Category: Memory

Autobiographical memory is a term that can be used to refer to events that took place at a particular place and time. Autobiographical memory is dependent on the Childs ability to bring up a personal life story in the memory. Development of Autobiographical memory occurs in stages just like other human development processes. After conception the fetus undergoes development in the brain that facilitates cognitive processes to commence. The type of food materials and nutrients a pregnant mother feeds on determine cognitive development of the unborn child.

After the baby is born brain development continues and autobiographical memory starts accumulating in the infant. This is facilitated by the child mother interaction. Objects of play such as toys are very significant in the development of autobiographical memory during infancy.

From infancy there is the pre-school age whereby the child accumulates autobiographical memory as a result of interaction with the parents and playmates. The recognition of the self is more developed here as depicted when the child can distinguish his/her images from those of other children.

Here the child is normally exposed to learning materials that also aid in the autobiographical memory. In the school going autobiographical memory continues to develop and accumulate as learning materials in class and even outside the class environment. In adolescence the child undergoes various changes that determine cognitive and autobiographical memory. (Conway.& Pleydell , 2000).

Infancy

Infancy stage refers to the period between conception and about two years of life outside the mother’s womb. During this stage important cognitive processes take place and are fundamental towards the development of autobiographical memory in the infants. From birth as the child develops the reflexes they mark the beginning of autobiographical memory. This is the period of sensory motor development. It is marked by important body sensitivity movements especially towards images and even touch as stimuli. during the first twelve to eighteen month the infant tries to experiment and do some creativity. This is very important as far retention of information is concerned. It is the sensation and interaction between the body and the environment of the infant that brings about cognitive development. The hand and eye coordination that come about at round four to eight months are very important in later stages whereby the infant needs the coordination to commence the development of the self through mirror images and other pictorial objects supplied in the environment.( Conway, M.A.& Pleydell Pearce, 2000).

Studies have revealed that infants tend to react to mirror images. They tend to have a positive reaction towards their mirror images and within several months they can discriminate their images from those of other infants. Studies have also shown that at the age of around 8 months, infants start demonstrating awareness of the contingency cues. This is indicated when they start moving along their images and utilize them for playing and even imitation. at round 18 months they begin to show mark directed behavior especially when they are noted to touch their noses when something is applied to them. When an infant can recognize his/her images whether in photos or using mirror then this marks the development of the self recognition facet in the process of autobiographical memory development. This recognition of personal features is an important aspect of social cognition process which is essential for autobiographical memory build up.

Infants tend to show imitation and other similar actions and are important to the Childs cognitive development and autobiographical memory. The continuous repetition of things like toys within the infants environment provide important memory cues. These are quite essential for the child to remember since the brain is still young and has not accumulated much in terms of knowledge and information. Infants when they are exposed to different objects they tend to show certain actions which represent various meaning s. Some when exposed to some of their photos they begin to show shyness or embarrassment. This contributes a lot towards the development of their memory. Activities repeated to the infants normally cause imitation for instance movement with mirror images or dolls. This help the infants to have important memory cues that form part of the autobiographical memory at this early stage. Therefore the fact those infants are in a position to elicit imitation after being exposed to some objects in their environment, then this shows that there is some memory gain at this stage. Reinforcement in infants in all sorts of ways can also contribute towards retention of information within the Childs mind. a stage in cognitive development symbolic representation which marks the end of trial and error is very important in autobiographical memory. All the stage of sensory motor period are essential towards retention of information that contribute to autobiographical memory. However during infancy most people cannot remember what was happening, their behavior and other important things. Therefore they have to be told by their parents or other people who were close to them. (Cleveland, & Reese,2005).

Pre-school children

In stage in life children with normal minds would have acquired some information in their cognitive structures. In this stage the speed of processing information in more improved than in the infant stage. The children during their play can demonstrate creativity and a lot of imitation which symbolizes in formation retention and storage.

These children are in the preoperational cognitive development stage. They can be able to classify objects which are put together. When exposed to television or moving objects this children can imitate what they observe. Parents at this stage contribute a lot to help their children to remember. This is achieved through singing other forms of repetitions that help to stick information into the Childs mind. The play materials also help pre-school students to gain a lot from the environment. Language skill which is a very essential aspect of memory develops during this stage. The child in pre –school age can start representing objects and images into words. However it is vital to note that most of the word s here are not used logically. The child tends to use words randomly but they are of meaning. to his/ her memory. Repetition of words by the child at th I stage is important for development of autobiographical memory.

At this stage the child lacks awareness that other people who are around do not think in the same way as he/she thinks. Lack of this kind of awareness also affects the autobiographical memory in children. Children also tend to like one another so much at this stage. They also tend apply emotions to objects that do not have life. Toys supplied to the children at this stage are treated like humans. All these activities influence the e development of autobiographical memory as they involve retention of information within the Childs mind. As language develops in the mind of the child he/she begins to respond with some sort of sound when his/her name is called and especially by the mother. This response is a sure indication that some autobiographical information has been stored and retrieved for use by the child. During the time of distress, most children have been noted to call the mom and without cognitive development within the mind of the child this cannot be achieved. Most of the children in this category tend to be egocentric according to studies. This can be understood to be strengthening of the self concept that was characteristic of the infancy stage.

Egocentrism is a very essential aspect of autobiographical memory as an individual focuses on himself as others are kept aside. The attentions the parents pay to the children at this age also influences the development of autobiographical memory. If the children attention is not well looked into, they tend to fade away and this means loss to the memory of important activities to the Childs mind. Reinforcement and reprimand or even punishment of undesirable behavior by the parents to the child at this age remains in the memory of the child as he grows.

Most of the children who were severely punished at this age with uncaring mothers tend to have flashbacks of whatever that took place and it is part of their autographical memory. There in pre –school age the parents and language development are crucial for better development of autobiographical memory. It is vital to underscore that during this stage, in terms of autobiographical memory most individuals are not able to vividly recall the events that they went through other than those they were told by their parents or even relatives.

School going children

Most of the autobiographical memory in this age group can be recalled by individuals. This stage covers between four to seven years. These children have developed language skills and can communicate well with other people. They can take instruction provided in their first language. The child in this bracket can use logical reasoning and mental processes to solve problems. This ability to solve problems plays a major role towards remembering of events that take place in the memory of the child. Even though these children can utilize mental abilities in finding solutions to problems, they are not in a position to know how they arrive at specific conclusions. This also affects their memory In the school so many things take place in the life of the child. There is the learning part where imitation plays a significant role in retention of materials. Logic is acquired in the course of learning in the school age. When children are exposed to tasks such as counting of numbers, they can learn logic and improve their memory status. Play also is very essential to the child at this particular age. Without it the memory of the child will lack important aspects in future.

Because of language development, the children can utilize this skill to understand others for instance during play. They are also able to make out what the adults say. Most people would start remembering their autobiographical data from this age onwards.

Play as a important tool for retaining of information is used here by the children to recall people they were playing, with and their teachers plus the place this happened.

Since language is elaborate at this stage in the life of many people, autobiographical memory comes out vividly during this stage. Otherwise anything below this age all is narrated by the parents and particularly the mother.

School going children have improved information processing and recording than in the pre-school age. Therefore autobiographical memory in this stage is much organized than it is in earlier stage. This is because the child here would have developed skills such as logic with which they utilize to organize pieces of information that can contribute towards autobiographical memory. School going children can reason locally and find solutions to problems. They even can explain how they arrive at conclusions in whatever they have done.

The way the teachers and parents narrate their past events and concepts to the children also improves on autobiographical memory retention in the pupils.

Teachers repetition of important people in life who can act as role models within the school or world also helps strengthen autobiographical data. How best an in an individual becomes a good narrator of his past depends on how the parents and teachers narrated it. These are the main role models for the children who are school going. The type of play and learning materials the children are exposed to also contribute towards autobiographical information. For instance most people would remember the materials they used to handle for various arts at these early stages of education. The responsibilities assigned to the children at these stages also might count in their future autobiographies. Therefore school going age in the life of many people provides an important beginning of vivid events that took place and shaped the life of an individual. Other stages from the school going age are characterized with a a very clear record of activities and events that are always on the mind of the child until he/she grows into an adult.

Adolescence stage

This is a very crucial stage in the development of autographical memory. During this stage most developmental activities occur and contribute towards the enhancement of autobiographical memory. Learning activities both at home and at school are fundamental towards the development of the cognitive and consequently the autobiographical memory.

