Category: Meditation

There is no use denying the fact that the world, which surrounds us, has a great number of different mysteries which a person is still not able to understand. However, there are many various attempts to analyze the universe and understand how it functions. Thus, a person needs an instrument to cogitate about different phenomena. That is why philosophy appeared. Being a very ancient science which tried to determine the main regularities according to which the world functions, philosophy created different approaches to the world analysis and ways to obtain knowledge. Nowadays, humanity has a great number of various ideas connected with it and is able to choose the best one. Besides, appearance of a new philosophic approach is rather complicated process as it challenges traditional one. Under these conditions, Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy can be taken as a very important step in development of philosophic thought and critical thinking.

Being a very talented mathematician and philosopher, Descartes was no satisfied with the rule of traditional Aristotles philosophy, which was taken as the only right one. That is why, Descartes was interested in creation of a new and unique approach which would be able to replace the old one and become more efficient. However, just description of his own vision of the problem and world was not enough. Descartes realized that he had to explain his main ideas for people and the most outstanding philosophers of his time be able to understand him. That is why, the work Meditations on First Philosophy appeared. It was the attempt to change existing rules and introduce the main aspects of critical thinking for people to be able to analyze the world and information which they obtain better. Resting on these facts, the work can be called the reflection of Descartes philosophy and his attempt to make people understand it.

There are six meditations in the given work and each of them introduces its own idea. The author presents his cogitations on behalf of the Meditator, which centers his thoughts around different issues. The first meditation on what can be called in doubt shows the authors attitude toward the nature of things and the way in which people obtain information (Descartes 17). Meditator outlines the fact that he has been wrong for many times in many different things. He underlines that all opinions could be doubted if a person is able to find the reason to do it.

Meditator states that all information, which a person possesses, he/she obtains with the help of different senses. However, at the same time a person may be deceived while dreaming, feeling things which do not exist. It is possible to suggest the idea that Descartes tends to show people that there are no universal truths in the world and thing, which seem quite real, can turn out to be totally false. That is why, a person should be critical in his/her thinking and analyze what he/she sees and percepts finding different reasons to doubt existing opinion.

Meditator continues his cogitation in the second meditation of the nature of human mind. It is connected with the previous one as Descartes tries to show peculiarities of human thinking and mind. Analyzing this very part, it is possible to say that the author tends to show the idea that a person or things consciousness determines existence of this very person or thing. Providing the example in which the Meditator cogitates whether objects can exist if he does not believe in them or not, Descartes shows readers that human mind is the thing which makes the world real for a person. Moreover, his assumption that a human being is a thinking thing which analyzes and doubts can be taken as Descartes definition of a man. Only a person who has critical attitude towards the world can be called a human. Meditators example connected with wax tends to show that a thing is what it is believed to be because of the intellect (Descartes 36). That is why, one of the main ideas of this section is the importance of intellect and thinking for a human being and his/her understanding of the nature of things.

However, Descartes is not only interested in the nature of common objects and things. Being a bright representative of his age, the author is interested in the nature of God and its existence. Descartes insists on critical analysis of the world, though, at the same time he also tries to prove the existence of God with the help of his own arguments. Stating that something could not appear from nothing, Meditator also uses his previous assumptions to prove the existence of God. Wax is wax because a person takes it as this substance and believes in its existence. The same deals with God. He exists because people believe in it. This argument can be taken as rather ambivalent and contradictory as using the same principle a person can prove existence of a great number of different things. However, one should admit that Descartes logic and the way in which he presents his arguments are rather convincing and lead to better understanding of the some main aspects of religion.

The following meditation about the True and the False results from the previous two meditations. The author poses a question if God really exists and, moreover, if he is the source of our Universe, how such things as error or mistake could happen. In other words, the author cogitates about the nature of the error and the way in which a person can make some false conclusion. One of the possible reasons of the appearance of errors suggested by the Meditator is the limited knowledge which prevents a person to understand the nature of some thing and its purpose which is meant by God. This assumption seems very important for the whole understanding of Descartes philosophy and the nature of knowledge in general. There is no use denying the fact, that mistakes very often appear because of the lack of knowledge and, that is why, Descartes is absolutely right in his ideas about the nature of mistake.

The fifth meditation devoted to the essence of material things also touches the issue of God again. Resting on conclusions made in the previous parts of the work, the Meditator returns to the question of the existence of God and tends to prove it with the help of new ideas. The same deals with objects. Descartes differentiates between clear objects and objects which nature is confused. It should be said that the author also cogitates about some mathematical terms and the issue of perfection. He is sure that perfection includes existence and, that is why, being an ideal creature, God exists.

Finally, Descartes comes to his last meditation which is devoted to the differences between the act of understanding and the act of imagination. It means that the Meditator also wants to show the difference between the mind and body. He states the fact that some object could exist just because God is able to create it. That is why, the author comes to the attempt to show that mental images of the object can be taken as the proof of its existence. It should be said that the idea that imagination determine existence can be taken as rather innovative for Descartes age and even nowadays it could be doubted.

However, it is possible to say that the main aim of all meditations it to present a new way to see traditional objects and make people understand that Western philosophy which bases on Aristotles ideas is outdated. Descartes shows that our vision of the world depends on the way in which we obtain and possess information. Critical attitude towards objects, which a person sees, is vital for him/her to understand the world better and. moreover, it helps a person to understand that he/she really exists.

With this in mind, it is possible to assume that the work Meditations on First Philosophy can be taken as the attempt to introduce the main ideas of critical thinking. Thus, Descartes also tries to show people the way in which they could understand their human nature and assure that God really exists. Being reflection of Descartes vision of the world, the given work introduces a new philosophy which helps people to obtain some answers.

Works Cited

Descartes, Rene. Meditations On First Philosophy. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Pub Co, 1993. Print.

Knowledge has been undergoing constant change over the course of time along with human development. The interpretation of knowledge is not a recent development, because much debate was being carried out and logical explanations given from the time of Aristotle (and likely long before him). The philosophy of Lao Tzu and Rene Descartes was developed around 5^th century B.C. in China and 16^th century A.D in France respectively. Even with extreme difference in their schools of thinking and gap of about 2000 years in their respective beginning these two philosophical branches carry most similarity in understanding knowledge, which is much relevant even today. Taoism is based on the way of nature, as humans evolved from nature they are finally dependent upon nature for their survival and Descartes developed a mechanistic view of knowledge, which has been explained in detail by Descartes in the articles titled Meditation. Though there are similarities in explaining different paths of understanding knowledge it is presumed that old master Lao-Tzu prevail over the father of modern philosophy Descartes in proving his points.

