The creation myth is a philosophical, cosmogonist and theoretical explanation of the belief in creating a particular community. Mythology refers to what is apprehended as reality or imaginative expression in the narrative form of the experience. Creation is the beginning of things through emanation from the ultimate source or act (Jacob 132). The belief that creation occurred is a narrative of how the world began, explained by a specific community. The later doctrines of creation interpret these beliefs in light of community needs and subsequent history. For instance, all speculation and theology understanding of creation is based on the biblical story in genesis. Doctrines concerning creation are based on beliefs that embody all possibilities for thinking about this subject based on a specific community. Hence, the paper will compare the elementary ideas within the Egyptian and Mayan creation stories.
Like other creation stories, Egypts creation myth is intertwined and offers different versions of how the universe started. The early Egyptians understood that the gods at creating the world enhanced nature, basic principles of life and society. The myth is explained through the sacred hieroglyphic writings on temples, papyrus sheets, pyramids and tombs. These articles explain how the land was formed out of battles by Atum. The land was speculated as a sacred ground that mirrors the sky universe where the gods lived.
The First Gods
The book of how creation took place describes how Atum, the god of Heliopolis, formed the universe. In the beginning, the world appeared as an extensive mass filled with water. Nun is characterized as four pairs of female and male delites. Each team represented the personalized Nuns four principles: darkness or lack of light, straying or lack of direction, invisibility or hiddenness and infinite water. The Atum god formed himself out of Nun by pronouncing his name or stating as through his efforts (Spencer 108). As the creator of humans and gods, he had the initiative to bring order to earth and the heavens.
The Creator Gods Offspring
Atum also formed two springs, the son Shu, a representation of dry air, and the daughter Tefnut, an indication of moist air. The two siblings were a symbol of universal principles of human existence: justice and life. The two offspring separated the waters from the sky and gave birth to Geb, who represented the dry mass and Nut, who defined the sky. Nut and Geb had four Nephthys, Isis, Osiris, and Seth offspring. The new generation completed the nine delites with Atum (Jacob 133). The sun god ruled over the earth where human and divine beings lived. Human beings were formed from the Eye of Re when he separated from the other gods and failed to go back. When Tefnut and Shu went to get him, he rebelled, and during the struggle, he shed tears that led to the formation of humans.
The Rebellion
When Re became old, the humans and delites plotted against him and tried to take advantage of his old age, leading to their fall from divine grace. He transformed into a powerful goddess Sekhmet (described as a lion), to fight his rivals in reaction to the rebellion. After punishing those against him, he transformed into a contended god Hathor (defined as a cow). Re retreated from the world in the pain of these issues, transforming into a cow; he climbed on Nut (sky), who uplifted him to the sky. Humans were separated from gods through this occurrence.
Mayans Creation Story
The Popul Vuh tells the creation myth of the Mayan residents who live in the present-day Yucatan peninsula. Like other creations narratives, the Mayan initializes that in the beginning, the earth was void as it consisted only of the sea and the sky. The god realized the goodness on earth and decided to create the universe. The planets formation was through dialogue among the gods and their form. Their creation still signified how crucial agriculture was to the people as they described the earth as sewn that would provide. Firstly, the plants and the mountains were formed; however, the lack of sound bothered the Gods, leading to animals creation. The animals would only bark and grunt; hence could not worship the gods; thus, they decided to form human beings.
The first experiment to create the human-made from the mud was disapproval as they would dissolve when exposed to water. The second trial was the use of wood as to create humans. The physical formation was intact, but they had issues as they could not speak or express emotions. A hurricane was sent floods to destroy the wooden person, which was resulted from the gods failure to create a sufficient human race. The myth claims that the monkeys were the only wooden people left as they resembled humans, whereas there mare manikins (Spencer 108). The third or the final experiment was expected to thrive; thus, the gods sent the fox, parrot, coyote, and a cow to locate a thriving location for the human formation. Once the animal had found a suitable environment, they brought back with them a grainy paste. The first being was molded out of this paste; they created a human from it indicated agricultures significance in Mayan society.
Four beings were evolved and identified as mothers-fathers as they represented both male and female components in a race. At first, the gods were satisfied with their creation until human knowledge rivaled that of gods. Through this, the gods dictated that the humans would not respect and worship the gods; thus, they clouded the human vision. The humans began to fill and multiply through the other; however, they still lived in darkness as the sun rose. Lack of light forced the people to migrate to the east and pray to the gods to give them sun. The people prayers enticed the gods; thus, they granted them their wish, and the sun started shining.