According to Piarget cognition in this stage is preoperational whereby things in the learning environment become more abstract to the learners. During this stage in life as the children interact in school with the teachers and peers they are better positioned to absorb what they are taught by their teachers and believe them. They also try reasoning about the events they are told and even make logical conclusions about such things. In the cause of such processes of cognitive developments the autobiographical memory also develops within their cognitive structures. This is also neighbored by the teachers when they repeat narrating to them how their past experiences were. This stage is also characterized by a high degree of self consciousness amongst the youths.

The self ability develops much during stage and it is facilitated by the high self consciousness whereby most of the children and seeking self identity after knowing what they are. (Fitzgerald, 1981).

In them there is normally a unique sense whereby they feel that nobody can understand them.

Therefore autographical memory is greatly enhanced at this stage since most of the events can be remembered and can never get out of most peoples minds. Another important feature to note about adolescents is that they normally hold an imaginary audience whereby they think that someone is watching them in whatever they are doing. This helps much in strengthening their memory cues. They also normally have a feeling that others are interested in them as much as they are to themselves. This makes them concentrates so much on life shaping activities that will go long way in their history. These events like the favorite sport or play is always kept in mind and thus helps to shape their autobiographical memory. The advantages this group has towards development of autographical memory one is that they have a very high speed of processing information. This age group is characterized with high automation and increased capacity of information processing than the earlier stages in child development. Therefore due to this cognitive advantage the autobiographical memory of adolescents is very much enhanced as they can do things quickly than the infants and the pre- school children. This age also have the advantage of an increased breadth of knowledge and information. This feature in adolescents helps them to know many things and events which make up the autobiographical memory Adolescents can process information at very fast speed. They interpret events and things within the environment quickly and due to such interactions they are therefore very fast to catch up with the memory cues.

Adolescents therefore in the course of their cognitive development, posses important features of their minds that enable them develop and enhance their autobiographical memory. Alongside the cognitive features the environment in which adolescents find themselves in also contributes towards important memory cues that help them keep track of the events that keep happening in their lives. For them to better develop autobiographical memory, teachers and parents ought to provide conducive environment for the development of cognitive and consequently autobiographical memories which will be reflected in their future.

In conclusion it is important to point out that cognitive development in an individual facilitates the development of autobiographical memory in all the stages of human development. This step by step process is greatly influenced by interaction and provision of the appropriate environmental requirements for the child beginning from infancy to adolescence.

Autobiographical me memory increases gradually as the child develops cognitive structure within the mind. Imitation and repetition of events as done by the adults ,have been noted to be very significant contributors to the accumulation of autobiographical memory in the children. However at infancy very little is available for the autobiographical memory because important features are not yet developed for instance language. Most people in their lives start vividly recalling their past from the school going age when the language tools are adequate to help in understanding the environment.

References

Conway, M.A.& Pleydell Pearce, C. W.(2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261-288. 2).

Rubin,D.C. Schrauf,R>W., & Greenberg, D.L. (2003). Belief and recollection of autobiographical memories. Memory and cognition, 31,887-901.3).

McLean,k., & Fournier, M. (2008). The content and processes of autobiographic research in narrative idntity. Journal of Research in Personality, 43 (3), 527-545. 4).

Harly, K. & Reese, E. (1999). Origins of Autobiographical Memory, Development Psychology,35, (5), 1338-1348. 5). 6).

Cleveland, E.S. & Reese,E. (2005). Maternal strucure ans autonomy support in children’s autobiographical memory. Developmental Psychology, 41 (2), 376-388. 7).

Ornstein, P, Baker-Ward,L, Gordon, B, Pelphrey, C., & Gramzow, E. (2006). The influence of prior knowledge and repeated quesrioning on children’s long- term retention of the details of a pediatric examination. Developoment Psychology, 42, (2),332-344. 8).

Fitzgerald,J.M. (1981). Autobiographical Memory Reports in Adolescence. Canadan Jounal Psychology, 35,

Introduction

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin introduced the multi-store model of memory. It quickly gained a lot of attention from the scientific community, which proceeded to further research the multi-store model. Over time, however, some of the concepts of this model were found to be too simplistic and not representative of reality. As an alternative, Baddeley and Hitch created a new concept called working memory. This paper will provide an overview of the working memory model, including its general process of functioning and how false memories can form during its operation.

The Function of Working Memory

The idea of short-term memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin was unitary and far too limited in its flexibility. With a capacity for only five to nine items over the duration of 30 seconds, it could not be applied to more complex cases and did not explain many of the issues that can arise when a person’s short-term memory is damaged. To address these problems, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a non-unitary model of working memory.

This model consists of three primary components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The central executive is responsible for allocating the processing resources of the brain between the loop and the sketch pad. The phonological loop represents the person’s inner voice and analyzes phonological information. The visuo-spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information, as well as representing the inner eye of the person. The working memory model proposes that the functions of the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad are performed simultaneously and independently of each other (D’Esposito and Postle 139).

The central executive, as the name implies, is the primary component of the working memory system; every other component is subservient to it. Not much is known about the central executive, but it is known that it is responsible for coordinating secondary components, monitoring their work, and relaying their results to long-term memory. The central executive chooses which component should process the received information, and it is also responsible for prioritizing one memory activity over another. Because of its importance, any impairment to the central executive can lead to significant issues with short-term memory.

The name “phonological loop” comes from the system’s ability to store and repeat the sound of the inner voice. It usually operates for around 20-30 seconds and is capable of storing larger amounts of information as long as it is grouped into meaningful chunks of about five to eight digits. The loop itself consists of two subcomponents. The first is the phonological store, which represents the inner ear. It can store portions of sounds from around the person, as well as those recalled from long-term memory. The second is called the articulatory control process, and it represents the inner voice.

This process is what causes people to hear their own voice while thinking. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is in charge of the visual short-term memory. It can recall both two-dimensional and three-dimensional images. This model of memory proposes an explanation for memory disorders in which a person has an impaired digit span but is able to use visual short-term memory without problems. Later, the original model was updated to include another component called the “episodic buffer,” a feature that is also controlled and monitored by the central executive. Its function is to act as backup storage that communicates between long-term memory and other components of the model (Ma et al. 348).

False Memory

Memories are often not an accurate representation of the real events. This fact is due to a vast variety of reasons, from the presence of strong emotions to different memory disorders. Memories that elicit a strong emotional response are called flashbulb memories. These emotions often distort the person’s memory of the event, making it less accurate. For example, the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center tend to elicit memories affected by emotions, which even with yearly reminders from media do not retain their accuracy over time (Hirst et al. 620).

Personally, I have experienced the phenomenon of possibly false memories when I was almost hit by a bus six years ago. I was returning home after going out with my friends when I carelessly started to cross the road without looking. A large white bus stopped only a few inches from me, honking its horn loudly and stopping with a screech of the tires. The problem is that even though I remember this happening, there is no guarantee that the bus was white or that it was actually that close to me. After six years, my mind could have unintentionally changed the details of the story.

Memories can not only become distorted but can also be completely false. Cryptomnesia causes a person to substitute his or her personal memory with someone else’s. For example, a person can come to believe that he or she invented something because they learned how it was invented long ago. False memories can be implanted by suggestion or may be created due to brain damage or immature frontal lobes.

Repressed memory therapy can lead to the creation of false memories as well. Some of the more common false memories come from the human desire to create a consistent reconstruction of past events in their lives. I have experienced this type of false memory as well. When I think about my time in school, there is a relatively small number of memories that are clear. Because this period covers everything from primary to high school, there is no way for me to accurately remember all the events in order. This is where false memories come in; I might misremember when I last saw classmates who I did not know too well.

I often misremember when certain classes were introduced into my curriculum, and I even find myself having false memories of when I met my school friends. With no record of most events, I can only hope to reconstruct these events with some portion of accuracy. The problem of false memories also makes eyewitnesses less reliable. Coupled with the effects of flashbulb memory and personal biases, there is a high chance of receiving false information from eyewitnesses. Other factors like sleep deprivation, intoxication, and stress can also lead to inaccurate memories and even the creation of false ones. Such things as illusion and dreams can become a part of memory, especially during intoxication (Conway and Loveday 579).

Conclusion

There are still things that the scientific community does not understand about memory. Despite the great research that has gone into this topic, information on the working memory system is lacking. False memories are common and can be created under a variety of conditions. However, with the help of new neuroscientific technology, scientists should be able to gain new insights into this topic and, over time, gain a better understanding of how memory actually works.