Defining knowledge is a complex job and a broad definition for knowledge given by Harvard professor David Perkins includes process like cognition, transfer, intelligence, and memory and any of the manifestation of knowledge such as in the brain, in book, on the internet, etc. (Cabrera, 2002). And the three goals of education according Perkins are retention of knowledge, understanding of knowledge, and active use of knowledge.

Before the development and control of religious beliefs human reasoning and definitions about the world around him were based on natural phenomenon and, thus, nature was the main symbol of knowledge under Taoism. The authority of nature God was replaced by religious logic and ruled till Descartes developed a mechanistic view of knowledge and the paradigm in the present world of information technology is that the universe and everything in it is merely a computational program that process information. (Cabrera, 2002, Drawing on complexity science).

Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism were the major religions of ancient China. The concept of Tao is based on the way of nature. As humans evolved from nature they are finally dependent upon nature for their survival, the Taoist philosophy understands Tao as the one thing which exists and connects the many things.

(On truth and reality: The spherical standing wave structure of matter (wsm) in space, 2008). The origin of Taoism has been subject of dispute among historians and it is presumed that Taoism originated from ancient oral tradition, which has been copied by an unknown author during the third century B.C. The first text Tao Te Ching ( The Canon of Tao and Te: The way and its Power) has been credited to be compiled by Lao Tzu (older master) who is traditionally believed to be its author and with a collection of over 80 poems describing the importance of Taoism it became the foundation for Taoist philosophy that influenced scientific, philosophic, psychological, and linguistic ideas of both eastern and western traditions (Chen, 1989).

The four basic educational systems of Taoist principles are acquiring Knowledge, student and the teacher relationship, resources, and the meditation. In Taoism the concept of contradicting relation between opposites is symbolized in the form of Yin-Yang. The symbol Yin-Yang, a circle with black and white dissolving in each other, represents opposing at the same time balancing characteristics present in nature

It is traditionally believed that Lao Tzu was a native of Chu in southern China, and an older contemporary of Confucius, who held the official title keeper of archives in the imperial court of the Chou Dynasty, and Lao Tzu is represented as the spirit of the south. Lao Tzu considered the world was in perfect order, but human actions polluted the universe as man stood against cosmic order. Hence, Lao Tzu suggested that humans should follow the way of the universe called Tao. As humans are not capable or knowledgeable of interpreting natural phenomena they should allow nature to take its own course. Lao Tzu attempted to unravel the construction of knowledge, different types of educational resources, depth of teacher-student relationships, and influence of time frame. Taoist philosophy is based on an understanding of the character of mechanical devices and their influence on humans and it suggests that machines transform humans to machines that they use. In chapter 47 of Tao Te Ching, Lao-Tzu proclaims Without going outside his door, one understands (all that takes place) under the sky; therefore the sages get their knowledge without traveling; gave their (right) names to things without seeing them; and accomplished their ends without any purpose of doing so. These words instruct the seekers of knowledge to look deep within and to be meditative to search for the unlimited possibilities of self.

For Lao Tzu there was no symbol of God than nature, and he was not interested in rituals, which is clearly expressed in the reply given to Confucius. In his reply to Confucius on rituals Lao Tzu said  those whom you talk about are dead and their bones have decayed. Only their words have remained&. Get rid of your proud air and many desires, your overbearing manners and excessive ambitions. None of these are good for you. This is what I want to tell you. These words emphasize that the essence of ritual consists not in highlighting ones merits or exposing others evils, but in being humble and yielding, which are the qualities helpful to long life French philosopher, mathematician, and writer Rene Descartes is considered as the Father of Modern Philosophy and his approach to understanding knowledge played a major part in forming the modern philosophy. Descartes rejected the concept of supposed knowledge from the past experiences and proposed to begin thinking afresh by stating I think, therefore I am because only through reasoning knowledge could be gained. He perceived clear and distinct intuitions are the path of gaining knowledge and importance of intuitive ideas in human mind that helps to understand truth is stressed in Meditation. Descartes believed that old beliefs and set principles will obstruct our free thinking and prevent developing rational views, and asked to demolish everything completely and start again right from the foundation (Newman, 1999).

The philosophy of Descartes is to gain knowledge that is factual, and he instructs to doubt every concept before it is shown to be true and reasonably certain. Descartes suggests that to gather knowledge we should start from nothing and investigate our beliefs until it is proved beyond doubt that what we believe is acceptable. According to Descartes it is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well and the declaration I think; therefore I am are identical to the following words of Lao Tzu. On self knowledge and self mastery Lao Tzu says Intelligent people know others. Enlightened people know themselves. These words quoted from Descartes and Lao Tzu clearly stress the requirement of using mind in a good manner to gather knowledge and knowing themselves rather than knowing others to get enlightened. An inquisitive mind that is able to search within and finds out the individual potential will be more successful and source of inspiration. Similarly, The Tao is (like) the emptiness of a vessel; and in our employment of it we must be on our guard against all fullness. We should attempter our brightness, and bring ourselves into agreement with the obscurity of others. (Tzu, 2001).

Identical statement from Descartes reads if you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as possible, all things and I doubt, therefore I think, I think therefore I am. It implies that a real seeker should be like an empty vessel that could be filled with fresh water. If we believe what is already known is true and not ready to doubt or question such concepts it will be difficult to grasp fresh ideas and knowledge.

However, this concept of doubting what is already proved beyond doubt and generally accepted to be true, through years of observations and analysis by our ancestors, propagated by Descartes is one way of questioning credibility of past knowledge and marking the ancient wisdom illogical. Descartes forgets to note that for doubting something one requires some logical foundation and only what is already known will help develop further questions that will lead to further clarification. Whereas, Lao Tzu had penned down ancient wisdom for the benefit of future generation and it was without doubting. The emphasis of Lao Tzu is to empty the mind, and not doubting what is already known, making it clean to accommodate fresh knowledge. Lao Tzu further claims that The skillful masters (of the Tao) in old times, with a subtle and exquisite penetration, comprehended its mysteries, and were deep (also) so as to elude mens knowledge. As they were thus beyond mens knowledge, I will make an effort to describe of what sort they appeared to be. (Tzu, 2001, Chapter 15). These words are true admission of the worthiness of knowledge attained by old masters Lao-Tzu did not doubt their wisdom. This approach is in opposition to the instructions of Descartes to doubt every thing at least once and that The two operations of our understanding, intuition and deduction, on which alone we have said we must rely in the acquisition of knowledge. Depending on our intuition we may get enlightened, but when we doubt our intuitions as well no knowledge will be gained. Hence, it seems that ancient master Lao-Tzus teachings are more relevant than those of Descartes in the present age.

