The topic of war has always been one of the most interesting and widely-spread in literature. The books related to this topic attract the readers attention and make them think over this problem and evaluate all that sorrow and disgrace which people underwent. Needless to say that all those people who came through the war will remember this period of their life with wormwood and tears. The novels about Vietnam War enframe a period of 40 years. They describe people who fought, those who dreamt about home and their families and friends; those who came back from war and bravely died, fighting for peace and independence. These books are about war in Vietnam and in China, Thailand and Cambodia. Moreover, they describe the problems of social and cultural differences and solidarity of people who were united by common fatality. Great number of such books deal with the aftermaths of war, looking for understanding among the readers. The Sorrow of War by Bao Ninh is the brightest example of such books. It provides the reasons for better understanding of those times, which effected all world publicity.
The Sorrow of War written by Bao Ninh in 1994 comprises a lot of different themes. This book is mainly devoted to the topic of memory, reappraisal of values and society after the war. The main character of the story is a Vietnamese soldier Kien, who enters the war in order to fight for the alliance of Vietnam on behalf of the Communists. During the whole book the readers are able to feel Kiens enthusiasm and desire to fight for his country, his dreams about future, his desires and aspiration to win in the name of his society. Before this war, Kien had everything in his life: home, family and the girlfriend, whom he loved most of all, but the war brought the misfortune to their lives and after the war is finished, they asked themselves whether they have really won. Memory is a constant companion of Kien, as the events of war and all that he had to overcome are in his mind:
Sure, thinks Kien, its hard to forget. When will I calm down? When will my heart be free of the tight grip of war? Whether pleasant or ugly memories, they are there to stay for ten, twenty years, perhaps forever. From now all my life will e always dark& (Nihn, p. 32).
While analyzing this book it is necessary to pay attention to life of Vietnamese society and its people during that awful period. When reading about the Vietnam War, the reader can completely imagine all misery and hell that American and Vietnamese soldiers had to experience. Due to the style of presenting information, we can clearly understand all hardships and sufferings that the Vietnamese people had to bear during this war. The thirty years period of war has led to the destruction of the value structure of Vietnam culture. This crushing war distressed the country, families and villages: Thanh Hoa station was completely destroyed. Bomb craters gaped everywhere, opening their horrible mouths in the early morning sun (Nihn, p. 201). So, are these results worth fighting and pain of all innocent people who suffered and died during this war? The image of soldier Kien in The Sorrow of War demonstrates the difficulties of the Vietnamese people before, through and after this war. Recollecting all the events in his memory, Kien changes his attitude to the society. While his writing, Kien depicts his difficulty to get accustomed to the peacetime. He demonstrates the way this war shattered his youth and life of his fellows and countrymen. Of course, after all those disastrous events it is actually very difficult for him to start living a regular life due to different reasons. Kien became the soldier being a young man and during his youth, and later, after a couple of years this awful war has finished. This period seemed to be the happiest in his life, but after rejoining the society in which he used to live, he found that people he knew were dead. For those who were lucky to survive, this war had so tremendous effect on them that Kien did not manage to treat them as earlier. This war changed not only their attitude to others, but also their inner state and emotions. This also concerns Kien and his memory of the war. He preserved certain images of his family, close people and relatives in his mind before the war. He was living with these images and dreams during the war and hoped to live together with all of them in peace time. But as a result the readers see his despair, because he returned to an entirely new world that had nothing in common with all those memories hidden in his mind. The violence of the war made it very difficult for Kien to live in peaceful society and almost everything around him reminded about those disastrous events. Now, his life was filled with flashback, bright blood, murders, injustice, dead bodies, shattering souls, explosions, and everything that other people could hardly imagine. Despite of the fact that this awful war was finished, Kien was experiencing it over and over in his mind and heart: Victory after victory. Withdrawal after withdrawal. The path of war seemed endless, desperate and leading nowhere (Nihn, p.13). These words can fully describe the inner state of Kien when he remembers the war and everything that he had to face.
Except the memory of the war, that constantly returns Kien to those events, there is one more reason that makes his existence in peacetime unbearable. It is the loss of Phuong, Kiens lovely girlfriend. After coming back to Hanoi, Kien found his loved Phuong as completely changed woman, who was living another life, totally different from that he was dreaming about. Unfortunately, this war influenced both of lovers. It made them completely different and alien people and their past was the only common thing that could unite them as earlier. Vietnam war has stolen their happy future and broke their innocence. Love seemed to Kien to be the only positive thing that could help him to recover from all his memories and start living again, but such unpredictable change appeared the last reason, which helped to change completely Kiens attitude to the war. In order to cope with all his feelings and throbbing memories, Kien made up his mind to become a writer. To his mind, only writing helps him chase away all the nightmares and thoughts about this war. This activity helps him to cope with hopeless present and chase away the nightmares of the war. Now he realizes that it is not the present that worth sacrificing and fighting for. Writing is the only way to express his memories and describe the dreams which will never come true.
The Sorrow of War is an exceptional and powerful book, as it is written by one Vietnam soldier, that is why it is sodden with disgrace and understanding, as only a person who came through the war can transfer the memories so completely. This book can be regarded as a voice of the Vietnamese people. Bao Nihn in his novel managed to open the other side of the conflict and demonstrated that people were not only faceless gun fodders, but humans with their own thoughts, dreams and memories. Reading about this war, most people consider only all the victims from American side and they completely forget about suffering and losses of the Vietnamese people. War is the event that will always be in minds and souls of the soldiers. That is why the topic of memory, attitude and lost dreams are so deeply touched in this novel. The author demonstrates how disillusion about the society and way of life can effect the inner state of the person and his memory of the war. This book is not only about the horrors of war, but hesitation, looking for distinctiveness and respect. It is the so-called declaration of sincerity and hard trip for self-realization, with the help of love, faithfulness, and post-war shock.
References
Ninh, Bao. The Sorrow of War: a Novel of North Vietnam. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996
The topic of war has always been one of the most interesting and widely-spread in literature. The books related to this topic attract the readers attention and make them think over this problem and evaluate all that sorrow and disgrace which people underwent. Needless to say that all those people who came through the war will remember this period of their life with wormwood and tears. The novels about Vietnam War enframe a period of 40 years. They describe people who fought, those who dreamt about home and their families and friends; those who came back from war and bravely died, fighting for peace and independence. These books are about war in Vietnam and in China, Thailand and Cambodia. Moreover, they describe the problems of social and cultural differences and solidarity of people who were united by common fatality. Great number of such books deal with the aftermaths of war, looking for understanding among the readers. The Sorrow of War by Bao Ninh is the brightest example of such books. It provides the reasons for better understanding of those times, which effected all world publicity.