Works Cited

Conway, Martin A., and Catherine Loveday. “Remembering, Imagining, False Memories & Personal Meanings.” Consciousness and Cognition, vol. 33, no. 5, 2015, pp. 574-581. Web.

D’Esposito, Mark, and Bradley R. Postle. “The Cognitive Neuroscience of Working Memory.” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 66, no. 1, 2015, pp. 115-142. Web.

Hirst, William et al. “A Ten-Year Follow-Up of a Study of Memory for the Attack of September 11, 2001: Flashbulb Memories and Memories for Flashbulb Events.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 144, no. 3, 2015, pp. 604-623. Web.

Ma, Wei Ji et al. “Changing Concepts of Working Memory.” Nature Neuroscience, vol. 17, no. 3, 2014, pp. 347-356. Web.

What is memory consolidation?

The conversion of labile memory into a more permanent one is understood as memory consolidation. The permanent memory however is liable to frequent reactivation and recall which constitute reconsolidation. Recent trends have changed the previous view of a single speedy process of consolidation to one which involves the stages of stabilization, enhancement, and integration lasting over the years. The processes are believed to occur during the wake-sleep states. Each recall is believed to shift the memory back to unstable form and a reconsolidation occurs to remodel the memories. The initially encoded memories keep improving with each recall. The processes of consolidation and reconsolidation involve molecular, cellular, and system-level processes. Memory is declarative and non-declarative.

The memory stages start with a fast initial coding taking milliseconds or seconds when it is prone to lose or change. Consolidation involving protein synthesis is necessary to maintain it as long-term memory. Electroconvulsive shock (ECS) and protein synthesis inhibitors have proved that consolidation occurred during sleep at night. Consolidation has the power to improve memory and thereby accuracy of performance even without practice. For an initial period of stabilization, the consolidation process causing enhancement of a motor learning task was 10 times the stabilization time. For a visual discrimination task, it lasted 2 days. The stabilization process allows the memory to last for years. Recall would make the memory labile again. It then undergoes reconsolidation to maintain it the same or in a better condition. If the destabilized memory is not stabilized, it fails or maybe inaccessible to recall.

Short-term memory which is mediated through Ca+ influxes will not be adequate for long-term purposes. Similarly, processes that support long-term memory like protein synthesis cannot be rapidly encoded for short-term memory. Episodic memories which are made possible by special network structures will not be able to support other types of memory. Consolidation processes are believed to facilitate behavior through offline memory organization.

Role of Sleep

The brain does not remain in a single physiological state all through the day; neural and metabolic activity occurs in diverse proportions during the states of wake and sleep. Sleep is further divided into REM (rapid eye movement) and non-REM (nonrapid eye movement) stages which alternate all through sleep. The distinct stages have differing neurochemical and physiological changes.

Some stages of memory development are believed to occur during sleep and others can occur even when awake. Motor memory can occur when awake. However, the enhancement phases of motor and sensory memory consolidation occur during overnight sleep. Memory consolidation of motor skill tasks has been associated with specific physiological characteristics and the stage 2 and slow-wave sleep components of the NREM sleep. The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM. Therefore consolidation enhancement for different memories is dependent on different sleep-stage brain states.

Reconsolidation can become more difficult as time elapses probably due to degradation of the memory trace. The process of recall goes through a destabilization followed by a reactivation which may vary in duration. Positive results have not been elicited from rat experiments regarding the molecular, behavioral, or cellular level changes. Degradation has been only behaviorally assessed. Reconsolidation has been identified as the process which prevents memory degradation.

Memory consolidation and reconsolidation occur at functional synapses of the hippocampus which exhibit molecular plasticity necessary for the encoding of new information which modifies older memories. This plasticity involves the processes of

‘memory organization, reorganization, and refinement’. The initial stabilization is uncomplicated but the following process all depends on the sleep-wake system. Degradation of memories also could be occurring during sleep.

Analysis

Sleep deprivation at specific stages could affect memory consolidation. Experiments showed that early night sleep which had plenty of short wave sleep was good for memory consolidation but not the REM-filled periods later in the night. Hippocampal activation was found to increase during the short wave sleep period substantiating the argument of active processing during SWS. Neuroimaging studies had demonstrated the same activity of the brain during the training period in the subsequent sleep in rat hippocampal neurons. Reorganization of memory had also been detected by this technique. The molecular processes involved show an increase of IEG zif 268 in the hippocampal dentate gyrus, the piriform, and frontal cortices following a sensorimotor exposure. This zif 268 conversely reduced when there was no such exposure. The different studies at the brain, neuronal, molecular, and behavioral levels all show that memory consolidation occurred at different wake-sleep states. All stages except stage 1 of NREM sleep had been associated with memory consolidation.

Why at night?

It is noticed that all sleep experiments were conducted in the night, presuming probably that all people slept only during the night and the memory consolidation occurred overnight. However, it is time to notice that half the intelligent world in this era of globalization is working at night and sleeping some time during the day. They are people who have to continuously learn and be sharp always. It is difficult to think that their powers of memory consolidation have been affected by the clock change. Studies may be conducted in rats who may be taught to sleep during the day or in humans who work at night.

Reason for lability of reactivated memory

Subsequent reactivation being labile may be explained by the Pavlovian fear conditioning in the long-term memory of animals. These conditioned fear associations if indelible may have caused an animal to lead a life of fear always remembering its previous experiences. However, this is not so. These conditioned fear associations are not always expressed. In the absence of the causes which could be a hunter animal running after it, the responses slowly get extinguished and the animal is bolder day by day. The responses spontaneously recover with time. The conditioned association is never erased from memory but the conditioned response will be erased.

Schedule for future experiment

Human experiments have shown the relationship of sleep to memory reconsolidation. The memory consolidation after a day’s training of a short motor sequence showed a reconsolidation overnight leading to speed and accuracy. A second competing sequence after 10 minutes caused an interference for the first sequence the next day. However, a second sequence after 6 hours did not interfere with consolidation. Reinforcing the first sequence before starting the second showed that consolidation had taken place but resulting in less accuracy. Reconsolidation could be blocked by another behavioral sequence and not necessarily chemical or electrical stimuli. Late-night interference training worsened the accuracy the next day.

A study may be conducted on people who sleep during the day and work at night

Memory consolidation can be tested to see if the responses to a motor skill sequence trained at night have any effect on the accuracy the next night after asleep. The variations of an interference sequence 10 minutes after the first and 6 hours after the first and the effect of reinforcing the first sequence before the second may be tested the next day. This experiment could follow the lines of the mentioned experiment but involving the night workers. If this experiment has the same results which say that the consolidation took place during sleep, the concept of sleep at night would lose its significance and become just ‘sleep’.

Introduction

People have identified many creations of man as ‘wonders of the world’. For instance, the Great Wall of China, The Taj Mahal and so on. If I were asked to list the wonders of the world, the first on the list would be the man himself. The human body has remained a mystery for a while. Recent studies have led to the discovery of the amazing functions of various organs in the body. But the one thing that will continue to intrigue us is the human brain. It is still a mystery. The human brain is as complex as it is interesting. The big irony is that we humans are still unable to fully understand our brains! What is mentioned in biology text books and journals about the human brain is so small and almost insignificant compared to the myriad functions and parts of the brain that are yet to be explored. We have so many questions regarding the human brain to which there are no answers as of now. However, the human brain will remain a wonder only if those questions remain unanswered.

Human psychology is a vast subject that deals with a person’s thoughts, feelings, emotions and the like. Social psychology is concerned with information processing within the individual and deals with the ways in which social causes or influences disturb these processes. But, social psychology has attracted greater attention for its regular crises than for any other results and answers it has produced (Flick.U, 1998). We do know that the brain performs functions like thinking, deciding, remembering, recognizing, comparing, and calculating and so on, but we dot know exactly how. A person is a vegetable if his brain does not function. Such is the significance of the human brain. Social Cognition is a branch of Human Psychology. According to Baron and Byrne, it refers to the manner in which we interpret, analyze and remember information about the social world. (Pennington, C.D, 2000) According to Ziva Kunda, memory is an act of reconstructing past information or experiences and not recalling the past incidents. When something is remembered, a series of processes take place in the brain, it recovers and then starts reconstructing the information like the things a person has done or learned. The author says that the incidents are not actually remembered the way they happened. It is shaped by many factors like time, circumstances when it happened, and so on (Kunda. Z, 1999).