Comparing different schools of philosophy particularly Eastern philosophy that is spiritual in nature with Western philosophy that is secular is a difficult exercise, but a mutual understanding of the different systems and their methods will enrich rational minds. In the words of Sri Aurobindo (1951. p.72), philosophy works to arrange data given by the various means of knowledge, excluding none, and putting them into synthetic relation to the one truth, the one Supreme and Universal Reality. Aurobindo, S.(1951). The renaissance in India. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram. On analysis of the teachings of Lao-Tzu and Descartes it is found that Lao Tzu arranged various means of knowledge in a systematic relation that is more in harmony with nature and as part of universal reality without doubting its virtue. It shows that Lao Tzu had more understanding of knowledge than Rene Descartes, who stresses more on intuition and clarity of thought.

References

1. Aurobindo, S. (1951). The renaissance in India. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram.
2. Cabrera, Derek. (2002). Knowledge as a complex Evolutionary System: Drawing on complexity science. A Coalition for Self Learning.
3. Cabrera, Derek. (2002). Knowledge as a complex Evolutionary System: Establishing normative goals of education. A Coalition for Self Learning.
4. Chen, Ellen. M. (1989). The Tao Te Ching: A new translation with commentary, St Paul, Minnesota: Paragon House.
5. Newman, Lex. (1999). Descartes epistemology: Methodological doubt. Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy. Web.
6. On truth and reality: The spherical standing wave structure of matter (wsm) in space. (2008). Web.
7. Tzu, Lao. (2001). The Tao, The King, or The Tao and its Characteristics: Chapter 4. The Tao.Info: All about the Tao Te Ching.
8. Tzu, Lao. (2001). The Tao, The King, or The Tao and its Characteristics: Chapter 15. The Tao.Info: All about the Tao Te Ching.

Rene Descartes was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist who lived between 1596 and 1650. His writings mark the dividing line between the empiricist school of thought and the rationalist school of thought. A great deal of this thought was based on information gleaned from the senses. Descartes felt the only way to obtain true knowledge was to rely solely upon human reason while ignoring the senses.

In Discourse on Method, Meditation III builds off of Descartes earlier idea that he exists because he is capable of thinking  I think, therefore I am. Assuming that what he is able to perceive as distinct must be true, he strives to erase his mind of all information that has been gained through his five senses to arrive at what he knows deep within himself. One of the first things that he perceived in this line of thought was that he had a basic idea of the existence of God. Since that idea had to have had a cause of some kind, because he had already proven that nothing comes from nothing, Descartes reasoned that this cause must have at least as much reality as the idea itself. At the same time, since he did not consider himself infinitely perfect, Descartes reasoned he could not have been the cause of this idea, so there must be an outside cause that is infinitely perfect  in other words, God must exist.

Descartes second argument to prove Gods existence lies in his ability to conceive of something perfect despite his own fallibilities. This second argument begins with the knowledge that he exists  again, I think, therefore I am. This existence must have a cause of some kind, which Descartes determines to be one of five possibilities. The first is that his existence stems from himself, but if he had created himself, he would have made himself perfect. Since he is not perfect, he could not have made himself. The second possibility is that he is merely a continuation of something that has always existed. However, scientific studies have shown, even in Descartes time, continued existence does not necessarily follow from present existence, such as in the case of death. The physical explanation is that his parents were the cause of his existence, but this line of reasoning was determined to lead to an infinite regress and therefore unproductive to follow. If he were made by something that was less perfect than God, as in the fourth possibility, Descartes would still be left searching for the concept of something supreme, which something less perfect than God would not provide. Having eliminated all but one of the five possibilities, Descartes is able to declare with confidence that God exists as he is the only being that meets all of the necessary requirements that have been established.

Although there are some significant holes in Descartes logic that have been pointed out throughout the centuries since he wrote it down, Descartes procedure of doubtful questioning, constantly bringing his assumptions under suspicion, helped to change the course of modern philosophy, raising significant questions regarding the nature not only of the universe but of knowledge and the separation between the body and the mind. His meditation proving the existence of God is perfect for illustrating how this line of questioning functioned to change the way in which scientists of his day were changing the way they approached their investigations.

References

Descartes, R. 2001. Discourse on Method. Vol. XXXIV, Part 1. The Harvard Classics. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 190914; Bartleby.com. Web.

Descartes, R. 1989. Meditations on First Philosophy. Trans. John Veitch. New York: Prometheus Books.

Introduction

In the first meditation, Descartes is baffled after realizing that, many things that he holds as true and real are false and imaginary. He questions whether his existence is real or imaginary. Convinced that everything is imaginary in life, Descartes begins to doubt the knowledge that he has acquired over many years.

His thoughts convince him that, the only way to be certain about his existence is to demolish every form of knowledge he has acquired and start a new foundation of knowledge; however, this task is too burdening to undertake. Descartes confesses that, whatever he accepts as true and real deceives him because he acquires them through senses. Thus, Descartes starts to live in confusion and doubt and consequently concludes that one cannot distinguish things that happen in reality from those that happen in sleep.

He holds that, science disciplines emerge from complex structures that are imaginary and doubtful. Comparatively, in the allegory of the cave, Socrates depicts how humans grope in darkness of ignorance, yet they believe to have attained reality and real meaning in life. Thus, how is knowledge of ignorance, in Descartes meditation and Socrates the allegory of cave, fruitful in understanding the existence and real meaning of life?

Descartes Meditation

In meditation, Descartes finds that he has been living in deception because his senses and nature conspire to deceive him into believing illusion as reality. He wonders if he can differentiate his dreams and realities because he discovers that he has been living in the world of ignorance.

Realizing that he has been all along ignorant, Descartes decides to withhold all beliefs and knowledge that he acquires and treats them with doubt so that he can ascertain their truth lest he continues living in deception. In attempts to define his identity, Descartes realizes that there is complex association of mind and body that enables him to achieve reality and understand his environment.

He argues that since he has the capacity to think and doubt his existence, it obviously follows that he exists as a mind trying to comprehend the body. In order to ascertain his existence, Descartes comes up with method of systemic doubt where he argues that he will doubt everything until he finds reasons for not doubting. By applying the method of systemic doubt, Descartes becomes convinced that he exists as a mind and body because he can think and doubt. Hence, knowledge of ignorance is fruitful as it proves his existence.

In his efforts to differentiate imaginations and reality, Descartes questions what connects the mind and material world. In the exploration of his question, Descartes believes that the material world exist because imagination connects the mind and material world. He asserts that one can only understand abstract things but real things that are in nature demands both imagination and understanding. Mental eye of imagination enables people to perceive their external environment, which proves the existence of the material world.

Although Descartes doubts his senses because they deceive him, he realizes that imagination intricately links to sensual perceptions. After doubting his senses, Descartes ultimately confesses he can perceive his existence and that of other bodies. Therefore, through the confusion and doubt, Descartes recognizes that sensual perceptions connect human being to their external environment, thus proving the existence of the material world.