The Mayan myth of creation is similar to that of Egypt as it contains the same elements as that of Egypt. For instance, the earth was formless and void in both creation stories as the gods started to indulge in innovation when the land was empty (Spencer 107). Moreover, on both levels, some events led to the massive death of people. For instance, Re killed people in Egyptian myth after rebelling against him, and the floods in Malayans narrative destroyed the wooden people. However, Mayan mythology places an origin spin on how every element evolved.
On the contrary, Egyptian mythology discusses the events that took the initiative in the ancient days while Mayans emphasize peoples culture, such as the importance of maize in the Mayan diet. Thus, myths express the fundamental valuation of a religious community, creation, while creation expounds on how the earth was formed (Jacobs 311). The creation myths narratives specify humanity place in the universe and regard that humans must have other humans nature; they set the stylistic tone that determines actions and gestures in cultures. The celebration and recollection of the myths enable the community to participate and think of space and orientation that enhances their cultural life in a particular way.
Spencer, Clayton. Creation Myth, and: The Faith of Withered Seeds . Appalachian Heritage, vol 48, no. 1, 2019, pp. 107-109. The University of North Carolina Press, Web.
The creation myth is a philosophical, cosmogonist and theoretical explanation of the belief in creating a particular community. Mythology refers to what is apprehended as reality or imaginative expression in the narrative form of the experience. Creation is the beginning of things through emanation from the ultimate source or act (Jacob 132). The belief that creation occurred is a narrative of how the world began, explained by a specific community. The later doctrines of creation interpret these beliefs in light of community needs and subsequent history. For instance, all speculation and theology understanding of creation is based on the biblical story in genesis. Doctrines concerning creation are based on beliefs that embody all possibilities for thinking about this subject based on a specific community. Hence, the paper will compare the elementary ideas within the Egyptian and Mayan creation stories.
Like other creation stories, Egypt’s creation myth is intertwined and offers different versions of how the universe started. The early Egyptians understood that the gods at creating the world enhanced nature, basic principles of life and society. The myth is explained through the sacred hieroglyphic writings on temples, papyrus sheets, pyramids and tombs. These articles explain how the land was formed out of battles by Atum. The land was speculated as a sacred ground that mirrors the sky universe where the gods lived.
The First Gods
The book of how creation took place describes how Atum, the god of Heliopolis, formed the universe. In the beginning, the world appeared as an extensive mass filled with water. Nun is characterized as four pairs of female and male delites. Each team represented the personalized Nun’s four principles: darkness or lack of light, straying or lack of direction, invisibility or hiddenness and infinite water. The Atum god formed himself out of Nun by pronouncing his name or stating as through his efforts (Spencer 108). As the creator of humans and gods, he had the initiative to bring order to earth and the heavens.
The Creator God’s Offspring
Atum also formed two springs, the son Shu, a representation of dry air, and the daughter Tefnut, an indication of moist air. The two siblings were a symbol of universal principles of human existence: justice and life. The two offspring separated the waters from the sky and gave birth to Geb, who represented the dry mass and Nut, who defined the sky. Nut and Geb had four Nephthys, Isis, Osiris, and Seth offspring. The new generation completed the nine delites with Atum (Jacob 133). The sun god ruled over the earth where human and divine beings lived. Human beings were formed from the Eye of Re when he separated from the other gods and failed to go back. When Tefnut and Shu went to get him, he rebelled, and during the struggle, he shed tears that led to the formation of humans.
The Rebellion
When Re became old, the humans and delites plotted against him and tried to take advantage of his old age, leading to their fall from divine grace. He transformed into a powerful goddess Sekhmet (described as a lion), to fight his rivals in reaction to the rebellion. After punishing those against him, he transformed into a contended god Hathor (defined as a cow). Re retreated from the world in the pain of these issues, transforming into a cow; he climbed on Nut (sky), who uplifted him to the sky. Humans were separated from gods through this occurrence.