According to the Buddhists, there are two types of memory; that of holding in mind and that of recollection or the reconstruction of memory of the previous experiences. Both have the nature of material concerning them according to the Buddhist text. (Gyatso. J, 1992). The primary source of material for the data reconstruction process is one’s memory for the event itself which means, event memory-based re-construction (Thompson P.C, 1996).

Hot cognition means a mental process with series of recollections and processes that are distorted by the current mental state of a person and are driven by a desire or feeling- where goals and mood color decide our judgment. It is a physical process in which is aroused to action in response. In simple words, hot cognition is the opposite of cold cognition in which deep intellectual thinking, analyzing, and reasoning play an important role. For example, a person may respond to his emotion without analyzing the situation properly. During the study of brain aging people not only look at the memory alone, but they also see the cognitive abilities of the people. Cognition is not only remembering and forgetting but also perception, learning, reasoning, imagination, insight, and so on. (Kunda. Z, 1999)

The present perspective is concerned with the antecedents and consequences of hot cognition. However, the previous researches on hot cognition were only concerned with demonstrating how effects influence memory, judgment, decision, and behavior.

(Forgas..P.J, Williams.D.K & Hippel..V W, 2003)

Researchers, who study social cognition, differentiate it as “cold” and “hot” cognition. Hot cognitions occur during conditions of aroused motivation or emotion and cold cognition is similar to that of processing information (Maxwell M, 1991).

Review of the study undertaken by Cohen in 1981

Many types of research and studies have been undertaken to examine whether expectancies and preconceived information could cloud judgment. One such study undertaken by C. Cohen in 1981 is as follows.

A group of people was made to watch a video of a woman having a birthday dinner with her husband. Before watching the video, half of them were told that the woman was a librarian and the rest of them were informed that she was a hotel waitress. After the session, when the memory of the group of people was tested it was found that the participants who were told that the woman was a librarian recalled details consistent with the stereotypes of a librarian. The rest of the people who were told that it was a waitress could remember details congruent with the details of a waitress (DeLamater,D.J, 2003).

This study went on to prove that cognitive structures may influence recall and also how preconceived information can color judgment. Though the profile and some of the attributes of the woman in the video were consistent for a waitress and the rest for a librarian, people were inclined to believe what they were told already. When the people were told beforehand that the woman in the video was a waitress, they could recall aspects of the woman that were coherent for a waitress and the same goes for those who were told that it was a librarian.

Hypothesis for “Hot cognition”

We wanted to conduct a similar study to find out if preconceived information influences judgment. For this, we have planned to include twenty participants and show them a famous work of art that is still found in the Birla museum at Hyderabad, India, and test how they interpret the painting based on the information provided beforehand. This tests the principle of hot cognition.

Hypothesis for “memory”

To test if memory is the reconstruction of the past or recollection of events, we conducted another research. The same twenty people were asked to recall an incident that happened years back. Questions were asked to them on how they felt about the incident currently. This tests if the statement that memory is reconstructed depending on factors like time, circumstances, and so on is true.

The following are the contents of this paper:

• The methods that we undertook to carry out both the researches
• The results or outcome of the research
• The limitations of this study
• The significance of this study to the world at large.

Procedure

We conducted the hot cognition test and the memory test on a group of twenty people who were in their early or mid-twenties. We divided the people into two groups, each group containing ten people for the hot cognition test, and gave a general test for all the twenty people on the memory test.

Hot cognition test

We had chosen a famous picture of the Birla museum Hyderabad India – it is a museum that started in 1930. The museum is a semi-circular building containing sections on implements, sculptures, paintings, inscriptions, illuminated scripts, coins, arms, bidri ware, etc. and the most famous and crowd-drawing feature is the 4,000 – year – old –Egyptian mummy (Bradnock. R, 2000). The picture is given below:

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The drawing that we have taken is a well-known optical illusion. One can either see a side view of an old woman with a big, crooked nose or a pretty young girl seen from behind if they are unaware that the picture is an optical illusion type and there will be a hidden image in the picture. We showed the image to a group of twenty people. They were divided into two groups- ten in each. Before showing the picture to them, we told the first group that the picture had a hidden image which was a side view of an old woman with a large nose. The second group was not informed of the optical illusion. When we asked the people to describe the image, the first half described the features of the young girl, they were unable to look into the image beyond the girl due to the preconceived information and the second half described the features of the young and also explained the image of the old woman’s wrinkled face and the large nose hidden in the picture, they were influenced by the prior information that we gave them.

Memory test

Memory is one word that is difficult to define, although most people have what appears to be an instinctive definition from an early age. Without requiring a precise definition, research on memory now occupies the time of thousands of scientists and students researching all over the world. Though many of them have now agreed that the word is “the systems, representations, and processes in living organisms that are involved in the retention of information”, but this is rather a vague definition (Samuel. D, 1999).

It is not very accurate. We wanted to experiment on the basic meaning of memory- ‘recollection’. We wanted to find if memory is a process of recollection or if it is a process of reconstruction. As for the memory test, the same group of people was asked to recollect certain scary incidents that happened to them when they were young (when they were around six years) what they felt about it when they were around the age of fifteen (if they were still scared of the same incident as they did when they were much younger) and how they feel now (if they are still scared when they think about it). They recollected incidents like being left alone in a dark room, getting lost in a crowded market, or being scared of things like dog’s ferocious barking, lizards, etc. Most of the people felt that they were less scared when they were in the age of fifteen and laughed over the incident and their childhood fear now that they found those incidents funny, amusing, and all the more silly. We realized that memory is not the process of recollection; it is a process of reconstruction of events that is influenced by time, age, circumstances, and so on. What a person felt earlier about a particular incident changes as he grows and his point of view also changes. For example, when we asked the people to recollect a painful incident that happened when they were young, they found the same incident funny due to the time and circumstances in which they are and wherein.

Expected results

The purpose of our research was not to prove something but to add our share of evidence to already researched concepts of memory reconstruction and hot cognition. Our first test on memory reconstruction aims at proving the view that we do not recall past incidents exactly the way they occurred but tend to reconstruct the events. During this process of reconstruction, various psychological and physiological aspects influence the reconstruction process. The psychological aspects are mainly concerned with our moods and emotions during the time of the occurrence i.e. our state of mind at that point of time and the way we approached the incident emotionally.

In our hypothetical experiment, we asked a gathering of twenty people to talk about a painful memory of the past that took place between the ages of 4-10 years. They were then asked to recall their emotions and approach themarewhen they were of 15 years of age and then asked to recall it again now. We expect our results to show the difference and maturity in their way of approach to the painful memory and how it has altered and subdued over the years. The majority of would have recalled the incident in a far less painful manner currently than what it was in the past. Thus proving that psychological maturity and the current mental state of the individual influences memory reconstruction.

The other subject of research was “hot cognition”. This experiment was done to add proof that the opinions and judgment of other people influence our personal opinion of something. When we approach something with a preconceived idea of it, we tend to base our opinions on that particular idea or that point of view. For example, if a girl is about to meet a guy for the first time and she is already told in advance by her friends that he has a charming personality, the girl tends to take special notice of that characteristic of his personality, therefore subconsciously basing her opinion about the man on that of her friend’s. However, we chose a different experiment for our hypothesis.

The same group of twenty people was about to be shown a painting in which the artist made use of an optical illusion. The painting is of a young girl wearing a hat which also has another picture of a profile of an old woman hidden in it. Ten people among the group of twenty were informed about the hidden picture in advance and the rest were not told about it. As a result, we expect the already informed ten people to notice the hidden picture and the other ten to not notice it. As a result, one part of the gathering will conclude that the picture has an optical illusion in it and the other group will not have such an opinion, therefore, proving that we subconsciously base our opinion on that which is already told to us by someone else, or known to us through some other sources.

Results obtained

For convenience, the first group is called Group A and the second group is called group B.

Hot cognition

We have presented the results in the form of a graph. As mentioned earlier, Group A was told that there was a hidden image of an old woman within the painting. The graph shows that the majority of the participants could see the hidden image and the rest could not. The result complies with the theory that preconceived information could influence individual judgment. The X-axis denotes the response obtained. The Y-axis denotes the number of participants.