Socrates Allegory of the Cave

In the allegory of the cave, Socrates is depicting how humans live under the illusion that deceives them. By depicting humans in caves, Socrates is trying to portray how reality and illusion are so similar, hence makes it hard for anyone to differentiate.

Prisoners in the cave have more knowledge concerning echoes and shadows, but they are quite ignorant. Their ignorance helps them to understand illusions that they perceive in caves as reality. As they listen to echoes of their voices and watch shadows of their bodies, prisoners find it exciting, for they discover what goes on in their world of caves.

Thorough understanding of illusion that occurs in the cave enables prisoners to understand their environment and their existence. Although their senses of hearing and sight deceive them that they perceive reality, they live comfortably in the caves. Thus, knowledge of ignorance is fruitful because it enables prisoners to live happily in caves and makes them understand their environment.

Moreover, if prisoners come out of the cave, they will differentiate between reality and illusion. Even though they may attribute shadows and echoes as real, their experiences of trying to understand their realities under the sun will expand their minds to differentiate reality and illusion. Socrates argues that, the sun will help prisoners comprehend that, what they have been seeing in caves is just but a reflection of realities, which are taking place on the surface of the earth.

Therefore, it means that for humans to understand their existence, they must differentiate between reality and illusion. Thus, knowledge of ignorance is fruitful because it gives humans an insight of reality and illusion.

Comparison and Contrast

Both Descartes meditation and Socrates allegory of cave depict that human knowledge of reality emanates knowledge of ignorance. Descartes doubts his existence, reliability of his senses, and the reality of material and immaterial world; however, through doubt and confusion, he obtains knowledge that made him to differentiate reality and illusion.

Likewise, Socrates depicts prisoners who live in a cave with absolute ignorance, for they perceive shadows and echoes as real. However, after coming out of the cave is when they realize that they have been living an imaginary life under the caves. Ultimately, knowledge of ignorance is fruitful as it precedes emergence of truth and reality.

Descartes meditation and Socrates allegory of cave contrast because the former is personal experience and the later is a parable. In meditation, Descartes is explaining his experiences that led him to discover the existence of the universe and differentiate reality and illusion. Through systemic doubt and confusion, Descartes defines himself, existence of the universe, God, and achieves the real meaning of life.

In contrast, Socrates employs abstract imaginations by depicting how humans grope in darkness yet they claim to have attained reality of life and acquired true knowledge. In the allegory of the cave, Socrates is suggesting that humans grope until they attain true knowledge that can help them to differentiate reality and illusion.

Conclusion

Descartes and Socrates struggle terribly hard to achieve real meaning of life and existence. To realize their objective, they start doubting their existence and reality of the universe, which is quite confusing. Through the confusion and doubt, they question whether they live real lives or imaginary lives.

Descartes uses systemic doubt to ascertain the reality of knowledge that he acquires while Socrates employs allegory of the cave to question his imaginations. Hence, though Descartes and Socrates doubt their existence, knowledge of ignorance enable them to question their existence in a bid to enhance comprehension of existence and attain real meaning of life.

Introduction

People react to conflicts and crisis in disparate means with some being too radical whilst others stand out as opportunists. The ability to react to and solve predicaments in the right way is a fundamental element of determining a good ruler who is leading his or her subjects in an admirable way. Knowing the different techniques of addressing the challenges facing the human race is essential for human survival and one must strive to have such information.

The following are some of the issues that Marcus Aurelius attempted to address as he wrote Meditations, which is a set of his personal view on how he presumed life should be lived. How do the classics help when one or a country is witnessing predicaments, and does the intelligence of the poets, philosophers as well as rulers relevant in such times? In 1915, Robert Graves utilized the knowledge he got from poets to fight in an ongoing war.

In 1991, Anthony Swofford, a US marine official, successfully used the principles of Homer and Camus during the Gulf War. However, most readers including Frederick the Great assert that one of the best sources of instruction and moderation is Marcus Aureliuss Meditations. This assertion is evident in the way Marcus has displayed his loosely structured set of opinions linked with stoic philosophy.

Meditations by Marcus Aurelius

Born on April 26, A.D. 121, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was an emperor of Rome that ruled the Roman Empire for two decades. He was a nephew as well as the son-in law of Antonius Pius and came from a noble family, which was very religious, which is an indication why his ruling was virtuous.

Marcus lost his parents at a young age and he was later adopted by his grandfather, Annius Verus. Throughout his childhood, he was coached to dress plainly and restrain from luxurious lifestyle. Moreover, he participated in activities such as wrestling and hunting that nurtured his body to become robust. His hardiness was evident in the way he was fascinated with meeting vicious boars.

Marcus inherited the throne after the demise of Antoninus Pius in 161 and allied with L. Ceoinius Commodus, a man who had been adopted by Pius at a young age. They worked together in administrating the empire. However, soon after Marcus had assumed the throne, a stream of war plagued Rome (Van Ackeren 112).

The aftermath of the war was an epidemic that was accompanied with starvation, which was caused by floods that had damaged huge quantities of crops. Marcus applied every means possible including selling the regal ornaments to collect money that could combat the crisis. Eventually, the Roman Empire under his leadership eliminated barbarian communities, and reestablished the stability of Rome. Being the commander-in-chief, he was a shrewd as he appointed effective lieutenants (Sellars 84).

Marcus was not only faced with war predicaments, but also domestic problems. His wife, Faustina, bore him children that he loved dearly. All his children died except Commodus who was viewed as puny, as well as insignificant by the subjects. After the demise of Marcus, he assumed the leadership of the Empire despite the immense resentment. The subjects complained that his leadership was oppressive and brutal. It is essential to have such knowledge even as one understands the contents of Marcus book- Meditations (Fein 36-37).

In Meditations, Marcus spent a little time and space in addressing the issue of war. However, it is evident that he spent a lot of time in his two decades of governance in prevalent battles. There are passages in his book that prove this assertion and suggest that he was familiar with the battleground.

In the book, he asks if one has ever witnessed a hand, foot, or a head cut from the other parts of the body and lying miles away. He asserts that that is what people do to themselves when they attempt to ignore what goes on in their lives or when they do something that is considered narcissistic (Sellars 88).

It is certain that, as a fighter, Marcus had the ability to administrate prudently as well as meticulously. He strived to imitate the previous rulers, but always made sure that he abstained from corruption and performed all his duties accountably and responsibly. However, it would amount to bias for one to conclude that he was a perfect leader as he was erroneous in particular scenarios. For instance, he introduced a compeer in Rome similar to that in Verus, an extremely risky innovation for people feared that it would cause obliteration.

Some years later, the fears came into reality when Diocletian caused the Roman Empire to disintegrate because of the innovation. He also gaffed in his governance because it was too centralized despite being impartial. He established charitable foundations to cater for his deprived citizens and regions that were vulnerable to calamities. However, one notable fact was his reluctant approach towards Christians (Talbot 63-66).