Mayans Creation Story
The Popul Vuh tells the creation myth of the Mayan residents who live in the present-day Yucatan peninsula. Like other creations narratives, the Mayan initializes that in the beginning, the earth was void as it consisted only of the sea and the sky. The god realized the goodness on earth and decided to create the universe. The planet’s formation was through dialogue among the gods and their form. Their creation still signified how crucial agriculture was to the people as they described the earth as sewn that would provide. Firstly, the plants and the mountains were formed; however, the lack of sound bothered the Gods, leading to animals’ creation. The animals would only bark and grunt; hence could not worship the gods; thus, they decided to form human beings.
The first experiment to create the human-made from the mud was disapproval as they would dissolve when exposed to water. The second trial was the use of wood as to create humans. The physical formation was intact, but they had issues as they could not speak or express emotions. A hurricane was sent floods to destroy the wooden person, which was resulted from the gods’ failure to create a sufficient human race. The myth claims that the monkeys were the only wooden people left as they resembled humans, whereas there mare manikin’s (Spencer 108). The third or the final experiment was expected to thrive; thus, the gods sent the fox, parrot, coyote, and a cow to locate a thriving location for the human formation. Once the animal had found a suitable environment, they brought back with them a grainy paste. The first being was molded out of this paste; they created a human from it indicated agriculture’s significance in Mayan society.
Four beings were evolved and identified as mothers-fathers as they represented both male and female components in a race. At first, the gods were satisfied with their creation until human knowledge rivaled that of gods. Through this, the gods dictated that the humans would not respect and worship the gods; thus, they clouded the human vision. The humans began to fill and multiply through the other; however, they still lived in darkness as the sun rose. Lack of light forced the people to migrate to the east and pray to the gods to give them sun. The people prayers enticed the gods; thus, they granted them their wish, and the sun started shining.
The Mayan myth of creation is similar to that of Egypt as it contains the same elements as that of Egypt. For instance, the earth was formless and void in both creation stories as the gods started to indulge in innovation when the land was empty (Spencer 107). Moreover, on both levels, some events led to the massive death of people. For instance, Re killed people in Egyptian myth after rebelling against him, and the floods in Malayans narrative destroyed the wooden people. However, Mayan mythology places an origin spin on how every element evolved.
On the contrary, Egyptian mythology discusses the events that took the initiative in the ancient days while Mayans emphasize people’s culture, such as the importance of maize in the Mayan diet. Thus, myths express the fundamental valuation of a religious community, creation, while creation expounds on how the earth was formed (Jacobs 311). The creation myths narratives specify humanity place in the universe and regard that humans must have other humans’ nature; they set the stylistic tone that determines actions and gestures in cultures. The celebration and recollection of the myths enable the community to participate and think of space and orientation that enhances their cultural life in a particular way.
Spencer, Clayton. “Creation Myth, and: The Faith of Withered Seeds”. Appalachian Heritage, vol 48, no. 1, 2019, pp. 107-109. The University of North Carolina Press, Web.
Though seemingly distant from each other, the languages of the world have a lot in common through being either closely or distantly related to one another, perhaps even having originated from the same ancient protolanguage. Therefore, studying each language in depth and developing a specific understanding of its structures, origins, and development is critical for the analysis of language history.
As its name suggests, the Yucatec Mayan language is the Mayan language that residents of the Yucatán Peninsula use to communicate (Santos-Fita et al. 72). Approximately 750,000 residents of Mexico and Belize speak the language (Santos-Fita et al. 73). While it is linked directly to other Mayan languages, Yucatec Mayan shows a wide range of specific features that allow it to be distinguished from other Mayan languages.
Phonetic Characteristics
Similar to other languages of the Mayan family, the Yucatec Mayan language has five vowels, which include a, e, i, o, and u (Barrett 574). However, each of these vowels can have several phonemic forms depending on its tone and length (Bennet 472). Traditionally, short and long vowels are distinguished, and long vowels are pronounced with either high or low tone (Barrett 577). In addition, there is the option for a rearticulated pronunciation of vowels, as the presence of a glottal stop may change the meaning of a word in which a specific vowel is used (Bennet 472).
These characteristics make the Yucatec Mayan language quite similar to other Mayan languages, with the principle of articulation being prominent in the Mayan language family due to the recurrent use of the vowel-vowel sequence (Bennett 472). Therefore, the Yucatec Mayan language is phonetically quite close to the rest of the languages in the family.