GROUP A

GROUP B

Group B was not told anything about the picture in particular. But later when they were asked whether they noticed anything else apart from the young woman, 7 of them claimed to have seen nothing else while 3 of them noticed a hidden image of an old lady within the painting despite not being told about it beforehand.

Memory reconstruction

Participants were asked to recall a terrifying incident from their childhood and when they were asked whether they found it to be as horrifying, 11 of them found it to be not as terrifying as it was back then, 5 of them still recalled it as a terrifying experience, whereas 4 found it laughable.

Therefore, this analysis shows that factors like time, circumstances, and so on could influence the reconstruction of past events.

Limitations of the study

The study was only conducted amongst a gathering of twenty people and not on a larger demographic scale. Moreover, psychology varies from person to person and we can only establish the results of research taking into consideration only the majority. Even in our study, we only expect that the majority of the twenty people to comply with the theories of “memory reconstruction” and “hot cognition”. The rest who do not come under this majority will be treated as exceptions and therefore all these theories cannot be relied upon completely.

Significance of the study

The main objective of the study is to establish proof to the theories of memory construction and hot cognition, which need backing to be considered more than just a mere thesis. The study of the human mind is very and therefore it would require a good amount of research and statistics to establish any theory as a finding. Most people are unaware of their subconscious and its ability to affect their day-to-day judgments and opinions. We tend to believe that we make our judgments using only our conscious mind, but it is them are when that seldom so. We believe that we have the ability to recall events in our life exactly the way they happened, but we are unaware that our memory does not recall, but reconstruct the events based on our moods and emotions. Even non-psychological factors like the surroundings and our physical condition can influence the way we recall past incidents of our life and through our study, we wish to establish this fact. The other subject we researched was “hot cognition”. This is another subconscious factor that influences our judgment. It explains how a preconceived idea or the opinion of a third person could cloud our judgments. If we are told in advance about some person or something, we tend to base our opinions and judgments upon that. We tend to look at things from that perspective. In short, it gives us a point of view from which to look at things rather than making up that view for ourselves. This is often seen when we tend to rely on the reviews of a film critic before deciding to watch a movie. We also tend to make our personal opinion based on that critic’s point of view. The objective of this study is to make people aware of such concepts and try to help people to understand and accept their subconscious and learning to deal with it on an everyday basis.

Conclusion

From this study, we wish to establish and add proof to the theories of memory reconstruction and hot cognition. These two concepts are unfamiliar to many people who naively believe that all their decisions are based on conscious thought; they don’t realize the role the subconscious mind plays in influencing these decisions. As psychology is a subjective topic, it requires notable and substantial proof for theories to be taken seriously as they are nothing but our observations put in the form of a comprehensive analysis with statistical evidence backing it all. These studies help us to understand ourselves better and also our fellow human beings. We can never guarantee that our judgment and opinions will never be adulterated by other factors, but from the study, we can at least try and minimize the effect of our subconscious in making our decisions. Therefore we present to you this research paper in the hope that it will help enlighten people about the factors that could influence their opinions in day-to-day life. And thus through our experiments, we have confirmed that:

• Hot cognition is influenced by moods and pre-conceived information, these affect the judgment of the people.
• Memory is an act of reconstructing which is influenced by certain factors like time, age, circumstances, etc., and it is not entirely an act of recollection.

References

1. Pennington, C.D, (2000): Social Cognition (Electronic Version): Routledge. Web.
2. Kunda.Z (1999): Social Cognition: Making Sense of People (Electronic version): MIT Press. Web.
3. DeLamater,D.J, (2003): Handbook of Social Psychology (Electronic Version): Springer. Web.
4. Bradnock. R (2000): South India Handbook: The Travel Guide (Electronic Version): Footprint Travel Guides. Web.
5. “Young and old” (n.d): (Electronic Version).
6. Samuel.D (1999): Memory: How We Use It, Lose It, and Can Improve it (Electronic Version): NYU Press. Web.
7. Forgas..P.J, Williams.D.K & Hippel..V W, (2003): Social Judgments: Implicit and Explicit Processes (Electronic Version): Cambridge University Press. Web.
8. Thompson P.C, (1996): Autobiographical Memory: Remembering what and Remembering When (Electronic Version): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Web.
9. Maxwell.M, (1991): The Sociobiological Imagination (Electronic Version): SUNY Press. Web.
10. Gyatso.J (1992): In the Mirror of Memory: Reflections on Mindfulness and Remembrance in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism ( Electronic Version) : SUNY Press. Web.
11. Flick.U (1998): The Psychology of the Social (Electronic Version): Cambridge University Press. Web.

Introduction

The exploration of interconnected issues of intergenerational trauma and traumatic memory in society with historical data of collective violence across the world sensitizes to the importance of acknowledging trauma. Drawing from the course, two key learning moments will stay with me, including the Recovery of Humanity and Repairing Generations along with Moving Beyond Violence. The person who taught me the most throughout the course is Nelson Mandela. I perceive him as is an iconic character who values self-control and self-expression and a man with minimal bitterness and an integration of justice and human equality.

Discussion

Learning Moments and Creation of Learning Moments

Recovery of Humanity and Repairing Generation is an essential learning aspect, or moment, that will stay with me after the course’s completion. To create this learning moment, textbooks, in particularly Breaking Intergenerational Cycles of Repetition written by Gobodo-Madikizela, and assignments for group discussions and individual learning attached to weeks’ materials dedicated to the definition, theories, and mechanisms of trauma were used. The most important moment refers to the origin of trauma and its healing. In particular, I know now that the presence of trauma is in its past, however, only the present offers divine healing regardless of painfulness and timelessness of past events (Gobodo-Madikizela, 2016).

Thus, I have learned that the ghost of trauma occurs when it is triggered by the past, and trauma could also be passed from one generation to another. Meanwhile, as a nation makes efforts to transform itself from denouncing its past, in the same way its citizens ought to disassociate themselves from their past. The trauma of the past can only be healed by letting go of it and living in the present (Gobodo-Madikizela, 2016). Notably, living in the present eradicates the fear and possibility of passing on the trauma across generations.

Moving Beyond Violence is another pivotal learning moment drawn from the course. It was presented by the concept of the third by Benjamin (2004) who gives an experience of third-ness, an experience drawn from attunement, collaboration, and cooperation. The memorable moment was creating a link of moving beyond violence and the mutual recognition of a mother to an infant. Moreover, the quench that should exist amongst people to deal away with violence was perceived using the texts from the course books by Bonanno (2013) and Beebe and Lachmann (2002) helped me achieve this particular learning moment. Moreover, the Rupture Diagram contributed to my understanding of the significance of moving and healing.

Lessons from Ethnic Studies

Drawing from the book, Beebe and Lachmann (2002) argues that to draw away from violence, individuals should have the notion of repair and restoration by acknowledging the expectancy of violations. In this case, failing to acknowledge the idea of the third limits one from accessing the psychological position of relating with others and doing away with the concept of violence amongst people.

Drawing from the learning moment, ‘moving beyond violence’ helped me comprehend the importance of establishing a connection and reconsidering human relations in a way that allows everyone to feel connected, illuminating those thinking of collective trauma and violence with thoughts of peace and drawing away from violent acts (Danieli, 2011). Thus, in terms of ethnic studies, I learned that for the efficient healing of inter-generational trauma, the cooperation of all members of society on the basis of compassion, love, understanding, and desire of better future is necessary.

Character Analysis

Mandela is an iconic character that aids in comprehending the concept of collective trauma. Mandela was a human rights activist in South Africa and an individual who comprehended his responsibility to uphold all human rights, ensuring justice and a non-violent environment for all citizens in South Africa (Gobodo-Madikizela, 2016). For the clarity of ensuring peace, Mandela upheld political equality clarity before everything else. Injustice is something that always bothered Mandela as he knew the influence it had in causing trauma among people. Mandela understood the impact of undergoing trauma, and at that time, the only solution was to deal with it at that present and prevent it from being passed on to generations to come.

From Mandela, I learned that ‘sorry’ is a term that is essential in trauma recovery. ‘Sorry’ as a word is enough to create an interruption of cycles of violence in the current and next generations (Updegraff et al., 2008). Mandela shows that standing for your rights is essential, however, associated trauma should not limit future opportunities. Thus, regardless of the painfulness of the past, it is highly essential to accept it, excuse for mistakes, and continue moving forward.

