the most important facts of a chapter, he/she should read the chapter several times. It can be a good idea to read it twice a day for a week, and then go back to it within larger intervals, e.g. twice a week, once a week, three times per month, twice a month.
Another effective technique is based on the fact that there are two types of processing information: automatic and effortful (Myers 274). People process such information like where they meet friends or have dinner automatically, but to process some information written in a text book or in an annual report requires certain efforts.
One of the major reasons why people process information automatically because the actions associated with the information can be repeated in character and/or the new information evokes a lot of associations in the brain (having dinner: eating, visiting restaurant which is basically similar to others, but has some peculiarities (novice facts), socializing with friends, various emotions).
Thus, associations are very helpful for processing some information. If a student needs to memorize some facts, he/she should work out certain associations. One of interesting ways to find associations is putting questions like: “Where did it come from or originate? What caused it?” (Atkinson 171). Interestingly, Socrates and Plato used this method (Atkinson 171). Thus, a person creates clues which will help to find the necessary information when needed.
One more tool to memorize some information is based on such phenomenon as iconic memory (Myers 279). Admittedly, people always have an image for every word or fact they are processing. Furthermore, Sperling’s research which proves that people have photographic memory can help work out some strategy to memorize the necessary information (Myers 279).
For instance, if a student needs to process (and/or memorize) a chapter form a textbook, he/she can try to “photograph pages”, i.e. memorize where exactly this or that fact occurs. What pictures, tables, diagrams are there on that page? Eventually, a student will have an image of the most important passages of the chapter.
It goes without saying, that it will be more effective if an individual uses several methods simultaneously. For example, “picturing” the necessary messages will be more effective, if the student also creates certain associations, i.e. makes links between the new data and the old facts.
On a final note, it is possible to state that the understanding of the major principles of memory (such as three stages of processing information, automatic or effortful processing, photographic memory) enable people to work out effective methods of improving their memory.
Works Cited
Atkinson, William Walter. Memory: How to Develop, Train and Use It. New York: Cosimo, Inc., 2007.
Myers, David G. Exploring Psychology in Modules, 8th Edition. New York: Worth Publishers, 2011.
The examination of the functioning of the memory of an individual cannot be limited to only one memory test, and as a result, there are a variety of assessments that target the various features of the memory. Memory test procedures take into consideration various attributes including features of the test instrument such as legitimacy and consistency of results.
Tests should ideally sample a variety of non-related features of the memory to make sure that particular inadequacies in the memory can be identified. In addition to this, aspects of recall and recognition should be tested, as a way to monitor memory processes in relation to memory indicators (Dustman & Beck, 1980).
It has been observed that most of the memory encounters are incidental as opposed to premeditated. In view of this, one of the tests administered should be unexpected, to prevent rehearsal. Some tests are administered through visual aspects, ignoring auditory-verbal presentation modes as well as motor-retrieval response modes.
To make certain that the results obtained are well- founded, the person administering the tests should sample an appropriately broad range of test behaviors. Computerized testing has a number of drawbacks including time consuming and high cost of setting up the system (Dustman & Beck, 1980).
Memory for designs test
The Memory for designs test was designed by Graham and Kendall, in 1946. The test examines visual recall of an individual based on brain damage versus functional disorder versus normality. It is a popular test for the examination of brain damage in children and adults. The scoring system allows the accumulation of normative data (Graham & Kendall, 1947).
Administration of the test
The test is administered by presenting a series of fifteen geometric designs of increasing difficulty on individual cards. The cards are nine by twelve inch pieces of paper, with all designs drawn on the same piece of paper. Each design is presented to the individual alone, in a prearranged sequence. The subject is supposed to view the design for five seconds before it is removed from his view. The test’s duration is about five to ten minutes (Erickson & Scott, 1977).
Development of the test
The memory test was intended to draw the line and distinguish between individuals who are organically impaired and those who are functionally impaired. The inability to reproduce geometric designs from immediate memory is related to organic impairment.
After the test was introduced, forty designs were set and administered to a few individuals who had brain damage. The final set of tests included those designs that were found to be easiest to score as well as discriminate best between groups. The test has since been used with all age groups for both clinical and research purposes (Erickson & Scott, 1977).