The Sorrow of War written by Bao Ninh in 1994 comprises a lot of different themes. This book is mainly devoted to the topic of memory, reappraisal of values and society after the war. The main character of the story is a Vietnamese soldier Kien, who enters the war in order to fight for the alliance of Vietnam on behalf of the Communists. During the whole book the readers are able to feel Kiens enthusiasm and desire to fight for his country, his dreams about future, his desires and aspiration to win in the name of his society. Before this war, Kien had everything in his life: home, family and the girlfriend, whom he loved most of all, but the war brought the misfortune to their lives and after the war is finished, they asked themselves whether they have really won. Memory is a constant companion of Kien, as the events of war and all that he had to overcome are in his mind:
Sure, thinks Kien, its hard to forget. When will I calm down? When will my heart be free of the tight grip of war? Whether pleasant or ugly memories, they are there to stay for ten, twenty years, perhaps forever. From now all my life will e always dark& (Nihn, p. 32).
While analyzing this book it is necessary to pay attention to life of Vietnamese society and its people during that awful period. When reading about the Vietnam War, the reader can completely imagine all misery and hell that American and Vietnamese soldiers had to experience. Due to the style of presenting information, we can clearly understand all hardships and sufferings that the Vietnamese people had to bear during this war. The thirty years period of war has led to the destruction of the value structure of Vietnam culture. This crushing war distressed the country, families and villages: Thanh Hoa station was completely destroyed. Bomb craters gaped everywhere, opening their horrible mouths in the early morning sun (Nihn, p. 201). So, are these results worth fighting and pain of all innocent people who suffered and died during this war? The image of soldier Kien in The Sorrow of War demonstrates the difficulties of the Vietnamese people before, through and after this war. Recollecting all the events in his memory, Kien changes his attitude to the society. While his writing, Kien depicts his difficulty to get accustomed to the peacetime. He demonstrates the way this war shattered his youth and life of his fellows and countrymen. Of course, after all those disastrous events it is actually very difficult for him to start living a regular life due to different reasons. Kien became the soldier being a young man and during his youth, and later, after a couple of years this awful war has finished. This period seemed to be the happiest in his life, but after rejoining the society in which he used to live, he found that people he knew were dead. For those who were lucky to survive, this war had so tremendous effect on them that Kien did not manage to treat them as earlier. This war changed not only their attitude to others, but also their inner state and emotions. This also concerns Kien and his memory of the war. He preserved certain images of his family, close people and relatives in his mind before the war. He was living with these images and dreams during the war and hoped to live together with all of them in peace time. But as a result the readers see his despair, because he returned to an entirely new world that had nothing in common with all those memories hidden in his mind. The violence of the war made it very difficult for Kien to live in peaceful society and almost everything around him reminded about those disastrous events. Now, his life was filled with flashback, bright blood, murders, injustice, dead bodies, shattering souls, explosions, and everything that other people could hardly imagine. Despite of the fact that this awful war was finished, Kien was experiencing it over and over in his mind and heart: Victory after victory. Withdrawal after withdrawal. The path of war seemed endless, desperate and leading nowhere (Nihn, p.13). These words can fully describe the inner state of Kien when he remembers the war and everything that he had to face.
Except the memory of the war, that constantly returns Kien to those events, there is one more reason that makes his existence in peacetime unbearable. It is the loss of Phuong, Kiens lovely girlfriend. After coming back to Hanoi, Kien found his loved Phuong as completely changed woman, who was living another life, totally different from that he was dreaming about. Unfortunately, this war influenced both of lovers. It made them completely different and alien people and their past was the only common thing that could unite them as earlier. Vietnam war has stolen their happy future and broke their innocence. Love seemed to Kien to be the only positive thing that could help him to recover from all his memories and start living again, but such unpredictable change appeared the last reason, which helped to change completely Kiens attitude to the war. In order to cope with all his feelings and throbbing memories, Kien made up his mind to become a writer. To his mind, only writing helps him chase away all the nightmares and thoughts about this war. This activity helps him to cope with hopeless present and chase away the nightmares of the war. Now he realizes that it is not the present that worth sacrificing and fighting for. Writing is the only way to express his memories and describe the dreams which will never come true.
The Sorrow of War is an exceptional and powerful book, as it is written by one Vietnam soldier, that is why it is sodden with disgrace and understanding, as only a person who came through the war can transfer the memories so completely. This book can be regarded as a voice of the Vietnamese people. Bao Nihn in his novel managed to open the other side of the conflict and demonstrated that people were not only faceless gun fodders, but humans with their own thoughts, dreams and memories. Reading about this war, most people consider only all the victims from American side and they completely forget about suffering and losses of the Vietnamese people. War is the event that will always be in minds and souls of the soldiers. That is why the topic of memory, attitude and lost dreams are so deeply touched in this novel. The author demonstrates how disillusion about the society and way of life can effect the inner state of the person and his memory of the war. This book is not only about the horrors of war, but hesitation, looking for distinctiveness and respect. It is the so-called declaration of sincerity and hard trip for self-realization, with the help of love, faithfulness, and post-war shock.
References
Ninh, Bao. The Sorrow of War: a Novel of North Vietnam. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996
A customers memory plays a great role in their consumer decision-making process. In advertising, whether or not a customer will buy a product depends on his or her memory. Creativity is a necessity if the ad is going to stick onto a buyers memory to influence his/ her decision. Two studies were undertaken to find out the effect of creativity on a customers memory of an advert. The first one studied the relationship between creativity, out-of-home ads, and consumers memory. With cinema adverts and airport adverts being used as experimental ads, it was established that when compared to creativity, the location of an ad is not significant to a customers memory. Study 2 aimed at finding out the effect of creativity on a customers attention and recognition of a brand. It was established that creative ads draw the attention of customers and in the process tend to stick on a buyers mind. The customer can easily recognize a creatively advertised product.
From the two studies, it can be concluded that creativity has a positive effect on recognition. The results however do not provide a convincing analysis since different types of advertising media were not utilized. Media plays a key role towards recognition and hence must be factored in. The environment must also be varied from low distraction levels to high distraction levels to have a more objective analysis of creativity and memory. Adverts used in the first study were already existing hence were not suitable for recall tests. Respondents may recall the advert from a prior airing and not from the experiment. The second study was based in a classroom environment instead of a real-world setting. The findings of these two studies cannot, therefore, be relied on for determining the effect of creativity on memory.