During his administration, several incidents of devotion resulted to death of many believers. It is also unwise to argue that the atrocities on Christian martyrs occurred without his knowledge, and if that is true, then he failed in administering his duties as an emperor.

However, irrespective of these errors, Marcus is still undoubtedly among the best rulers of the Roman Empire and is admired by many. Though he ruled during hard times for the Roman Empire, he was meek, shrewd, and humble. Meditations stands out as evidence that he had little interest with issues such as personal fame, but rather he was a knowledgeable man with a considerate soul (Sellars 46).

Meditations is a collection of short stories that have been composed in twelve disparate books. The writings appear in a way that some are in short paragraphs whilst others carry only single lines. Marcus begins his writing by sharing the knowledge he got from his relatives, tutors, as well as allies.

He mentions his grandfather, the good relationship he had with him, and the virtues he taught him. The book is difficult to visualize as a material that can be used by conflicting forces. Some of the contents support the hand-to-hand warfare that most lieutenants discourage.

He states that weapons should be laid down and encourages soldiers to clench their fists and fight. Although Marcus is not precise in his writing, he shares a notable advice on pain-management by stating that no one experiences anything that s/he cannot tolerate. He also advises non-combatants who are disheartened by carnages that the solution to such problems is to count on their blessings (Fein 36-37).

The doctrine of stoicism is also prevalent in the book, a philosophy that he was deeply fascinated in and applied in his solving daily challenges in life. The Roman Empire had two competing schools that employed two disparate doctrines, viz. Stoicism and Epicureanism.

Stoicism asserts that virtue alone can cause contentment as well as peace of mind. Virtue in this case consists of obedience to the top authority and everything that it provides, in mastery that surpasses the human races animal nature, in liberation from every perturbation, as well as in the whole autonomy of the Inner Self.

As a resolute follower of the philosophy, Marcus strived to live according to the virtue that the creed suggested. He writes Meditations to share all the knowledge he learned throughout his lifetime, thus making the book a good source that people can reflect on when making various decisions about life (Van Ackeren 119).

Marcus states that as a human being, there is imperfection, intermittent missteps, and faults; however, these elements do not prevent one from pursuing the upright path. Most of his views that he offers in the book are extensive and rational.

Most of his passages attempt to address the triviality of man (Fein 36-37). Meditations is a succession of devout exercises and the extent to which the book can relieve a reader relies on the individuals belief in human progress. Marcus categorically states that people normally have similar behaviors and problems from generation to generation, for example, marrying, falling ill, as well as fighting.

According to Marcus, nothing novel is introduced in any of these generations and man can do nothing to alter this fact. Marcus states that life is not good and compares it to a rotting meat. However, he argues that if an individual can accept every challenge then one can easily become happy.

Another persistent theme in the book is the issue of mortality  everything that is alive will soon experience death. Marcus states that death is a natural practice just as sex. Irrespective of the position one holds here on earth, everyone will soon become history. Marcus asks why people lament the demise of a loved one whilst life is so insignificant and somnolent (Vernezze 91).

He therefore encourages his readers to face death with joy because it relieves those who depart from numerous depressions of the world. He states that whatever is of great significance is ones spirit and not the body. Marcus also uses Meditations to advise his readers to ensure that everything they do let it appear as if it were the last thing they were to participate in before they died.

He argues that people commit injustice by being idle. In everything an individual does, his or her main intention should always be to improve (Van Ackeren120). Moreover, one should refrain from arrogance and avoid getting irritated with individuals who are imprudent and of little importance. He advises people to strive in achieving modesty, piousness, honesty, and cooperate with others in accomplishing various activities in the society (Vernezze 75).

For those who might find it hard it to get out of their beds, they should note that what completes them as human beings is working in unity with other people. Furthermore, he reminds those who are prone to fleeing when their fellow neighbors hurt them to acknowledge that one can always flee any minute he or she desires as long as he or she is to the back roads of him/herself.

According to Marcus, everything that exists on the surface of the earth plays a particular role. Mans role as a creature that thinks is to free his memory from debris and delusions. He asserts that the applause of peers and posterity are all delusions that one must refrain from in the journey of life.

He argues that doing things for commemoration is as insignificant as seeking popularity, and thus every individual must be ready to live with their minuscule abilities (Fein 36-37). The main intent of Marcus book is to teach his readers how to endure challenges. Even though the theme of endurance if prevalent in the book, Marcus also advises his readers on how they can enjoy life.

He states despite the delights of the flesh are meager sensation; sometimes people should part with their books and participate in leisure activities such as pretty singing. It is vividly evident that most of the ideas that Marcus shares in Meditations are a direct reflection of the life he lived before and during his reign as a Roman Emperor (Talbot 63-66).

Conclusion

Clearly, Meditations is a book that almost every individual can use as a manual for solving the challenges that appear in life. However, some of Marcus thoughts are eccentric hence revealing the weak side of the book. For instance, he argues that evil causes more danger on the perpetrator than on the victim.

This assertion is not true in cases such as assassination, rape, or slavery. Furthermore, the assertion that evils committed because of lust are more dangerous than those committed due to anger is erroneous. It is better for a man to commit infidelity with a neighbors wife than murdering her. Some of the passages also sound as a New Years resolution whilst others call for readers to leap their thoughts; for instance, when he states, dont gussy your imagination- very few readers can comprehend the message.

Some who have read the book admit that it is an impregnable wintry kingdom because it informs one of the worst and once an individual has such information, he or she will rarely get surprised on such issues. Nonetheless, for those who need some advice in life, it is time they became acquainted with Meditations by Marcus Aurelius.

Works Cited

Fein, Michael. Meditations. Library Journal 135.15 (2010): 36-37. Print.

Sellars, John. Stoicism. California: University of California Press, 2006. Print.

Talbot, John. Unpruned meditations. New Criterion 28.8 (2010): 63-66. Print.

Van Ackeren, Marcel. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. Massachusetts, MA: John Wiley & Sons, 2012. Print.

Vernezze, Peter. Dont Worry, Be Stoic: Ancient Wisdom For Troubled Times. Maryland: University Press of America, 2004. Print.

The philosophers usually have thought that if a person knows something, that means that the person believes that (1) the thing is true, (2), is in fact true, and (3) that person who presents claims that he or she know that thing is in a position to give a justification for thinking that thing is true. A justification like that can be offered by appealing to intuition, reasoning, or sense experience.

Although intuition is a common concept, in most cases, philosophers have been doubtful to identify it as being a form of knowledge and this is basically for the reason that there seems to be little way to determine whether it does, in fact, provide knowledge as opposed simply to lucky guesses (Epistemology and Descartes, para 3).