Sample
According to Graham and Kendell (1960), there were a variety of samples such as the original validation group and a cross-validation group. In the original group, there were 70 brain-disorder patients with mixed diagnoses and 70 controls. They were all matched for age, education and occupational status.
The original group included an equal number of males and females, as well as African Americans. The age bracket of the subjects was 9 to 69 years, with an average age of 42 years. The average educational level was eighth grade. The latter group comprised 33 brain-disordered patients and 168 control patients. There were three times as many men as women, with an average age of 28 years for the controls and 37 years for the brain-disordered subjects. Both groups had an average education of ninth grade (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
Scoring, scale norms and distribution
According to the criteria provided by Graham and Kendall (1960), each reproduction has a score of 0-3, whereby the highest score signifies the worst performance. There was no penalty due to incomplete or forgotten designs. This is because the variables did not distinguish brain damaged subjects from control subjects.
Reliability tests
According to Graham and Kendell (1960), the split half reliability was .92 for 140 brain-damaged patients. Test-retest correlations conducted in the same session or within a 24 hour period for other groups ranged between .81 and .90. The clinical usefulness of the test is based on the adequacy of its standardization for various age groups as well as a variety of non-brained-damaged, psychiatric individuals.
The reliability of the scoring is suitable based on data provided in the test manual. In addition to this, new studies on the reliability have found it satisfactory. Qualitative scores are possible based on a measure of the tendency to rotate the designs, whereby the error can be reliably calculated (Graham & Kendall, 1947).
The age standardization for normal adults is adequate though the normative data that is available for different functional psychiatric groups is not. It has been observed that some functional psychiatric disorders produce lower scores on the MFD test, though there are no age norms for representative populations of functional psychiatric disorders.
This poses a challenge in the omission of the presence of a specific functional psychiatric disorder as a substitute explanation of a poor score based on the presently available norms, unless the alternative was eliminated on a different basis (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
Validity tests
An analysis of a large number of tests conducted on a sample of a hundred people to diagnose brain damage showed a +.597 for the memory for designs test on the first factor. This was interpreted as perceptual organization or the ability to integrate the relevant aspects of the perceptual field. Based on the perceptual organization factor, a memory aspect was observed from the tests, proving that perceptual organization was able to facilitate performance when memory was involved (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
The MFD test has been proven to always differentiate between groups of patients known without any doubt to have brain damage, as well as to match groups of normal people and psychiatric patients thought not to be brain damaged.
According to the definition of brain damage, that it is any amount of cell death in the cerebral cortex irrespective of the cause, every person aged above 30 years would be brain damaged. Some forms of birth trauma, childhood injuries and anoxia cause cell death in many normal children, though the damage is insignificant since it does not result in impairment (Richie & Butler, 1964).
Predictive validity
According to data presented in the Graham and Kendall ( 1960) test manual, a significant mean score difference between a group of brain-damaged and normal individuals, at the 0.01 level. This indicated an overlap in the scores of the non-brain-damaged and brain damaged groups that caused difficulties in coming up with a decision on the performance of borderline people.
An example was the cut-off point whereby 4% of the controls were diagnosed as having brain damage. Out of these, half of the brain-damaged subjects in one group and 48% in another group were designated with brain damage. The other cut-off point made for varied combinations of correct identifications, errors and false positives (Richie & Butler, 1964).
Convergent validity
According to Warren and Mangen, the memory for designs test correlated .85 and .81 with scores on the Bender Gestalt test.
Usability on older populations
The test is timed. In addition to this, manual coordination is required. The involvement of these factors implies that the aged may be handicapped.
Sensitivity to age difference
According to Peterson and Mangen, there was a significant correlation between performance and age, of 0.27. This implied that an increase in age of the subject corresponded to poorer performance of the subject. There was also a correlation of -.31 of the MFD test scores with intelligence. Assessment by the vocabulary score on the Wechsler-Bellevue showed a significant multiple correlation of .44 with age and intelligence (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
According to a study conducted on psychiatric patients aged above 60 years, 36 brain damaged and 36 controls, there was a considerable difference in the mean scores, which was not as high as that between, brain-damaged and standardization groups of younger ages.