Creativity via Cartoon Spokespeople in Print Ads
Unlike the traditional print ads which made use of personalized characters, the use of cartoon spokespeople in ads is gaining popularity. For an ad to be effective, it must appeal to its audience. Creativity and entertainment are key to effective ads. The use of animated characters in advertisements instead of human manipulated characters has been a subject of debate. A study was conducted in the US amongst undergraduate students to analyze the effect that animations have on print ads. Different ads with human and cartoon characters were used as experiments. The respondents were required to assess each ad and rate them for likeability and credibility. A questionnaire was provided for the respondents to fill in and give either a favorable or an unfavorable verdict concerning the two ads. Statistics from the study revealed that the use of animated characters is a more creative, distinctive, and interactive method of advertising.
The research however does not give a comprehensive and conclusive account as to the effectiveness of cartoon characters over human characters. The sample was not sufficiently representative as only undergraduate students were used. Despite fair representation in gender, the number of respondents was only 141 who were all between the ages of 18 and 33. Cartoons are popular with young people, hence, the choice of the population in the sample was biased. Apart from print media, non-print media also plays a big role in advertising. Non-print media was not utilized hence the results of the research do not give a true representation. From this research, it would be wrong to state that cartoon ads are more effective than ads with human characters. This research however shows that the use of cartoon characters is a distinctive way of appealing to customers. Distinctiveness alone does not make a great ad, more detailed and representative research would be required to give a true and fair view.
Modeling the persuasive and Emotional Effects of advertising creativity
Ad creativity is a highly researched and documented topic in marketing. It is quite clear that creativity is key to the success of any marketing ad, however not much is known on how the effects of creativity are modeled. Creativity in advertising goes a long way towards influencing a customer to buy a certain product. Consumer response towards a certain product is divided into three stages, Cognitive, affective, and conative. These three stages summarize a customers reaction towards an ad from the time he/she sees an ad up to the time he/she makes a final decision to buy the good. When an advertisement is created, it has to be modeled with these three stages of customer reaction in mind. Three studies were carried out in an attempt to find out the effects creativity in advertising has on a customers response towards a product. In addition, customer involvement was also tested to determine its effects on cognitive, affective, and conative stages.
The three studies clearly explained the effect of consumer participation in creativity but were at fault due to ambiguity in the term participation. The type of participation required and the level of participation were not clearly stated. The population of the study, for example only 151 respondents in study 1, was not large enough for such research. Demographic varieties in factors such as age, culture, and class in the society ought to be represented in the population of study for a more precise analysis. It is also not explained how advertisers can distinguish between high involvement and low involvement consumers to segment their ads appropriately. From a theoretical mindset, the findings from the results seem accurate but the actual implementation of the findings could prove to be a daunting task.
The effect of Agency Creativity on Campaign Outcomes
Advertising and creativity go hand in hand. For any ad to be effective creativity is one of the key requirements. Advertising creativity has been highly researched but little is known of the effect of agency creativity on the result of the advertising campaign at different levels of the market. A study was conducted in China to establish the kind of effects agency creativity has on the total outcome of the advertising campaign. The population of the study was Chinese advertising agencies. The test established that agency creativity is important for the success of an advertising campaign but creativity must be checked to avoid counter-productivity. Market conditions must also be factored in when it comes to creativity. If there is high competitive intensity and low market dynamism, high creativity is required. For a market characterized with a high market dynamism and low competitive intensity, the agency should stick to traditional forms of advertising.
Although this study provides a glimpse into the role of agency creativity in campaign outcomes, it is not representative of other markets in the world as it was based solely on the Chinese market. There is also ambiguity in the distinction between over creativity and appropriate creativity. The target audience, the agency, and the firm may have subjective opinions as to what should pass as creative. In addition, the consequences of excessive creativity are also not spelled out clearly. Apart from competitive intensity and dynamism, more market variables such as target group demographics should have been incorporated into the study for a more accurate analysis. Albeit it can be unanimously agreed that agency creativity has a positive effect on the outcome of advertising campaigns, the research carried out does not provide a precise analysis.
A critique of meta-analysis on how spacing impacts verbal learning
An advert sticks into ones memory when it focuses on the characteristic of the material being advertised, other advertisements competing for the same market niche, and the kind of people it targets (Shapiro and Shanker, 2004). Other secondary issues that have to be considered include how these ads are scheduled by the advertising media and how frequently the ad material is done. Developing an insight into how the repetition of advertising material can be learned and remembered can help in gauging their effectiveness. The interaction between repetition schedule, advertising content, and context has not been formally researched and if there are any studies into these areas it is very sparse. Those intending to study this phenomenon have to look at related studies. Much of the investigation into verbal learning has had to heavily rely on studies of learning via repetition. Attention, rehearsal, retrieval, reconstruction and encoding hypotheses, and encoding variability are very relevant if one wants to understand memory formation.
This meta-analysis relied heavily on verbal learning literature. The propositions that are fronted on human behavior and advertising research are mere speculations. The meta-analysis can however be entertained because it is based on the only available results. In this aspect, reconstruction and retrieval hypotheses come in handy in helping to generate propositions as to how repetition can be used in improving memory of advertising material. The retrieval explanation gives credence to an initial encoding of stimulus and limitation of retrieval cues. This complicates the retrieval process although it becomes successful in the long run. This is consistent with the theory that advertising derives credence from three repeated exposures. This is not true for all the advertisements. The content and context of spacing effect lack theoretical background needed for it to advance. Memory improves as an advertising material is repeated. Nevertheless, repetition of advertising material can be counterproductive. This is indeed consistent with the retrieval hypothesis. Pictures that are used in advertisements are easy to remember compared to verbal utterances but verbal advertisements are more appropriate in repetition advertisements. It is imperative to come up with brand names that are meaningful for your product. However, meaningless brand names that are overly repeated make consumers develop meaningful associations with them. Stimuli of semantically complex origin or those of structural complex origin respond differently to exposures.
A study into how memory-based measures can be used in assessing the effects of advertising
Studies that have been conducted in this area have absolutely relied on examination of contingent effects on explicit memory retrieval. The ability of the consumer to interrogate his or her memory in an attempt to remember what information the advertisement was trying to capitalize on has been so integral (Janiszewski, 2003). Divided attention, span of time between advertisement exposure and test interfere with the process of memory retrieval. This study advances that an alternative retrieval process and implicit memory can work differently. The alternative retrieval process is therefore automatic in nature as consumers do not have to interrogate their memory to ascertain what they previously viewed in an advertisement. When it is compared with explicit memory retrieval, it can be preserved even in situations where ones attention is divided. Explicit memory is severely impacted by delay and divided attention. Process dissociation procedure helps invalidation of both explicit and implicit memory retrieval.
The hypotheses that stipulated that retrieval of explicit memory when there is the increase in time delay between exposure and test and hence decrease in attention to the ad and that there would be no effect on memory retrieval when there is increase in exposure time and test hence decrease in ad was founded on the fact that dependent variables contribute to dissociated pattern of effects. The study failed to use statistical analysis to complete implicit memory tests. Performance on implicit memory tests should tally with those of explicit memory tests. When the same retrieval processes have been used the results should be the same. To avoid contamination of performance completion of dependent variables must be done between subjects. This study had its shortcomings especially in areas about effectiveness of an advertisement which is only tied to explicit memory. Explicit memory can however be less effective in situations where there is the delay between ad exposure and choice.