Phonological Characteristics
Apart from glottal stops as one of the distinctive phonetic features of the language, Yucatec Maya is also characterized by its ejective consonants. This type of consonant represents the same glottal phenomenon observed in the pronunciation of vowels (Aissen et al. 19). The sounds of [p], [t], [k], and [b] are often used with pronounced lingual closure (Aissen et al. 19). Therefore, there is a clear distinction between aspirated and ejective sounds in the Yucatec Mayan language. The implosive group of consonants includes plosive and affricate sounds, while the remaining consonant groups are represented by fricative, approximant, and flap sounds (Aissen et al. 19).
It is also notable that the letter “w” in the Yucatec Mayan language can be pronounced as both [w] and [v] (Aissen et al. 151). Overall, the phonological characteristics of the Yucatec Mayan language align with those of the rest of the Mayan language family.
Morphological Characteristics
Morphology is one of the most distinctive parts of the Mayan languages, including the Yucatec Mayan language. Affixation, and especially infixation, is the most distinctive feature of its morphology, with suffixes being the most common type of morpheme (Aissen et al. 371). The process of suffixation as the keyword-building strategy usually occurs based on the (C)(V)(C) pattern in Yucatec Mayan, where (C) and (V) are respectively a consonant and a vowel (Aissen et al. 541).
While being quite uncommon, the phenomenon of infixation can also be observed in the Yucatec Mayan language. The suffixation pattern usually follows the CVC or CVC pattern, where and represent the type of vowel used in a particular syllable. Vowels are highly varied in the Yucatec Mayan language (Aissen et al. 142). Furthermore, the language has a non-concatenative morphology, so that changes in the word-building process are based on the tone and length of a particular morpheme (Aissen et al., 201). These observed characteristics pertain to few Mayan languages, which makes the Yucatec Mayan language distinct within the language family.
Syntactical Characteristics
The syntax of the Yucatec Mayan language is most similar to the rest of the Mayan languages. Due to the significant influence that prosody has on the world-building process and the creation of meaning in the Yucatec Mayan language, syntactical features are also linked directly to the tonal aspects of the language. Due to the tonal nature of the language, morphological constructions are expressed in it through both morphological and syntactic means.
The language is also characterized by its synthetic nature, which makes the process of structuring sentences rather flexible. The absence of prosodic alternatives for the selection of syntactic frameworks for constructing meaning imposes syntactic constraints on the Yucatec Mayan language, and it resembles the rest of the languages in the Mayan family in this respect.
Conclusion
The Yucatec Mayan language is a part of the Mayan language family and shares a range of distinctive characteristics, such as the use of affixation in word building, with the rest of the language family. However, the Yucatec Mayan language also has several unique properties, such as the use of tone as a method for conveying specific nuances and an elaborate typology of vowels and consonants. Although the language is spoken by a relatively small population, it remains a crucial part of the Mayan language family and an integral part of the Mayan cultural legacy. Therefore, studying and preserving it should be regarded as a priority.
Works Cited
Aissen, Judith, et al. The Mayan Languages. Routledge, 2017.
Barrett, Rusty. “2014. Language Contact, Inherited Similarity, and Social Difference: The Story of Linguistic Interaction in the Maya Lowlands, written by Danny Law.” Journal of Language Contact, vol. 9, no. 3, 2016, pp. 573-575.
Bennett, Ryan. “Mayan Phonology.” Language and Linguistics Compass, vol. 10, no. 10, 2016, pp. 469-514.
Santos-Fita, Dídac, et al. “Symbolism and Ritual Practices Related to Hunting in Maya Communities from Central Quintana Roo, Mexico.” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol. 11, no. 1, 2015, pp. 71-83.
One of the things that people in the modern age shares with their ancient counterpart is their inquisitiveness regarding their destiny. The fact that there is limited information to go by, has not dampened man’s spirits but rather fanned the flame on his quest to demystify his destiny. Since the advent of time, theories and speculations have existed concerning the end of the world. Prophesies have over the years been made predicting the end of the world.
However, most of this prophesies are soaked in religious ideologies and therefore elicit a lot of skeptics to their declarations. While most of these apocalyptic prophesies have proved to be fallacies, there exist others which appear to be more credible and evoke our interest in present times. The Mayan 2012 prophesy is one of the greatest plausible end-time prophesies of modern times. This is partially because it makes scientifically verifiable assertions.