The mean scores were 8.44 and 13.89, while the SD was 6.33 and 5.81 for the controls and brain-damaged group respectively. There was a big difference between this age group and all younger control groups, though the difference with the scores of adults between the ages of 20 and 60 did not vary much.
The confounding factor was that the controls over 60 years had a decline in vocabulary scores that was the same as that of the brain-damaged groups, which yielded negative results for the younger ages. This signified that the use of psychiatric controls for the older age-group would be unsuitable (Dustman & Beck, 1980).
According to another study conducted for subjects between the age of 20 and 80, with 50 men and 40 men in each constituent decade, the performance of older age groups on the MFD was observed to be stable until the age of fifty, after which there was a fast decline and increased variability in subjects’ performances (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
Conclusion
The test’s reliability and validity are good, since it discriminates in a rational manner between groups with brain damage and normal groups. The test has limitations when conducted on aged subjects since it requires manual coordination. In addition to this, it is timed and the performance correlates with age and intelligence.
Unusual scores signify damage in a specific cortical area, which in turn signifies a formerly particular dysfunction. It could be translated to mean a shortened life expectancy, though the MFD is hardly translated to imply such occurrences. Studies have shown an insignificant correlation between MFD score and a rating of severity of brain damage according to certain assessment criteria such as EFG (Peterson & Mangen, 1981).
Other studies have also shown a wide range of MFD scores when the test is administered to a psychiatric group whose brain damage status is uncertain, resulting in no conclusions from the features shown by the group. One practical consequence of an abnormal MFD score which has been demonstrated is that the patient is likely also to have abnormal scores on several other tests of brain damage such as the Bender Gestalt Test, and the Benton Visual Retention Test.
An abnormal MFD score might enable the clinical psychologist to identify a previously unknown pattern of associated psychological abnormalities which might have implications for the adjustment of the patient. Another useful implication of an abnormal MFD score among children is that one might anticipate difficulties in learning to read, as suggested by several studies (Erickson & Scott, 1977).
References
Dustman, R. E., & Beck, E. C. (1980). Memory-For-Designs Test: comparison of performance of young and old adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 36(3), 770-774.
Erickson, R. C., & Scott, M. L. (1977). Clinical Memory Testing. Psychological Bulletin , 1130-1149.
Graham, F., & Kendall, B. (1947). Memory-For-Design’s Test. Journal of Consulting Psychology , 11(6).
Peterson, W. A., & Mangen, D. J. (1981). Research Instruments in Social Gerontology: Clinical and Social Psychology (Clinical & Social Psychology). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Richie, J., & Butler, A. (1964). Performance of retardates on the memory-for-designs test. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 20(1), 108-110.
Role memory plays in making you the person that you are
Numerous studies show a human being’s memory is increased as a result of quite strong emotional stimulus. But only memories that are really important remain, while some less important memories vanish. With time, memories that are connected with strong emotional stimuli either remain as they are or improve. On the other hand, those that are connected with neutral stimuli diminish.
What is more, human beings are able to retrieve memories without difficulty when in some emotional state especially one that was in play when the particular memory was being shaped. Consequently, strong memories can be said to be a creation of strong emotions (Figas 28). Of course, any person has his/her own personal experience which can prove such statement.
My Personal Experience
Just the other day on my way to college, I passed by a young teenage girl by the college gate and she looked wasted, her clothes were torn and dirty and she was sleeping on the bench. As I was passing by her, I looked at her. In fact, I actually gazed but then immediately left for the lesson. “I am late”, I said to myself. My schedule is tight with no free time available as I have to work really hard, organize my club meetings. I did notice that nowadays I do not get much time to be with friends as compared to some years back.
Each day I have to show up at college at exactly eight in the morning and leave at around six in the evening. As for me, I like my life right now. It does not matter that I have now become a kind of a bookworm. I love the fact that I am busy and my life is back straight, at least, it is normal.
Catherine, my classmate and group member, walks into the discussion room at around eight thirty and reminds me of a discussion I am supposed to lead and present before the class (it is about the group findings). I change my sitting position. I look outside the library window and the girl I saw in the morning attracts my attention again.