A critique of study into how advertising misinformation can impact memory
When somebody watches an advert of a product he or she once consumed they tend to think that must have tasted a superior product. Consumers who are familiar with the products they once consumed are less likely to be misled by advertisements. This category of consumers is helped by misleading advertisements to clearly remember the actual brand of product they consumed (Cowley and Janus, 2004).
Bringing recognition and recall results into perspective, advertisements are less likely to alter memory for a particular product, but instead build consumers consumption vocabulary to discretely describe the taste of the product. People who are not familiar with a given product tend to ignite their memory of the product by relying on advertisement information. The description of their memory of the product is dependent on experience and advertisement. People who are familiar with a particular product are quite often misled by advertisements. Consumers who are more conscious of subcategories of different products cannot be easily misled by misleading advertisements but are instead encouraged by them to better their memory. This is true because they are capable of discerning details of the products advertised. However, this finding needs further corroboration by subsequent researches to validate its authenticity.
A critique of a study on how memory interference impacts advertisement
Memory for advertisement information can negatively be impacted by subjecting the participant to another advertisement especially where the two advertisements use similar pictures (Kumar and Krishnan, 2004). This adversely affects new brands in the market. Competitive interference has got very minimal effect on familiar brands found in the market.
Contextual information about two brands using similar pictures in advertisements can cause interference across product classes. The study concurs with the popular belief that familiar brands cannot be affected by competitive interference but slightly deviates when it reiterates that a strong representation of the brand node in ones memory cannot provide a concrete basis for countering interference. The competition witnessed in advertising media occasioned by picture cue make the products being advertised less capable of reaching activation level for them to be sufficiently recalled by consumers. The correct retrieval of the brand name may not have much impact especially when consumers are unfamiliar with the claims. Provision of picture label cue when a product is retrieved affects claims about familiar brands because of contextual interference.
Reference List
Cowley, E. and Janus, E., (2004). Not Necessarily Better, but Certainly Different: A Limit to the Advertising Misinformation Effect on Memory, Journal Of Consumer Research, 11.
Janiszewski, C., Noel, H. and Sawyer, A.G., (2003). A Meta-analysis of the Spacing Effect in Verbal Learning: Implications for Research on Advertising Repetition and Consumer Memory, Journal of Consumer Research, 30.
Kumar, A. and Krishnan, S., (2004). Memory Interference in Advertising: A Replication and Extension, Journal of Consumer Research, 30.
Shapiro, S. and Shanker, K.H., (2001). Memory-Based Measures for Assessing Advertising Effects: A Comparison of Explicit and Implicit Memory Effects, The Journal of Advertising, 30(3).
Organizational Memory (OM) is part of collective memory researches related to active action which searches for augmentation of the organizational capital by helping organizations in using habitual practices and embedded information mutually to predict and solve problems. Organizational Memory entails the coding of information sieved through different forms of intellectual capital; structural, relational, and human. Putting these intellectual capital forms into the practice of remembrance produces four interrelated but different OM models. These include; storage bin model, narrative model, innovative model, and the political resource model.
OM as an intangible asset
Proper management of OM increases its potential of improving the economic value of a firm. Efficient management of information in the form of OM enhances a firms capability of learning and developing innovative products and services. Secondly, it enhances a firms ability to adapt and maintain greater stability during change thus lowering business costs and time required to bring in new members or reorient those who are changing positions. Intellectual capital can therefore be categorized into three forms; human, structural, and relation-intellectual capital. Human capital is the intangible asset resulting due to a firms ability to employ, retain, and promote intelligence well trained and entrusted persons. Structural capital is concerned with policy issues, standard operating procedures, job description, reporting structures, and their impact on a firms organizational culture when harmonized. Relational-intellectual capital is the nature and quality of inter-organizational and intra-organizational associations created by a firm in its environment. OM has four basic models: Storage bin, Narrative, Innovative, and Political resource.
The storage bin model
Storage bin addresses retrieval of information for future use and time embedded aspects of the OM. The main emphasis in this model is on the location and design of the collective memory. These lessen the retrieval duration of the required information, experience, and the quality of information missing, spoiled, and /or irretrievable from the storage.
The narrative model
The main emphasis here concerns modalities of motivating the retrieval and use of information and experiences in the OM. In contrast, there is no focus on retention as emphasized by storage bin models. The pertinent issues here involve retrieval of information and experiences using an interpretation of once stored information by current users. These issues improve understanding, elucidation, and learning to stem from the use, recovery, and information recontextualization in the OM. There is no prioritization of initial storage of information but a sequence of vibrant processes required for the creation and recreation of the firms change adaptation and learning process.
The innovative model
The model seeks to use information and experiences in the OM to predict problems, come up with creative solutions, and develop a collection of new information and experiences. The model develops intelligent capital by trying to incorporate OM into a firms effort at creative problem-solving. The innovative model introduces change which necessitates OM revision extension and amendment. These new ideas and innovativeness are used to deal with uncertainty and problems in a firm.
Political resource model
The model is based on power and authority bestowed upon an individual to control a firm thus gaining OM legitimacy. The main components of this model include the conferment of power, status, and privileges. Here, various translations of the past in an attempt to win the adoption by the management team. The source of intellectual capital arises from the managers ability to welcome new information and experiences, the stability of tenure of the leaders, and their interest in the OM.
Conclusion
In many instances, adverse result on intellectual capital has been recorded. This is blamed on OM as a memory level build and end-users motives. Models developed to enhance consistency have several weaknesses and uncommon agreement. The storage modelers hung on stability, reliability, and certainty in organizational memory to store and retrieve information. They see no association between power and memory but only believe in the rationality design of the model. They hold that power acquirers select what ought to be inserted into the firms remembrance for future reclamation. Its main weakness is the gathering of dust and therefore must be frequently used. The narrative model has been blamed on focusing on the short attention span of a changeable organizational culture. It cannot aid the conversion of possible innovation into strategy as it assumes a simple guarantee, assembled upon followers request; it overemphasizes function at the expense of specificity. They hold to the use of explanation and recontextualization as life breathing. The organizational politics and conflicts within firms serve as a problem solver to them. These followers are open-minded but do not embrace the best practices of others and are insufficiently engaged with a habit, immovability, and suspicious agendas. Political modelers are challenged on the basis of forfeiture and pushing self-perception, grounded in the culture of organizations. This model possesses simple postulations regarding intensity, ubiquity, and concern self behavior. Also, this model suffers from its limited focus on information and experiences accuracy backed by OM. Summarily; the intellectual capital arena is immensely complex due to reversals concerning the treatment of OM, the emergence of interesting recommendations, and descriptive application on changing intangible benefit to financial stipulations. Therefore, closer scrutiny of the OM models depicts a rethinking gap expected of intellectual students. The focus should be the determination of when which practice is most useful.