Helpful Studies in Future

Course topics, including “Confronting the past, engaging the other in the present” and” Breaking cycles of trauma,” are two significant topics that will continue to enlighten me further on recovering from trauma. They expound on the impacts of violence in various countries of Africa, such as Nigeria, Arusha, Burundi, and others, and emphasize the importance of ensuring peace and advocating for truthfulness and forgiveness among citizens (Gobodo-Madikizela, 2016). Finally, they support the idea that reconciliation is also important in combating violence and trauma’s healing.

Conclusion

In conclusion, I have learned the importance of intense focus on trauma, the traumatic events, places of trauma, as well as the aftermath of trauma (Blodgett & Yakushko, 2017). Drawing from the course, I have also gained significant knowledge from topics such as multidirectional memory. Multidirectional memory refers to a memory that compares experiences and their associated aftermaths encountered by different groups. Having such a memory enables one to expound on the concept of trauma and the process of trauma recovery. In conclusion, I must admit that the course has been insightful and essential in creating awareness of the complexities of traumas.

References

Beebe, B., & Lachmann, F. M. (2002). Infant research and adult treatment: Co-constructing interactions. Routledge.

Benjamin, J. (2004). Beyond doer and done to: An intersubjective view of thirdness. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 73(1), 5-46.

Blodgett, E., & Yakushko, O. (2017). Existential angst and meaning-making in narratives of Lithuanian survivors of Soviet political deportations. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 60(3), 342–364. Web.

Bonanno, G. A. (2013). Meaning-making, adversity, and regulatory flexibility. Memory, 21(1), 150–156. Web.

Danieli, Y. (2011). International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma. Springer.

Gobodo-Madikizela, P. (2016). Breaking intergenerational cycles of repetition a global dialogue on historical trauma and memory. Barbara Budrich Publishers.

Updegraff, J. A., Silver, R. C., & Holman, E. A. (2008). Searching for and finding meaning in collective trauma: Results from a national longitudinal study of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(3), 709–722. Web.

People are different, and each person perceives information in a unique way. An individual may better memorize a fact or an opinion if they can associate themselves with the presented knowledge. For example, people may have a finer comprehension of a movie if they can relate to situations or characters portrayed in the film. Such a phenomenon can be described by the self-reference effect (SRE). The presented study aims to examine whether good recognition depends on the SRE, meaning, for instance, that individuals may recall more words under the SRE condition over other circumstances. It is necessary to conduct a literature review to support the purpose of the proposed investigation.

The first assessed article illustrates the differences in people’s perceptions of information. Durbin et al. (2017) analyzed how self-referential processing affects item recognition and source memory. The researchers divided the study into two experiments, with one using words (E1) and the other employing pictures (E2) (Durbin et al., 2017). The participants were 24 students in each part of the investigation (Durbin et al., 2017). Independent variables (IVs) in E1 and E2 were represented by two conditions, with participants shown 216 words and 252 pictures, respectively, and asked to make self-referential (SR) or non-self-referential (NSR) judgments (Durbin et al., 2017). Dependent variables (DVs) were item recognition and source memory, measured utilizing ANOVA (Durbin et al., 2017). The findings revealed that SR-ly encoded words and pictures were identified better than those processed NSR-ly (Durbin et al., 2017). However, source memory was superior for positive items perceived SR-ly in E1 and for those observed NSR-ly in E2 (Durbin et al., 2017). The item recognition results support the proposed study’s hypothesis by suggesting that if people remember SR-ly encoded data, they are also likely to recall the exact words better under the SRE condition.

In comparison, the second reviewed article’s authors examined the SRE concerning two types of source information (SI). Yin et al. (2019) also conducted two experiments, one focused on spatial location (SL) of words (E1), and the other concentrated on color as contextual information (E2). The participants were students from Southwest University, of whom 69 were involved in E1 and 71 in E2 (Yin et al., 2019). IVs were represented by self-referential (SR), other-referential (OR), and semantic conditions, with participants divided into intentional- and incidental-learning groups (Yin et al., 2019). For both experiments, DVs were item memory and source memory, and they were measured by employing ANOVA (Yin et al., 2019). In E1, recollection of words and their SL was better under the SR condition, and the participants made fewer source mistakes and responded more unhesitatingly (Yin et al., 2019). In E2, the findings revealed that the SRE could improve memory for words but not their color (Yin et al., 2019). The results concerning the participants’ morale in their responses support the proposed research’s hypothesis by suggesting that people are likely to feel more confident about their IM under the SRE.

To conclude, the two assessed articles reinforce the purpose of the presented study, which is examining item recollection in relation to the self-reference effect. Accordingly, the analysis has the following hypotheses: the SRE should enhance recognition of words that participants can relate to themselves, and people should feel more confident about their memory under the SRE. The research’s findings are anticipated to enhance the discussion and understanding of how people process information that has a connection to their personalities.

References

Durbin, K. A., Mitchell, K. J., & Johnson, M. K. (2017). Source memory that encoding was self-referential: The influence of stimulus characteristics. Memory, 25(9), 1191-1200. Web.

Yin, X., Ma, Y., Xu, X., & Yang, H. (2019). The effect of self-referencing on memory for different kinds of source information. Memory, 27(4), 519-527. Web.

Introduction

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) explains that memory mechanisms are designed to absorb only a limited amount of information, so combined activities must be responsibly managed. CLT indicates that to maximize learning and recall, the cognitive load must be reduced to avoid derealization and reduce mental effects due to the abundance of data (Houichi & Sarnou, 2020). Taking CLT principles into consideration will allow for regulating educational activities and organizing sensory load processes.

Discussion

Reading a book is a complex process that requires input from the sensory and nervous systems. The sensory system is responsible for receiving information, recognizing it, and conducting it to the nerve centers. The nervous system processes this information and responds – we understand what is written in a book, and we retain this information. In addition, we receive tactile information on the periphery – the book’s weight, the paper’s quality, and the cover. Since the primary purpose of reading is to understand and retain the information we receive, we spend much energy on these processes. Connecting listening to music to this type of activity can have two effects.

First, music can make the reading process difficult because of its volume and the presence of words in the songs. Music that is too loud will put pressure on the eardrum, and the level of auditory sensory load will be high enough to cause a headache. The words in the song will also interfere with the process of perceiving the visual information because there will be too much load requiring comprehension simultaneously. Therefore, in this context, doing both is difficult to be compatible. Secondly, music may not interfere with the reading process if it consists of a quiet melody or contains no words. It can reinforce associations with what has been read, reinforcing the book’s image and creating a complete picture (Paas & van Merriënboer, 2020). This will increase the sensory load, but it will also create stronger neural connections in the associative areas of the cortex.

Multisensory teaching methods are educational strategies that focus on developing each sensory system to reinforce memory and fully immerse students in the discipline. Multisensory learning allows to development of associative thinking by reinforcing information on multiple levels. For example, not only writing words down but also speaking them out and reinforcing them visually with pictures or photographs can be used to memorize them. With the help of play activities, it is possible to demonstrate the word – show it without words. This kind of teaching will create an environment in which students will find their way of knowing information and will be able to learn it later.

Conclusion

The teacher’s task is not only to give information but also to explain the principles of learning and to work with it. Implementing multisensory learning is possible by organizing the main and extrinsic cognitive load (Kirschner et al., 2018). This means first forming a definition or precise indication of an object and then building up additional attributes of the information afterward. This way, cognitive relationships can be developed to help students cope with new information that will gradually emerge as learning continues. Multisensory learning can also be integrated by creating interactive classroom activities to reinforce the skills learned (Kirschner et al., 2018). Complex subjects such as physics or chemistry can be experiments or experiments; in literature, it can be poetry performances or trips to the theater. This kind of learning is a way to create opportunities for students to realize their academic talents.

References

Houichi, A., & Sarnou, D. (2020). Cognitive load theory and its relation to instructional design: Perspectives of some Algerian university teachers of English. Arab World English Journal, 11(4) 110-127. Web.

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., Kirschner, F., & Zambrano R, J. (2018). From cognitive load theory to collaborative cognitive load theory. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 13(2), 213–233. Web.

Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020). Cognitive-load theory: Methods to manage working memory load in the learning of complex tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398. Web.

Introduction

All individuals are exposed to vast amounts of information simultaneously, obligating them to occasionally retrieve and compute details from their memory to operate efficiently and deliver on tasks. As a result, the human brain is wired to allow individuals access to bits of information in between their short-term and long-term memories more efficiently. Working memory will enable individuals to use this information for a short period while working on something else. However, several factors in peoples’ and learners’ internal and external environments can interfere with working memory. Thus, adopting multi-sensory learning approaches and enhancing individuals’ working memory capacity using physical therapy and technological solutions is crucial.