Therefore, a large number of philosophers instead put much focus on sense experience and reasoning as being the knowledge bases. The beliefs held by Plato and Descartes are going to be compared and contrasted in relation to the theme of not knowing in this paper.

Descartes gives out a suggestion that we ask what it would mean to know about realty (Epistemology and Descartes, para 7).

He claims that, to hold a belief that realty is basically water or Indeterminate or whatever seems pointless, unless we know first whether our belief itself is justified (Epistemology and Descartes, para 7).

According to him, in order to determine whether the beliefs we hold are justified, we are supposed to be in a position to trace these beliefs back to an undoubtable statement, certainty, or proposition.

A proposition like this could offer a solid foundation on which the beliefs that come thereafter could be erected, it would give assurance that all the claims that come thereafter based on this foundation would be true.

In order for us to identify a final standard of truth on which knowledge can be determined, Descartes sets up a technique which suspends our assurance in what we have been taught, what our senses tell us, what we think is obvious, in regard to everything we know (Epistemology and Descartes, para 9).

He points out that for us to determine whether there is anything we get to know with assurance; we must first of all doubt everything we know. A radical doubt like this may look unreasonable, and Descartes indeed does not imply we actually have to doubt everything.

His suggestion is that, in order to see if there is some belief that can not be doubted, we should temporarily pretend everything we know is questionable (Epistemology and Descartes, para 9).

Because sometimes sense experience is misleading, it is clear to Descartes that a posteriori can not form a basis for claim of knowledge (Epistemology and Descartes, para 10). We do not know that what we experience through our senses is true, at least we are not certain( Epistemology and Descartes, para 11).

Therefore the best thing to undertake is not to believe our senses. In a similar manner, we can not have certainty that we actually have bodies or that our understanding of our world in general be believed; after all, the whole thing might be just but a dream.

In addition, we cant even be certain that mathematical propositions like 1 + 1= 2 or that rectangles always have four sides are true for the reason that some evil power might be misleading us to think things like these, when it is possible that even propositions that seem evident to us as true might themselves be really false (Epistemology and Descartes, para 10).

However, although an evil power misleads us in regard to all other beliefs, there exist a single belief which can not be mistaken about and that is the belief that we are thinking. Even doubting this belief is affirming it. Thinking is a confirmation that we exist.

The body is not an essential part of the self because we can doubt its existence in a way that we can not doubt the existence of the mind (Epistemology and Descartes, para 11Descartes therefore draws a conclusion that I know one thing clearly and distinctly, namely, that I exist because I think (Epistemology and Descartes, para 11).

Plato, who is also a rationalist like Descartes, believes that sense experience fails to offer us with any assurance that what we experience is actually true. The information obtained by depending on sense experience is changing on a constant basis and is not reliable most of the time.

There can be correction or evaluation of it for dependability only be appealing to principle that themselves do not change (Epistemology and Descartes, para 5). These principles that do not change form the bases of what it means to reason or think in the first place (Epistemology and Descartes, para 5).

Therefore if a person can prove that a belief or opinion he or she has is on the basis of these principles of thought that are undoubtable, the person has a strong base for the opinion or belief. Such a foundation is what gives us room to think of a belief as more than simply opinion, it is what allows us to identify the belief as justified and true, and that is what is meant by knowledge (Epistemology and Descartes, Para 5).

Therefore, knowledge for the rationalist is what can be inferred from principles which can not be otherwise, they can not be doubtable. The examples, like those given above of 1 + 1 = 2 and a rectangle has four sides are statements that are known with sureness.

Unlike Descartes who believes that such examples may not be false, according to Plato, such statements are true because the very meaning of the terms involved requires that we think of them in certain ways (without relying on sense experience (Epistemology and Descartes, para 6). We therefore know about certain things well in advance before any sense experience we could be having.

Works Cited

Epistemology and Descartes. philosophy. n.d. Web.

Providing health care services for patients with high mortality rates is a challenging task, which becomes particularly stressful during pandemics. Nurses constitute the largest professional group in the health care system, but they are also subject to increased stress levels due to the nature of their work. A mindfulness mediation program for nurses working with high morbidity patient groups is the focus of the research. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the effect of the discussed technique on nursing within twelve weeks.

In the course of practicum research, a program was proposed, which included daily forty-five-minute mindfulness meditation sessions for twelve weeks. The aim was to determine whether such a technique could alleviate work-related stress in the case of nursing. According to Barbe et al. (2017), stress, among other factors, negatively affects the nurses work process, which is why reducing should be a high priority for the health care system. Accordingly, nurses experiencing such issues may demonstrate poorer results in terms of nursing outcomes. The participants of the present study used the proposed meditation technique and reported a moderate decrease in overall stress levels. As a result, an improvement was observed, as far as their workplace satisfaction is concerned. Consequently, stress reduction positively affected the implementation of patient-centered care methods. The practicum site saw an increase in positive feedback from patients, as well. During the final weeks of the study, there was a significantly better level of communication between nurses and their patients, leading to better health care outcomes.

Overall, the practicum study returned promising results, as the mindfulness mediation program proved to be effective in the setting. However, the degree to which it reduced stress levels was moderate, and results varied among participants. Nevertheless, positive outcomes were observed, confirming that such techniques have much potential for the improvement of the workplace environment. However, further research is required to provide a comprehensive paradigm of mindfulness mediation use in the clinical setting.

Reference

Barbe, T., Kimble, L. P., & Rubenstein, C. (2017). Subjective cognitive complaints, psychosocial factors and nursing work function in nurses providing direct patient care.Journal of Advanced Nursing, 74(4), 914925. Web.

Abstract

The influence of meditation on work restoration in this study was investigated using a daily diary methodology. The initial purpose of the research was to look at the association between meditation and quality of sleep and the role of mental separation as a moderator from a day-to-day viewpoint. Another objective was to broaden the systematic approach in restoration analysis further than the day stage and investigate practices are applied patterns in restoration indicators throughout a work cycle, as well as the influence of meditation in these itineraries.

Introduction

Industrial and managerial psychologists have expanded standard industrial hygiene research by investigating how individuals recuperate after work and replace their resources in their spare time. Sleep and psychological detachment are two essential components of good rehabilitation. Researchers have hypothesized that a lack of disengagement from the job and contemplation during nonwork time creates a cognitive persistence of work. This mechanism frequently leads to ongoing psychophysiological arousal during nonworking hours, impeding recovery. While insufficient detachment significantly impacts the time directly following work, overnight rest also plays a crucial role in the healing procedure, as it has therapeutic effects and assists people in replenishing their resources. Sleep is essential for all humans, and sleep duration and sleep loss have been shown to impact the quality of life, mood, and even mortality; sleep has an immediate impact on work behavior and performance.