The confident use of a personal computer involves not only utilizing useful functions that modern devices possess but also gaining knowledge in the field of individual structural elements of the system. The assessment of hardware components and the analysis of the tasks that they perform can extend equipment service life and ensure the safe operation of all systems. The description of the components of a personal computer are valuable data that a user needs to learn to use any device conveniently.
RAM Description
Random-access memory (RAM) is a computer memory with random access in which the majority of data exchange operations among the main components are performed. It is a repository of all information flows that need to be processed and determines the order of their processing. The amount of RAM directly affects the speed of operations and the speed of data processing. Today, there are several types of RAM, and the increase in the efficiency of their frequency is a key indicator that determines the technical characteristics of a particular type. To replace the older models, a new generation of RAM has come Double Data Rate (DDR), which are of the types DDR2, DDR 3, and DDR 4 (Goodner, 2019). They have been used in computers since 2000, and each subsequent model has higher performance features compared to the previous ones (Goodner, 2019). At the moment, DDR4 is the most advanced type of RAM and is characterized by low power consumption and high data transfer rate.
Issues that can arise with RAM are not as common as with other computer components. However, technical malfunctions are possible, which are manifested in such problems as forced program termination, a distorted image, slow loading, complicated Internet access, and some other nuances slowing down ordinary procedures (Goodner, 2019). These issues can be fixed either manually by examining the RAM card for defects or in an automatic mode through special programs. If defects are identified, the system usually signals this, and depending on the severity of the failure, either the replacement of the part or its corresponding adjustment may be required.
Expansion Cards
Expansion cards are cards that are installed into the expansion slots of the motherboard of a computer system to add additional features. One edge of this card is equipped with contacts that exactly match a connector on the motherboard. These contacts provide an electrical connection between the components of a card and the motherboard. Expansion cards are designed to expand the functions of a personal computer and may contain RAM and input and output devices. There are three main types of such cards: network, graphics, and sound ( Computer expansion cards, 2016). In addition, three types of slots are used in modern computer equipment. They are Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) the most widespread port, Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) Windows OS, and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) graphics and video cards ( Computer expansion cards, 2016).
Graphics cards incorporate an integrated graphics subsystem for outputting images by using RAM ( Computer expansion cards, 2016). If the volume of cards is small, problems with downloading multi-tasking programs may occur, which is corrected by replacing them with more modern equipment. Network cards built into the motherboard allow communicating with other computers ( Computer expansion cards, 2016). When such elements fail, the connection among computers is broken, but this situation can be corrected by installing an individual network adapter in a slot. Sound cards help convert sound from an analog to a digital form ( Computer expansion cards, 2016). In case of a technical malfunction or to increase the dynamic range, such cards are replaced.
CPUs Features
The processor of a personal computer is a chip that is responsible for performing any data operations and controls peripheral devices. The acronym CPU is used, which means a central processing unit. Modern processors can process several instructions in parallel, and while one instruction is in the decoding stage, a processor may have time to receive another instruction (Sarup, 2015). If a processor is multi-core, this means that there are several separate processors with some common resources. The core is the most important element of the central processor capable of executing a single stream of instructions (Sarup, 2015). Cores differ in a memory cache size, manufacturing technology, and other properties. The ability to host more than one core in a single enclosure significantly increases CPU performance and helps perform multiple tasks at once.
There are two versions of the bit depth of the Windows operating system 32-bit and 64-bit. In general, the processor capacity is the length of a machine word inside a microprocessor and means its ability to simultaneously work with a certain number of bits (Sarup, 2015). 32- and 64-bit architectures are sets of program codes that can work with a certain amount of RAM and affect performance. 64-bit computing is much faster, and a computer device running this version of the operating system works with higher performance than the one running 32-bit.
Sockets are connectors in which a processor is installed, and they are of several types based on specific characteristics. As a rule, they differ in physical sizes, but in some cases, certain sockets only support individual types of processors. This factor is essential to consider since the fastening of a processor and its operation directly depend on whether it is suitable for a particular socket or not.
In modern computers, two cooling systems are used: air and liquid. They work on a similar principle and perform the same tasks: they absorb heat from a processor and distribute it away from the hardware installed in a system unit case (Morley & Parker, 2017). With proper implementation, both options can perform effective functions, but one should consider the specific operating conditions of a computer.
In CPUs, various technical problems may arise, which affect the performance of the entire system. One of the common problems is overheating, which is corrected by installing optimal cooling and replacing individual components of the processor or hardware (Morley & Parker, 2017). Another threat comes from the vulnerability of processors to hacker attacks, and the corresponding software is required to protect data (Morley & Parker, 2017). Poor performance may be a problem if too a weak processor is installed, which does not cope with the tasks, and replacing it with a newer version is possible.
Safety Procedures
ESD (electrostatic discharge) is a static electrical discharge that is transmitted from a human body to the electronic components of a computer ( What is electrostatic discharge, 2018). The field that occurs affects technicians negatively, and too frequent contact can lead to headaches, poor sleep, and other manifestations. As preventative measures, a few topical tips may be suggested:
Maintaining the grounding of the 220V supply network and cables for connecting to it in a perfect working condition.
Using antistatic mats and bracelets in the workplace.
Maintaining optimal humidity indoors, as well using air conditioners and ionizers.
Since computer components are sensitive to the movement of electrons, appropriate measures should be taken to prevent ESD. This physical phenomenon can cause intermittent failures that are very difficult to detect. In this regard, as a crucial measure, ensuring proper grounding is a mandatory safety procedure ( What is electrostatic discharge, 2018). A technician should put on a special grounding bracelet when working with the hardware of a computer. Grounding ensures the equilibrium of potentials and prevents ESD occurrence.
Graff et al (2009) sought to know the role of PP1 in chromatin remodeling as well as its possible contribution to epigenetic regulation of memory and learning. This investigation was to be accomplished by coming up with transgenic mice which would facilitate selective inhibition of PP1 in the nucleus of forebrain neurons. The authors of this study worked on the hypothesis that histone posttranslational modification (PTMs) in neurons is altered by PP1 inhibition in the nucleus of the forebrain thus impacting gene transcription and altering long-term memory.