She is still sleeping on the bench – the view from the library. That is when I remember having the same kind of view about ten years ago, but that time the girl sleeping on the bench was someone I knew. Sherry was her name, I always thought the name was beautiful and simple “rest her soul in eternal peace”, I whisper these words every time I get to think of her.
I have known Sherry for ages. We grew up together and we were best friends. Sherry was kind, respectful, responsible, and very cheerful. We spent much time together. We were at the same class. She loved everything about school but the last years of high school changed many nice girls, and, unfortunately, Sherry did not become an exception. I am partly blaming myself for what had happened to her. I could have influenced her, but I wasted my chance to save her.
Actually, the approaching college years (years of freedom) told upon me as well. We went to parties and clubs, though we did not drop our study. Once I offered Sherry to come with me to a loud party of guys from our class. I knew they had really bad reputation but the whole class was there. Sherry met a college student, Mike, at the party. He was a friend of one of the bad boys of our class. However, Sherry did not mind the reputation of the boy who she fell in love with.
Unfortunately, that Mike also liked Sherry so they started dating. Of course, she did not spend time with me now. She was trying to be with him whenever she had the opportunity. This is the point where her life changed and soon her grades begun to drop drastically owing to the fact that Mike introduced her to alcohol and even some drugs. Of course, she did not have enough time for school work. I saw that horrible changed and tried to save her.
I tried to convince Sherry that the kind of life she led will not do good to her. However, she would not listen to me. More so, she started avoiding me. I believe this is the natural reaction of a teenager who thinks he/she is being oppressed. Eventually, I gave in. I thought that Sherry is a grown-up person who would understand the mistakes she had done and would return to her family and her true friend.
Besides, her mother noticed the drop in her grades in her report and started interfering in Sherry’s life. Her mother even tried to stop her relationship with Mike. Perhaps, it was too late since even though Sherry seemed to return to the normal life, she did not stop the relationships with Mike. All was quite good for some time and no one was expecting the terrible events which took place a bit later.
Ironically, it was he who terminated their affair. I found out about it later when it was quite late. Sherry did not come to me to share her sorrow, but started seeing other boys. She thought it would make Mike jealous and he will come back to her. Instead, Sherry became one of those girls who did not spend nights at home and could be missing for several days.
One morning as I was walking to the bus stop, and I saw someone sleeping on the bench besides the bus stop. As I drew closer I noticed it was Sherry and I assumed that she drank too much last night. I went closer to wake her up and take her home. She was unconscious. Of course, I immediately called 911 and her parents. Fortunately, it was not too late and she was saved. However, that was only the beginning of Sherry and her family’s hardships. She could not forgive me for betray – she thought I should not call her parents.
Sherry stopped communicating with me. She made several attempts to commit suicide and had to spend several months in hospital. Eventually, her parents moved to another city, so that she could forget about everything and start her life again. I heard that she is ok now and she is even going to enter a college next year.
However, she lost almost two years of her life. Thus, the drugs took away my best friend from me. Unfortunately, my friend is not the only example; such experiences recur from generation to generation. “It is nine already: time for the meeting”, Catherine reminds me. I only whispered again “may her soul rest in eternal peace”.
The relationship between memory and perception is paradoxical
Humans do recognize their surroundings by memorizing names, comprehending them and recognizing the environment around them. Being able to remember things, starts with the ability to perceive them and attach characteristics to them that will enable one to remember. Human beings have a tendency to recall and remember things that profoundly affect them on an emotional level. Studies show that emotions are vital for memory, and that they are more important than the events that create them.
The effect of a condition on the emotions of people may make them decide to remember or forget events that take place straight away, previous to or subsequent to the event. In my case, it is hard for me to forget and move on. It is a painful memory since I am partially responsible for Sherry. However, I do not forget about Sherry and her misfortune.
This memory will help me to save lives in future since now I know that people need support. Now I understand that people are never adult enough to cope with difficulties on their own, so friends are to help each other. Even it can hurt somebody one should make his friend be responsible. Moreover, now it seems to be that Sherry was not offended by my interference. She must have blamed me for not helping her when it all only was starting.
Works Cited
Figas, Jacqueline. The Aging Client and Long-Term Care. Toronto: CCH Canadian Limited, 2008. Print.