Methods

Focus is the essential aspect of meditation, which help to improve awareness of the steady flow of interior and outward sensations that arise from the current moment by teaching focus management. It entails paying close attention to exterior occurrences, psychosocial factors, emotions, and perceptions while maintaining a positive mindset of inquiry and welcome. The link between engagement and sleep efficiency is well recognized in the meditation study. Much research in this field has been undertaken in medical settings. Studies have shown that yogic breathing rehabilitation programs effectively treat medical levels of sleeplessness and ease sleep-related problems that frequently accompany other corporeal and mental ailments, such as cancer. In nonclinical settings, cross-sectional research studying trait mindfulness rather than meditation intrusions has found a relation between quality of sleep and psychology students.

A range of strategies to recruit individuals from a plethora of organizations and vocations in Germany were used: The snowball sampling strategy, which is commonly used in management studies, was utilized first: The scouting department solicited working adults in their organization, who then solicited people whom they knew to take part in the research. Secondly, unfamiliar people were personally solicited in their businesses, such as retail clinics, bookshops, colleges, and elementary schools. Thirdly, contestants were discovered through an indigenous employment fair. The research was considered various as a survey on workshop safety, with no indication of retrieval, sleep quality, or meditation. Subjects completed a primary survey as well as the journal booklet. The survey measured demographic variables (such as gender, age, tenure, and employment), trait awareness, and job pressures. After finalizing the general poll, members began filling out the first day of the journal brochure.

Existing recovery research often integrates this process model by examining associations or deteriorations in recovery-related variables over a few days. The recent study contributes to the recovery prose in two ways by broadening the procedure view on recovery. According to a recovery study, individuals encounter mental conditions as they transfer from duty to free time. Existing restoration research often integrates this process model by examining associations or regressions in recovery-related parameters over a few days. In our current study, we offer the restoration canon in two ways by broadening the systematic approach to recovery.

This study adds to the knowledge by expanding the systematic approach in restoration inquiry further than the day stage. As part of our first effort, we explored day-level effects, like other investigators, to best comprehend the shift from everyday work to regular retrieval periods. However, we broadened this paradigm by assuming that recuperation benefits can vary over multiple days and exhibit predictable lull changes throughout the work week. Typically, restoration investigators have either ignored or addressed between and among changes across weekdays as sources of variability (Hülsheger et al., 2014). Nevertheless, advances in coalescence and investigations on business cycle trends in psychology recommend that within-person variance of relief structures throughout days may be a feature day of the week. Our study aims to improve our knowledge of the weeks life-changing experience in recovery methods by investigating change itineraries in mental separation and quality of sleep and the function of subjective happiness in interpreting dissimilarities in these transition dynamics.

Results

To determine the comparative proportion of within-person and between-person variability, intraclass coefficients (ICC1) were approximated using an unconditional arbitrary correlation model. They discovered 47%, 44%, and 78% within-person variance in daily mindful awareness, mental detachment, and quality of sleep, respectively variability (Hülsheger et al., 2014). The between-person correlation coefficients and zero-order correlations between mindful meditation and mental disconnection were betweentwenty and.36, indicating the distinctness of these empirically contextual factors. The findings of a multilevel analysis looked at the direct connections between mindful meditation at work (measured daily), mental disconnection from work during nonwork sleep, and time quality. Relationships were investigated at variability between a person and within-person levels (Hülsheger et al., 2014). Once a conventional two-tailed implication evaluation was used, insight meditation was substantially linked to psychological disconnection and the quality of sleep at the between-person level. According to a one-tailed significance evaluation, the connection between meditation and mental disconnection was also crucial at the within-person level.

Discussion

The current results of this analysis complement the recovery research and the emerging corpus of studies investigating the effect of meditation on employees  health and well-being. It accomplishes this in two ways: First, the results discuss the function of mindfulness in the rehabilitation program daily (Hülsheger et al., 2014). Second, they broaden the systematic approach by demonstrating the changing trends of double key retrieval parameters and the involvement of awareness in these alteration patterns.

One drawback of the current study is that using paper-and-pencil questionnaires to gather information could have provided us with independent evidence of the time and day respondents filled out the regular assessments.

There are various data collection techniques accessible for incident monitoring and journal research, such as personal computers or online surveys, each with its benefits and drawbacks. We utilized paper-and-pencil assessments in this study to avoid restricting the sample to a possibly prescreened group of individuals with internet connectivity or basic computer/smartphone skills. In addition, at the day stage, meditation exhibited at work has a good relationship with psychological separation and sleep duration the next night. By emphasizing the importance of meditation in the workplace, our research extends beyond researching the reasons for malfunctions and suffering at drudgery to respond to the question of what makes employees contented, adaptable, and efficient.

Reference

Hülsheger, U. R., Lang, J. W., Depenbrock, F., Fehrmann, C., Zijlstra, F. R., & Alberts, H. J. (2014). The power of presence: The role of mindfulness at work for daily levels and change trajectories of psychological detachment and sleep quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 99(6), 11131128. Web.

Rene Descartes was a famous philosopher from the era of Enlightenment who has made some relevant points today. Throughout his life, he has challenged the views he was taught and ones perception of the world. This made the philosopher one of the most influential figures in skepticism and rationalism. The following essay will defend the former by depicting some of the issues and referencing Descartes works.

One of the most defining viewpoints that he had, which is still relevant today, is questioning what he was taught and his own perceptions. In one of the texts from the series of Meditations, the philosopher says the following: Once in my life I had to raze everything to the ground and begin again from the original foundations if I wanted to establish anything firm and lasting in the sciences. (Unit 8) What makes this idea modern is that even nowadays, society struggles with the dilemma of whether their beliefs are valid.

Nowadays, one of the most common beliefs that is interpreted by many as misleading is the belief in mechanical reductionism, that is, the idea that everything can be explained by mechanical processes that have already been researched and discovered (Module 13). Neuroscientist Raymond Tallis, in spite of not being a philosopher, debunks that assumption by providing three reasons to validate his point: intentionality, memory and innerness.

Raymond believes that humanity is conscious about everything surrounding them, which, in turn, is reminiscent of Descartes acknowledgment of the thinking thing. While the philosopher, unlike Tallis, has a more distrustful perception of how he and other people see the world, both acknowledge that thought processes are impossible without that part. One cannot have opinions and beliefs, including inaccurate ones, without having a perceptive self.

For many people, two of the philosophers beliefs, the idea of ones world comprehension being invalid and past teachings being irrelevant, may seem weird and nihilistic. However, that understanding of Renes opinions is rather harsh, as it, in a way, blocks any opportunity for mental flexibility and overviewing ones perception of everything around them. As a matter of fact, it provides the necessary dialogue for evaluating and analyzing modern and past beliefs. Moreover, it reminds humanity that their comprehension of the environment and reality is flawed.