The authors prepared transgenic mice (NIPPI*-EGFP double transgenic mice). Control mice did not have the fragment contained in the transgenic mice. The researchers then conducted several procedures including reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry, protein phosphate assay, coimmunoprecipitation, in vitro phosphorylation assay, HDAC activity assay, western blotting, quantitative RT-PCR, preparing lentivirus and injecting the same in hippocampal slices, and chromatin immunoprecipitation.
The behavior of the mice was assessed by testing for novel object recognition for five minutes in five sessions followed by memory testing where the mice were introduced to a novel object in addition to two already familiar objects. The discrimination ratio was then calculated as well as molecular analysis of the killed mice. Several statistical analyses were conducted including analysis of variance (ANOVA) with appropriate post hoc tests such as Tukeys test, and 2-tailed paired t-test. Statistical significance was determined at.05,.01, and.001 levels.
It was identified that NPP1* was dominantly expressed mainly in the cortex and hippocampal formation but it was marginally present in the amygdala. Non-forebrain structures lacked the nuclear inhibitor NPP1*. In addition, NPP1* was only present in the nucleus of neurons thus only inhibition of PP1 was limited to the nucleus. Graff et al (2009) identified that nuclear PP1 forms an important component of the brains epigenetic machinery since inhibition of PP1 interfered with the association of PP1 and histone-modifying enzymes. Western blot analyses identified that multiple histone posttranslational modifications are altered by nuclear PP1 inhibition.
The authors of this study further noted (by the aid of ChIP assays) that inhibiting nuclear PP1 leads to altered gene expression (transcription to be specific) and this leads to altered memory formation since the genes responsible for memory formation are affected. In addition, the study revealed that all long-term memories depending on hippocampal structures as well as cortical structures are enhanced by nuclear PP1 inhibition. Lastly, Graff et al (2009) revealed that long-term memory induces specific histone PTMs including H4K5 acetylation and H3K36 trimethylation, all of which enhance CREB expression. Overall, the study shows that PP1 that is pooled in the nucleus of neurons in adults is crucial in epigenetic regulation of memory formation.
References
Koshibu, K., Graff, J., Beullens, M., Heitz, F. D. and Berchtold, D. et al. (2009). Protein Phosphatase 1 regulates the histone code for long-term memory. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(41):13079 13089.
Researchers conducted a study to identify whether the items in deep processing conditions are more remembered than those in the shallow processing conditions. One hundred fifty-three participants were involved in the study, and the gender distribution was 84 males and 69 females with different ethnical backgrounds. The research study was conducted on 21st June 2021 at the University of California. The participants were subjected to controlled and experimental conditions. The experiment was conducted in two phases, and in the first phase, the participants were shown objects to identify whether they are manmade or natural, tilted or straight. In the second phase, the participants were given a memory score sheet and were instructed to label Yes or No depending on whether the object was present on phase one or not. The researchers found out that deep processing conditions have a higher mean than shallow processing conditions. This implied that it is easy to remember items at a deep processing level than those in a shallow level of processing. However, the research study has weaknesses, such as the conditions under which the participants are subjected may result in stress, thereby altering the results of the study.
Introduction
Olson (1977) discussed the potential of the level of processing memory theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) for understanding the processes that underlie advertising remembrance. This theory hypothesizes that memory is a function of cognitive processes that occur during exposure to a recalled stimulus. It has common elements with several recent advertising effects theories (Hughes & Ray, 1974; Wright, 1974). Memory is a function of the level to which the item is processed and that it is independent of the amount of rehearsal practice or repetition of the stimulus (Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982; Craik, 2002). Whereas a specific definition of level has not been specified, the variable of the degree to which a learner subjects material to elaboration in terms of relating it to his past knowledge and experience (Baddeley, Eysenck & Anderson, 2015; Glover et al., 1985; Lockhart & Craik, 1990). Materials subjected to greater elaboration or processed to a deeper level are hypothesized to be more readily remembered (Craik and Lockhart, 1972).
Hyde and Jenkins (1973) experiment illustrated the concept of a typical level of processing. In the experiment, the researchers manipulated several tasks on the experimental groups. All the groups were presented with a list of words that were to be processed in many ways. For example, the test subjects were provided with a word list and asked to rate them on a five-point Likert scale. Another set was instructed to count and write down the number of times the letter E appeared in every word they were shown. Following this, the subjects in the two groups were given an impromptu recall task where they were to write down every word they could recall. This procedure resembles the usual incidental paradigm used in many experiments of memory.
In the past several years, the level of processing theory has been subjected to a great deal of empirical and theoretical elaboration. For instance, according to Craik and Tulving (1975), the effects are more accurately characterized as a spread of processing instead of depth. The successful remembrance of a material depends on its encoding in additional contexts, such as phonemic, semantic, or structural of the existing individuals cognitive makeup (Nickerson & Adams, 1979; Peretz et al., 1998).
In experiments done by Craik and Tulving (1972), subjects were instructed to respond to queries about words displayed to them. Again, no mention was made that the words were to be remembered. Questions such as Is the word a part of the body? are examples of a deep processing question; in this case, attention is directed towards the words meaning. An example of a shallow processing question would be Is the word in upper case letters? whereas a question of intermediate processing was Does the word rhyme with weight? . A sequence of ten experiments consistently showed better memory for deeper levels of processing.
The experiments also pointed out that a long time of processing for deep questions could account for higher performance; this was done by asking questions that took a long time to answer but still required only shallow processing. Lastly, Craik and Tulvings experiment involved the variation of the degree of elaboration needed to answer questions, and findings were better remembrance for more elaborate processing (Baddeley & Woodhead, 1982; Konkle et al., 2010 Baddeley & Hitch, 2017).
The memory maintenance concept as a function of the quality instead of processing quantity would seem to be of profound importance for theories of information processing of consumer behavior. Another experiment was designed to extend Craik and Tulvings theory on the definition of the level and depth of processing in an advertising context. This task was carried out in such a way that the participants were required to attend to brand names in a given advert. The ads were divided into two, and a half was given attention to the physical features while the other half was given to the semantic features. The researchers later attempted to manipulate the levels at which the ads were processed.
Many studies have been conducted to test the level of processing. Other researchers like Nickerson and Adams (1979) demonstrated that many people have a poor visual memory when it comes to detail features. They utilized a coin to test this theory as detailed features are quite incidental to the coin functionality. These showed the coin received shallow processing, and therefore, the details are poorly remembered. This showed that sometimes it is normal to remember all the things around us (Intraub & Nicklos, 1985). The authors relate the coin to the everyday life conditions where the coin details are less important than the functionality of the coin. One does not require to know the detail of the coin to use it. The most significant aspect of the theory is that learning is a by-product of comprehension (Jacoby & Dallas, 1981). They portray that the academic analyst needs to consider comprehension in active and passive learners using the levels of processing. Using the theories above, the paper focuses on identifying whether the item conditions determine the levels of processing.