Working Memory and Its Importance in Learning

Humans can control their actions and react to their environment because of their ability to store and occasionally retrieve information from their minds. However, memory is categorized into short-term, long-term, and working memories. An individual’s working memory refers to their ability to access and manipulate bits of data in their mind for a short period (Baddeley, 2020). This ability plays a critical role in learning by allowing encoding, storage, and systematic retrieval of information to execute specific tasks and achieve particular purposes. A person’s working memory is linked to academic strengths, mental health, and cognitive abilities. Thus, working memory capacity determines proficiency in specific areas and critical thinking.

Factors that Interfere with Working Memory

Attention and distractibility are the two most notable elements that interfere with working memory. Attention is an individual’s ability to focus on a particular task. It enables a person to choose and concentrate on pertinent information while discarding unnecessary information. Without attention, environmental data would not be encoded into working memory and would not be available for use in decision-making or future thought (Miller et al., 2018). Thus, working memory cannot function effectively without attention. Distractibility impairs a person’s ability to concentrate on a particular task or information. An easily distracted person may have trouble storing and maintaining data in their working memory (Chai et al., 2018). Additionally, if someone is regularly interrupted while working on a task, they could find it challenging to do it properly and efficiently.

The capacity of a person’s working memory tends to decrease with age, depending on various factors. Particularly, the accumulation of neurological damage over time and changes in brain structure and functions facilitate this decline. However, reduced capacity can result from cognitive diseases and conditions that interfere with memory (Baddeley, 2020). Subsequently, adult learners may face challenges in multitasking and deal with issues associated with diminished memory. An individual’s emotions and feelings of stress, depression, and anxiety can also interfere with working memory by influencing attention span.

Lifestyle habits and quality of life can interfere with working memory as they may promote or impede its functioning. For example, students and elderly individuals with disrupted sleeping patterns may experience issues with their working memory. Additionally, poor dieting, the lack of exercise and insufficient physical activities can expose individuals to factors that inhibit their working memory (D’Esposito & Postle, 2015). Moreover, drug and alcohol abuse impacts neurons in the brain and affects working memory. Thus, engaging in unhealthy habits and ignoring personal care practices can negatively affect working memory capacity.

The Essence of Multi-sensory Learning on Working Memory

Multi-sensory learning is an approach to delivering learning instruction by targeting different senses, including visual and kinesthetic. Teachers use several strategies to integrate multi-sensory learning into their practice. However, visual aids offer the most effective and efficient solution due to their accessibility. For example, some educators use videos and pictures with verbal information to make content more memorable. Others use charts and tables to convey information differently and help students integrate values (Cosentino, 2021). Visual aids support working memory by reducing cognitive workload and facilitating better information processing. Additionally, they assist individuals in organizing information in a way that is easier for them to understand. Thus, visual aids play a vital role in memory and recall.

, and auditory channels to enhance learning. According to Cosentino (2021), using several senses helps improve working memory by giving the brain extra access points to absorb information. For instance, hearing and seeing a word written down can strengthen the memory of that word, increasing the likelihood that a learner will recall it (Rao, 2019). Additionally, using several senses to make the material more relevant can increase retention. Subsequently, educators can use multi-sensory learning techniques to engage students with unique abilities and those responsive to different learning styles. Thus, incorporating multi-sensory learning techniques in education can benefit students.

Strategies to Adopt Multi-Sensory Learning in Teaching

Teachers use several strategies to integrate multi-sensory learning into their practice. However, visual aids offer the most effective and efficient solution due to their accessibility. For example, some educators use videos and pictures with verbal information to make content more memorable. Others use charts and tables to convey information differently and help students integrate values (Cosentino, 2021). Visual aids support working memory by reducing cognitive workload and facilitating better information processing. Additionally, they assist individuals in organizing information in a way that is easier for them to understand. Thus, visual aids play a vital role in memory and recall.

Strategies for Using Multi-Sensory Learning in Teaching Methods

Auditory and kinesthetic aids in multi-sensory learning are tools used to improve memory and information retention. Auditory aids encompass using music and sound in the form of recordings, rhymes, spoken instructions, and educational songs. On the other hand, kinesthetic aids take advantage of hands-on learning approaches such as simulations and experiments to enhance retention and memory (Rao, 2019). These techniques allow students to simultaneously engage multiple senses, thus increasing their ability to store and recall information. In addition, the solutions encourage learners to foster bonds and strong connections with learning materials, increasing their enthusiasm to learn.

Physical Therapy in Improving Working Memory

Physical therapy focuses on diagnosing, treating, and managing physical ailments, pain, and associated disabilities. Physical therapists work with patients to improve mobility, reduce pain, prevent injuries, and enhance bodily functions (Diamond & Ling, 2020). However, physical therapy improves working memory by improving blood flow into the brain and facilitating the growth of neurons. Moreover, physical therapy improves balance, coordination, and cognitive functions and reduces stress and anxiety, thus improving individuals’ performance in working memory tasks.

The Relationship between Technology and Working Memory

Technological devices have positive and negative implications on working memory, depending on their use. Technological solutions in classrooms provide access to a wealth of information and can guide students in self-learning and research (Huang, 2019). On the other hand, electronic gadgets can distract students and inhibit their focus on the study content. Moreover, overuse and overdependence on technology can limit students from developing critical skills and lead to an inability to interpret information from the environment. Therefore, educators should take the initiative to control technology use in class and ensure positive outcomes.

Strategies to Ensure the Effectiveness of Technological Solutions

Students in today’s educational environments are exposed to numerous technological solutions that maximize learning efficiency. Thus, it is advisable to manage the potential setbacks of technology instead of limiting its use. Educators should establish clear guidelines, rules, and standards to benefit classroom electronic devices (Huang, 2019). For example, they should not allow access to particular sites and set up firewalls to block social networks. Additionally, teachers can inform their students of the negative implications of inappropriate technology use and enlighten them on the benefits of appropriate use. Guiding students to balance technology use and adopt recommended approaches can help them improve their skills and contribute to increasing the capacity of their working memory (Huang, 2019). Hence, the strategies mentioned above can assist educators in achieving their goals.

Conclusion and Key Takeaway

Working memory describes individuals’ capacity to access and retrieve information from their minds for short periods. Working memory is critical in learning and multitasking. However, attention, distractibility, age, health, fitness, lifestyle behaviors, and physical environments can affect working memory. However, educators can adopt various strategies, including using multi-sensory learning approaches, physical therapy, and physical activity exercises to enhance their learners; working memory. Nevertheless, it is advisable to consider the implications of technology use on working memory to encourage appropriate and beneficial classroom incorporation. Teachers are responsible for establishing guidelines for adopting technology in institutions and educating students on how to reap the most benefits.

References

Baddeley, A. (2020). Working memory. In Memory (pp. 71-111). Routledge.

Chai, W. J., Abd Hamid, A. I., & Abdullah, J. M. (2018). Working memory from the psychological and neurosciences perspectives: A review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 401. Web.

Cosentino, G. (2021). Exploring Multi-Sensory Interaction to Enhance Children’Learning Experience. In Interaction Design and Children (pp. 644-647). Web.

D’Esposito, M., & Postle, B. R. (2015). The cognitive neuroscience of working memory. Annual review of psychology, 66, 115-142. Web.

Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2020). Review of the evidence on, and fundamental questions about, efforts to improve executive functions, including working memory. In J. M. Novick, M. F. Bunting, M. R. Dougherty, & R. W. Engle (Eds.), Cognitive and working memory training: Perspectives from psychology, neuroscience, and human development (pp. 143–431). Oxford University Press.

Huang, R. (2019). Educational technology a primer for the 21st century. Springer Nature Singapore Pte.

Miller, E. K., Lundqvist, M., & Bastos, A. M. (2018). Working Memory 2.0. Neuron, 100(2), 463-475. Web.