In the present, people see themselves as superior and assume that their thoughts and opinions require no changes or reviews whatsoever. Descartes personal example of searching for different viewpoints is an excellent idea to challenge that viewpoint. Exposing oneself to other ideas can expand the comprehension of a certain belief and, in a way, demonstrate the flaws of ones opinion prior to discovering the opposite or different one.

One may think that Renes distrust towards his predecessors is similar to that of modern people, but what is commonly overlooked is that his beliefs provided room for self-improvement and analysis of ones personal beliefs and what one was taught prior to having a sense of self. Most present-day humanity, however, does not take the same steps and applies that distrust to fuel their sense of superiority, as opposed to Descartes goal of reviewing past teachings.

Fortunately, as mentioned earlier, the attempts to mechanize and simplify the world have triggered the rise of skepticism. It teaches humanity to challenge the old, the new and modern thoughts. This viewpoint helps one better understand how and why everyones perception is flawed. As opposed to the aforementioned distrustful attitude towards the thinkers of the past, it motivates people to seek alternative solutions and opinions.

It is important to mention, however, that while skepticism draws attention to the flaws of ones and past peoples thoughts, it acknowledges the existence of a being capable of having an opinion and perception. As Descartes states in one of his Meditations texts: But doubtless I did exist, if I persuaded myself of something. Perception and comprehension cannot be flawed without the mere existence of a creation capable of those aspects.

This specific aspect invalidates the attempts to mechanize those processes. Ironically, people like Daniel Dennett, one of the supporters of mechanical reductionism, are living proof of how flawed perception can be. His attempt to define this concept with the help of calculated processes of the brain not only oversimplifies but, in a way, implies that everyones comprehension of the world is perfect or barely has any mistakes.

By challenging the flaws in ones opinions, people may not only prove the imperfection of everybodys thought processes, but it may also help trigger further research as well. Scientists like Dennett wrongfully believe that everything already has an explanation while simultaneously ignoring the logical gaps in their theories. By following Descartes and Tallis examples, humanity may be inspired to find answers to unexplored or explicitly overviewed questions and misconceptions.

One may say that by supporting skepticism, Rene and his supporters trapped themselves. Said trap is defined by contradictory viewpoints on the immaterial perceptive being and the world (Unit 9). But what is commonly ignored is that Descartess fellow skeptics are perfectly aware of their opinions being flawed. They do not imply that their views lack gaps or issues that are yet to be reviewed. On the contrary, they explicitly support that their understanding of the environment is imperfect.

While Renes belief that someone sinister may have planted a number of illusions may be rather paranoid to some extent, it is insightful to a degree as well. It reminds people that certain teachings may not be entirely accurate and that every belief, both ones personal and somebody elses, requires deep and thorough analysis. At times, Descartes fear of ones thoughts not belonging to him can be quite valid in some situations. After all, people do not start their lives with a pre-existing set of their own thoughts and beliefs. Although it may be irrational to state that whoever implanted those thoughts must be a delinquent person, his fearful monologue triggers conversations regarding ones actual viewpoints and implanted ones.

In conclusion, skepticism provides input on a set of interesting issues. The first one is the validity of the predecessors opinions, the second input is the validity of ones own thoughts, and the third  is whether said thoughts are autonomous or implanted by someone else and the existence of an immaterial thinking thing. Descartes is commonly criticized for being nihilistic and paranoid, to the point of trapping himself with his own beliefs. This viewpoint, however, is not entirely true, as they trigger the revaluation of various opinions and research on specific gaps.

Writings like Descartes Meditations are a valid way of reminding humanity that everything is not that simple. Present day people have been seeking oversimplification of complicated questions while being too confident about their beliefs and the views offered to them. Thus, it is obvious why modern society is eventually facing the re-emergence of skepticism and said position being used as a means to face flaws in perception and thought processes.

Husserl presents an excellent introduction to phenomenology and develops a new approach to looking at reality, and this is one way the book advanced my theoretical knowledge. Husserl meditations depict a huge influence of Leibniz Modadology because the Cartesian ego attains conversion into the monad (Husserl 68). Hence, this brings about an immediacy that exceeds the techno-scientific immediacy common in society. The book serves as a guide to learn diverse concepts without necessarily adopting a practical approach, and this is another way it improved my theoretical knowledge. For instance, transcendental idealism ushered phenomenology to a standoff, and so it turned out truly that all of Husserls supporters who deterred from his philosophy during the Cartesian Meditations.

After Husserls philosophy took an idealist turn, there was the need to radicalize phenomenology uniquely. In addition, the book advanced my theoretical knowledge of the rhetoric and philosophy of communication in terms of how it finds itself within a stalemate as far as thought is involved (Husserl 68). From the introductory parts of the book, it is evident that Husserl pursued to change Cartesian philosophy by merging its techniques with the ones of phenomenology. Hence, he failed to get away from the egoistic fate of his precursor.

The central question of scholarly inquiry guiding the book is that transcendental phenomenology is not informative than transcendental idealism. He points out the major problems surrounding phenomenology, such as genetic, static, reduction, and inter-subjectivity (Husserl 81). Based on the above central question and argument, Husserls philosophical work entails life-world, a phrase that denotes the concrete realism of peoples lived experience. This is in contrast to the clarification of that reality presented by scientists.

A good example of metaphor is portrayed in the Firth Meditation and explanation provided thereafter. Husserl alludes to inter-subjectivity and talks about the body (Leib) contrasted to another body (korper) of a different being. The actual connotation of subjectivity is not to be identified regarding a self- solicitous self (Husserl 83). Husserl affirmed that paying attention to the ego as a thoughtful thing deceit a person into approaching reality as mathematically linked and, therefore, deductively logical. This brings about the Cartesian metaphor, described using the tree of knowledge. In this case, philosophy plays the role of the trunk while all sciences are combined because they are all different outlets of the same trunk. My philosophical standpoint is that thoughts are constantly thoughts about something and every subjective practice contains its internal temporality. The combination of intellectual integrity and curiosity is essential in every aspect of life.

The relevance of this book to the communication classroom and the marketplace cannot be overlooked. From an application point of view, science wants to locate truth, which is appropriate for every person to keep evolving and changing without losing its meaning. This is truly helpful and relevant, especially in a communication classroom where the right protocol should be dealt with. Furthermore, since material reality goes beyond perception, the thought of consciousness should entail the central scope of active mindfulness, which is highly required in the classroom setting.

Based on the book, the Fifth Meditation emerges from the urge to overcome solipsism objection that appears to intimidate the concept of the ego expounded via the initial four Meditations (Husserl 86). In real life scenario, it implies that such an overcome turns out into reality when the conceptual and terminological shift from the thought. In terms of application, the knowledge of a thing cannot be detached from its being, and therefore, key emphasis should be given to consciousness in doing different activities.

Work Cited

Husserl, Edmund. Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982.