Method
Design
As an ethical requirement, the experiment was approved by the psychology class review board on 19th June 2021. The experiment utilized a repeated measures method where all the participants were exposed to every test condition. The method was selected because it allows other researchers to replicate the experiment. The advantage of this research method is that the number of people required to experiment is less, and they are all exposed to the experimental conditions. Its drawback is that the order of activities tends to impact the behaviour of the participants. The controlled variable is the shallow conditions, and the experimental variable is the deep condition in which the objects are shown in the experiment. The independent variable is the level of processing of a given material, and the dependent variable is the accuracy in the memory cells. The uncontrolled variables are the external interference that impacts the performance of the brain, such as weather conditions. The experiment was designed in such a way that factors that impact the memory performance, such as stress, would not be experienced at the time of the experiment. The participants were reminded that any personal data collected is not to be disclosed to anyone and all the data collected is confidential. They were informed that the experiment is not compulsory and whenever anyone wants to leave is allowed at any time.
Participants
The experiment was conducted at the University of California. Participants ages ranged from 17 to 50 years, and all had received a minimum of 4 months of high school education. The ethnic background of the participant involved whites, Asians, and blacks. The gender composition was 69 females and 84 males totaling 153 participants. As part of the requirement to participate in the experiment, every participant was required to sign a consent paper before participating in the experiment. The selected individuals were part of the California community because it allowed the experiment to be conducted on time due to availability and time constraints. The advantages are easy access to the study participants hence allowing quick and accurate research. All the participants were exposed to the controlled and the experimental conditions.
Material
Informed consent.
Picture objects.
Memory test phase.
Standardized instructions.
Debriefing letter.
Procedure
Object test phase
The participants were shown 30 picture objects at different memory processing conditions. 15 objects are displayed in shallow processing conditions, and 15 objects are also displayed in the deep processing conditions. In the first phase, the participants are shown objects on a screen, and they are asked to evaluate whether the objects are natural or manmade. They were later shown objects that are either tilted or upright, and they were asked to gauge the position of the object.
Memory test phase
In the memory test phase, the participants were provided with a memory score sheet where they were required to circle Y(Yes) for the objects displayed to them in the object study phase. They were also instructed to circle N(No) for the objects that were not displayed in the object study phase. This phase was conducted in silence to attain an individuals memory score and not as a group.
Results
The individuals deep memory score was calculated by taking the number of correct Yes responses for the deep items subtract the number of the false alarms to new items. Similar to the deep memory score, an individuals shallow memory score was calculated by taking the number of correct yes responses for the shallow items subtract the number of false alarms for the new items. The statistical results are shown below.
Descriptive Statistics
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
MemoryScoreDeep
153
3.1307
4.93869
MemoryScoreShallow
153
.8954
5.07077
Valid N (listwise)
153
Table 1.0: Descriptive for the variables MemoryScoreDeep and MemoryScoreShallow.
Graph 1.0: Mean comparison in Shallow and Deep memory score.
The deep memory score has a mean of 3.1307 and a standard deviation of 4.93869. Shallow memory score has a mean of 0.8954 and a standard deviation of 5.07077
T-test
A paired sample t-test shows that
t (152) = 11.723, p < 0.05, 95% CIs [1.85858, 2.61201]
Discussion
From table 1.0, the mean for the deep memory score is 3.1307, and that of the shallow memory score is 0.8954. This shows that the study participants remembered more of the deep items than the shallow items. The standard deviation of the deep memory score is lower than the standard deviation of the shallow memory score. This portrays that the variation in remembering shallow objects is higher among the participants than remembering deep items. The standard deviation for the deep memory score is close to the mean compared to the standard deviation of the shallow items compared to the mean. This implies that the variation of the group memory performance in remembering deep items is close to each other than when remembering shallow items.
The error bar of the deep memory score is lower than that of the shallow memory score. This implies that the variation of shallow memory score is higher than the variation of the deep memory score. The t-test shows a significance value of p <.001, i.e., a statistically significant difference in memory between the conditions. Memory was significantly greater in the deep condition (M = 3.13; SD = 4.94) than the shallow condition (M = 0.90; SD = 5.07), t (152) = 11.723, p < 0.05, 95% CIs [1.85858, 2.61201].
This experiment shows that the items on the deep level of processing are remembered faster than those on the shallow level of processing. The recorded results from the experiments are similar to the previous researches on deep and shallow levels of processing. Deeper levels of analysis are connected with strong and long-lasting memories. It requires real meaning, and the extraction of the meaning is associated with the deep level of processing. It requires a continuum which requires a sound, sight or sensory analysis that led to semantic analysis, and the end product is a permanent memory. The approach level assumes that the meaningful data and information are easily remembered because it is highly familiar and compatible with the prior existing cognitive structures (Hunt & Toth, 1990). These materials are easy to remember because they are quickly processed to deep levels. They are impacted by the amount of attention given to the material, the available time for analysis, and the relationship between the information and the existing cognitive structure (Bower & Karlin, 1974; DAgostino et al., 1977).
Since the word list and exposure time were identical across conditions, it is presumed that the groups only differed in the materials level of processing. According to the level of processing theory by Craik and Lockhart, when a person is required to ascertain if a word is pleasant or unpleasant, it must be considered in terms of its available associations and attributes, such as deep processing is adequate to maintain a high level of memorability (Hyde & Jenkins, 1973; Mulligan & Picklesimer, 2012). On the other hand, the letter-counting activity directs the attention to superficial aspects of the item to be recalled resulting in a shallow level of processing (Morris et al., 1977; Beato et al., 2012).
These results are satisfactory despite the errors that might have resulted from the experiment. However, the research has limitations. The limitation of the study area in the selected sample is that the geographical location and the time limit of the research study made it easy to access the nearby community and involve them in the research study. It is essential to consider different factors that impact the level of processing of the memory, such as the medical background of individuals participating in the research study. Another limitation in the research study is the pressure that the participants may have been subjected to because of time and the studys restrictions. The researchers were in the same place as the participants, which makes them nervous, resulting in altering the final score. The strength of the research study is that extraneous variables that may alter the outcome of the experiment, such as noise, were controlled.
Conclusion
The overall goal for the study was attained as the results recorded from the research study are similar to the previous researches that were conducted in the same field. The researchers concluded that the participants found it easy to remember the objects in the deep processing condition than those in the shallow processing conditions. The deep processing condition required the participant to think and evaluate the meaning of the item before concluding that the item was manmade or natural.
Hughes, G., & Ray, M. (1974). Strong versus Weak Effects of Mass Communication: Two Alternative Hypotheses (pp. 256-269). University of North Carolina Press.