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Introduction

Operant conditioning is a major concept which is used in behavioral psychology. Another term used to refer to operant conditioning is instrumental conditioning. The theorists who led to the development of operant conditioning include B. F skinner, John Watson and Edward Thorndike. This concept involves the use of punishment and reward to reinforce a certain behavior for learning to occur. An association is made between the consequence and the behavior. Operant conditioning through the use of punishment can be used to prevent or decrease a certain negative behavior, for example, when a child is told that he/she will lose some privileges in case he/she misbehaves, it leads the child in reducing the undesirable behavior. For instance being punished if they talk in class may cause the child not to be disruptive. These are some of the examples of how we use operant conditioning in our every day activities. (Coon, 2006 10^th edition).

There are various concepts that are used in operant conditioning. The main ones include reinforces and punishment.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a term used to indicate something or a process that strengthens a certain behavior. An example of positive reinforcement is when a parent is talking with the kid. The parent is supposed to use positive language even though he/she is correcting a wrong behavior. The parent is supposed to start the conversation with a positive comment as people respond more to statements that are positive. This positive reinforcement will help to correct a certain undesirable behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

There are two types of negative reinforcement: escape and avoidance. Negative reinforcement leads to learning because of some negative condition is avoided or stopped. An example of how negative reinforcement can be applied in everyday life includes a person who leaves home early in order to avoid the heavy traffic. Leaving home early is a negative behavior which is reinforced by the avoidance of traffic. Both negative and positive reinforcement helps to strengthen a certain behavior whereas punishment and extinction helps to weaken a certain behavior. (Coon, 2006 10^th edition).

Punishment

Negative reinforcement leads to learning (strengthening a certain behavior) by removing the undesirable stimulus but on the other hand punishment leads to learning (weakening a certain behavior) by adding or increasing the negative stimulus. For example when a child is punished for making noise in class, this can lead to the reduction of the bad behavior and thus the child can be less disruptive.

Extinction

In operant conditioning, the term extinction is used to refer to the withholding of reinforcement. This is especially so for a behavior which was earlier reinforced. For instance a child who seeks attention by hiding under the desk can be ignored by every one until the undesirable behavior is done away with (the child stops seeking attention).

But when using consequences to modify behavior, there are various factors that can affect the effectiveness of the consequences. They include:

• Immediacy: Immediate feedback will result in learning. For instance if a kid is punished two weeks after a Wrong deed, then this will not be effective in changing the behavior(learning).
• Satiation: learning or change in behavior can only happen if the person is deprived of something that is important to them. For example a person who is not hungry can not learn if he/she is not given food.
• Contingency: The consequence has to be consistent in order to achieve the set target. For example a kid who is always reprimanded but does not change his/her behavior can not learn unless the punishment is changed.
• Size: if the consequence is worth the effort then learning will take place. For example if an employee doe not get any rewards, then he/she will not feel the need to work hard.

The above factors can affect the effectiveness of the consequences and also determine if behavior modification will occur. (Coon, 2006).

Memory Cue

Memory can be defined as a personal ability to retrieve past experiences whereas learning is an experience which is gained with time and involves some change. The two processes are therefore dependent on each other. A person can be able to decide what to do in a certain conditioned situation. This is further encouraged if the brain records a reward. Our memory is able to store and retrieve information differently in either the absence or presence of a reward. If an action is rewarded then the brain stores that action and retrieves it again when a need arise. A long period of training therefore means that an action or behavior will be stored in the memory. For example if a kid is rewarded for performing well in school, this action will be stored in the memory and will always be retrieved every time this kid feels lazy or does not want to do certain tasks. This action will be a reinforcer to the kid, by using the memory cue. Another example of memory cue is the use of language. Language is know to shape the life of young ones. For instance a kid who goes up getting a lot of negative words usually has esteem issues. This is because the words are recorded in his/her brain(memory). If a kid is told that he/she is good for nothing and can not perform well in school, then this words will be stored in the memory and will influence the behavior of the kid. If its about performance, the kid will not work hard as it is recorded in the memory that performance is not his/her thing. These past experiences can and normally does influence the behavior of people.

Perception

As defined by Coon (2006) perception is the creation of the brain that involves the input of the sense organs. The sense organs help to detect the changes in the environment and then transfer the information, as nerve impulse. Sensory neurons then carry the information/action to the brain. When this actions/information reaches the brain, they are interpreted and the brain makes a perception. Using memory people make different perceptual interpretation and inferences about the world. The process of perception begins with a stimulus that is transmitted to a sense organ. Different cells in the brain respond to different and specific stimuli from the environment, for instance heat, cold or chemicals. The first stage of perception is the reception, whereby the stimulus is introduced to the sense cells. For example we one touches something that is hot (stimulus), the heat is transferred to the brain through the sensory nerves and the brain then makes a perception that the object is hot and thus the brain informs a person to let go of the object. It is through the use of the senses that perceptions are created. This is why people are able to make out the shape of a car while the car is still far. Because the visual image seems to appear larger and larger as it approaches. Senses and perception are like one and the same because there are like one continuous process and help to interpret our immediate environment and that is how people form their memory. For instances advertisements are a perfect example of how perceptions are formed. When people see or hear a certain advertisement, they interpret it differently. At times people are so engaged with the advertisement that they tend to believe the slogans used. If this advertisement are interpreted positively, they are then stored in peoples memory. And when people go shopping they end up buying the advertised products. This is all perception.

In operant conditioning therefore, these two concepts are very important as they help in learning. For example a certain stimulus is associated with a certain consequence or reward when this is continuously stored in the memory, people or organism end up learning. For instance, according to a research carried out by B. F Skinner with rats, he noticed that the rats would notice the lever and they pressed it whenever they wanted food. The rats therefore interpreted the availability of food with the pressing of the lever. This was stored in their memory and therefore learning took place. This shows that memory cue and perceptions are important concepts in operant conditioning because they help to explain how people learn. (Coon, 2006).

References

Coon, D. (2006). Psychology: A modular approach to mind and behavior. New York: Routledge.

Coon, D. (2006). Psychology: A modular approach to mind and behavior. (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. 2008. Web.

Emphasis on Learning

Memory is the power of the mind that enhances remembrance of facts. In the article, Artistic and Activist Memory-Work: Approaching Place-Based Practice, Karen E. Till fronts arguments expected to alter the thought process engaged in memory studies. She argues that individuals and groups need to understand their past and futures by relating to places. As opposed to limiting memories to sites-locations of historical significance, artists and activists bring to the fore poignant aspects of historical sites through photo albums, songs, stories, and an assortment of everyday objects. As such, they invite those in their immediate environment to imagine the happenings surrounding the subjects on display.

Historical Sites

The shortfall of this approach is that it leaves the person engaged in an indeterminate state after taking in the display image. There should be a mechanism transcending the emotions evoked. For instance, pictures depicting a war, a discourse on forgiveness and reconciliation between perpetrators and victims. The platform should not only resuscitate the painful events depicted in the pictures. It should initiate forums that discuss prevention of possible future occurrences, and assist the affected deal with their pain.

There is an inclination to protect the sites that played host to the violence in societies that have experienced violence. These sites take into consideration the places of healing. Individuals pay visits to such sites to come to terms with grief, guilt and a sense of loss. They remind the society of its past and warn them of possible relapse to similar events if caution is not exercised. According to these sites that deserve respect, there is a danger of losing sight of the wrong they represent. There is a need to inform the society of the history represented by the sites and educate the masses on events leading to such occurrences.

A New Dimension of Architecture

Zumthor talks of finding the lost architecture. He talks of his mind drawing from past images of work and childhood. He forgets to embrace emerging forms of architecture that have a new dimension of moving away from the past. A painter can dip his brush in paint and splash a design on the wall just from the pattern of the hand to design a new dimension. The world is moving from past thinking to a more spontaneous and imaginary thinking. This aids application of a new computer technology. The trend is moving from the concrete world to a more imaginary world. It keeps people guessing on what the architect really means by a particular design. The design building bases on the truth rather than images created from nowhere. A splash of paint on a wall may create a design that may not represent any particular object or subject but shows creativity. Viewers are to fill in thoughts with all the possible answers on the design. This brings in a new dimension to architecture. Art that is not just an image linked to a particular theme. These aspect contrasts to the resistance of the notion advanced by the author in the book. What the real essence of architecture constitutes is the question we have to answer. It cannot be limited to the past existing forms that have meaning.

The Future

Architecture can choose to use the future instead of the past and present. The world is now more than ever environmentally conscious. For instance, in the fashion industry, models on catwalks wear designs themed on the environment. Saving of energy and recycling is another aspect to consider. Art is not one-dimensional. It should not only focus on desire, but rationale too, as opposed to the authors view.