The statement that the left hemisphere controls language is wrong since the activity of the hemisphere is imbalanced. Thus, this is most evident in individuals, where the right hemisphere regulates spatial awareness and manages the opposite side of the brain. In contrast, the left hemisphere handles logical thinking and motor tasks that need step-by-step development (Banich & Compton, 2018). Individuals right hemispheres (RH) participate in language comprehension in three distinct respects (Banich & Compton, 2018). First, the RH interprets some parts of phonology, which refers to an utterances intonation structure or sound purse (Banich & Compton, 2018).
Second, the RHs structuring of semantic knowledge is distinct from the left, offering a broader context in which peoples words are examined (Banich & Compton, 2018). Third, the right hemisphere is critical for narrative and reasoning processing (Banich & Compton, 2018). The capacity to develop or comprehend a storyline is referred to as storytelling. Still, the ability to complete in the spaces and make conclusions about information not presented is referred to as inference (Banich & Compton, 2018). On the other hand, the left hemisphere (LH) is in charge of logical sequences, such as concocting a stone axe, which advances in series in a particular dimension.
Brocas aphasia occurs when a persons Brocas region or its peripherals are damaged. Brocas aphasics speak slowly, haltingly, and are rarely grammatically correct, as expected by the importance of Brocas region in phonological awareness (Banich & Compton, 2018). However, they are often able to name items and complete other meaning-related activities without trouble. As such, I would rather have Broca aphasia because of the ability to identify objects and interpret situations without difficulties. As opposed to Wernickes aphasia, which is the reverse of Brocas aphasia, it occurs when Wernickes brain region is damaged (Banich & Compton, 2018).
It is usual for Wernicke aphasics to generate the identities of interacting components or syllables that sound similar to the elements name when they cannot describe the item they are attempting to identify.
Temporarily storing of sensory data is known as sensory memory. Sensory memory fades away quickly if one ignores it and pass it through for further understanding. Information with a long-term dimension, such as color recognition or familiar voice recognition, is processed within the sensory memory (Banich & Compton, 2018). Short term memory influences a persons concentration ability to retain a particular piece of information. For more than a few seconds, but generally, less than a minute, tiny volumes of data can be stored in short-term memory (STM) (Banich & Compton, 2018). Working memory refers to the procedures individuals use to make sense of, adapt, comprehend, and retain knowledge in STM, which is not retained forever but rather becomes accessible for persons to comprehend.
The storing of knowledge over a long period is called long-term memory (LTM). Steady and long-lasting, this form of memory can survive for many years. Explicit and implicit cognition are two subcategories of long-term memory (Banich & Compton, 2018). Memories that can be recalled consciously are known as explicit memories (Banich & Compton, 2018). Even if an individual is unaware of the influence of prior experiences on their conduct, implicit memory can nevertheless impact their actions.
LTM processes information relating to sound, auditory information, and words. Retrograde amnesia affects sensory memory by affecting recollections generated before initiation of amnesia (Banich & Compton, 2018). For example, a person who suffers retrograde amnesia following catastrophic brain damage may be unable to recall events that occurred years, if not decades, before the injury.
Anterograde amnesia is a term that refers to a diminished capacity for retaining additional knowledge (Banich & Compton, 2018). Thus, interacting with a persons regular routines affects their working memory. Additionally, it may impede job and socializing, as the individual may have difficulty generating new thoughts. Retrograde amnesia is most frequently associated with damage to sections of the brain other than the hippocampus, the portion of the brain responsible for recording new memories. Thus, existing long-term remembrances are maintained in the synaptic connections of a variety of other brain locations.
Reference
Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge University Press.
Memory is a complex interconnection of mechanisms serving a wide variety of purposes. In the most basic terms, it is responsible for the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information on conscious and subconscious levels. The following paper discusses the differences between two such mechanisms, namely working memory and procedural memory.
Working Memory
The most apparent difference between working memory and procedural memory can be explained in terms of storage and utilization mechanisms that underlie both concepts. From this standpoint, working memory can be viewed as a high-priority storage area used for holding information readily available for conscious use. The main purpose of working memory is to ensure the completion of a task that requires operating more than one routine. One example of such a task is text processing. In order to understand an idea presented through written text, the brain needs to retain the information contained in it.
However, reading is a linear process, which means that text requires a certain amount of time to go through. In this scenario, working memory ensures that the information from the texts beginning is retained by the time the reader finishes the sentence. The same process is observed during a conversation: in order to be able to respond to the argument voiced by the opponent, an individual needs to remember it for a certain time (specifically, the time necessary for the opponent to finish formulating a thought).
As can be seen, working memory is retained for a relatively short period of time. The typical time span of working memory ranges from 10 to 15 seconds (Kundu, Sutterer, Emrich, & Postle, 2013). It is also capable of holding a relatively small number of objects seven is considered an average maximum (Kundu et al., 2013). For this reason, the concept is used interchangeably with short-term memory. However, it is important to understand that while it shares several characteristics with the latter, it includes a range of processes collectively responsible for the temporary storage and processing of information.
Procedural Memory
Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory responsible for the ability to accomplish complex motor actions. The most familiar example of procedural memory is the skill of riding a bike: after being acquired, it is retained for the rest of an individuals life and can be reactivated with little to no observable deterioration (Morgan-Short, Faretta-Stutenberg, Brill-Schuetz, Carpenter, & Wong, 2014). Procedural memory has a number of key differences from working memory.
First, it is capable of storing massive amounts of data. For instance, the activity of riding a bike mentioned above requires a number of distinct skills such as maintaining equilibrium, reacting to the observable environment, and performing several mechanical actions. Second, it has a longer storage time span in some cases, it can be retained throughout an individuals life. Third, it relies on subconscious mechanisms and thus does not require conscious effort for successful utilization. Fourth, it is developed through learning and practice. Thus, once acquired, procedural memory allows for relatively effortless and automated performance of activities. For this reason, this type of memory is also referred to as implicit since it does not require explicit effort on the part of the individual.
Conclusion
As can be seen, working memory is different from procedural memory in a number of aspects. Working memory is a short-term, conscious, highly operable memory capable of storing small amounts of information. On the other hand, procedural memory stores large volumes of data organized in complex structures with a high degree of accuracy for long time spans. Therefore, the former is used to process information dynamically, whereas the latter is responsible for the automation of complex motor skills.
References
Kundu, B., Sutterer, D. W., Emrich, S. M., & Postle, B. R. (2013). Strengthened effective connectivity underlies transfer of working memory training to tests of short-term memory and attention. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(20), 8705-8715.
Morgan-Short, K., Faretta-Stutenberg, M., Brill-Schuetz, K. A., Carpenter, H., & Wong, P. C. (2014). Declarative and procedural memory as individual differences in second language acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(1), 56-72.