History of the Mayans Calendar system
One of the great ancient civilizations known to man is that of the Mayan people. These people had a well developed writing system which made use of phonetics and ideograms. However, most of their written works perished with the disappearance of the civilization. The Mayan calendar is one of the most important relics from the Mayan civilization. It is widely contended that one of the greatest Mayan accomplishment was the creation of their intricate calendar system.
Calendars were based on astronomical events such as the cycles of the sun, moon and planets. This heavenly body’s movement established the seasons with priest-astronomers pronouncing the advent of each new period. As such, this calendar was the center of the life and culture of the Mayan people. Anderson (2007), articulates that the Mayans wrote accurately depicting the Earth’s rotation around the sun in 365.24 and in addition to this documented the movement of planets that were in that age undiscovered.
The Mayan people had three calendar systems. Of particular interest is their long count calendar which was based on a cycle of an estimated 5000 years. Ettington (2005, p. 36) asserts that “This calendar is a massive and highly accurate list of astronomical events and seasonal occurrences such as solstices and equinoxes.” It is advanced that the current long count calendar started counting down in the year 3114BC and will end in the year 2012 AD.
It is predicted that the world will come to an end at the same time as when the calendar finishes its cycle. This is based on the fact that the sun will have aligned itself to the center of the Milky Way galaxy. While scientists acknowledge that this galactic alignment will occur as per the Mayan calendar, the consequences are controversial and they form the backbone of the 2012 prophesies which deduce and extrapolate the phenomena surrounding the sun aligning itself with the galactic center.
Consequences of the Sun’s Alignment
There are various consequences that are predicted to occur as a result of the solar phenomena in 2012. One of the results of the aligning of the sun will be the shifting of the earth’s Magnetism. Symptoms of this occurrence have already began to be manifested in the form of abrupt changes in weather patterns and a rapid weakening of the planet’s magnetic field. The implications of a shift in magnetism would be catastrophic which would indeed be the apocalypse prophesied by the Mayans.
Another possibility of the alignment of the sun in 2012 is that solar flares will be discharged from the sun off into space. Solar flares are of dangerous consequence should they reach the earth. Solar flares have occurred in the earth’s past though at smaller scales.
It he flares were to occur on a higher intensity level, (and the 2012 apocalypse prophesy proponents do assert that it will), then the entire human population on earth would be eradicated. The credibility of the Mayan Calendar is however unquestionable and this has led a lot of people to speculate that if this ancient people could accurately predict celestial activities, their interpretations of the effects of the sun’s alignment with the milky way might also be true.
Conclusion
While the Mayan 2012 prophecy does appear to hold its own due to the supposed wisdom of the ancient civilization being scientifically proven, the prophecy fails to give an explicit meaning as to what “the end of time” really means. While some propose that it is a literal end of the world, others contend that it is a call for the human race to collectively harmonize itself. How the Mayans were able to come up with the calendar still remains a mystery.
However, most prophesies made by the Mayans have come to pass. Regardless of the fact that most people do feel that something will happen in the year 2012, it need not be cause for alarm and fear as there is no proof as to the exact nature of whatever will happen. People should therefore not be crippled by fear and anxiety out of regarding the intergalactic alignment as an apocalypse. Instead, the event should be viewed as one of life’s many little mysteries which do not warrant much apprehension.
References
Anderson, N. (2007). Worse Than Global Warming: Wave Technology, The Imminent Threat to Civilization As Told by the Prophecies. USA: Safe Goods.
Ettington, M. (2008). Prophecy: A History and How to Guide. USA: Martin Ettington.
The ancient Mayan culture started to evolve approximately 1000 BC, and it rapidly gained prominence in the world. Maya introduced a system of innovations in writing, mathematics, and astronomy including the development of a calendar, which is considered one of Maya’s major accomplishments. Maya occupied a large territory in southeast Mexico and Central America, and its geographical location influenced a lot the development of the local civilization. While people from the New World started inhabiting Mexico about 20,000 BC, American land has been isolated from Central America for many centuries. This is how different peoples with their own ethnic and cultural peculiarities formed the Mexican population with its unique culture. Mayas cultivated corn, had a calendar with 365 days, built pyramids, and worshipped gods, but it is their architecture that brought them fame, and the value of it continues to increase with time. To understand the role of architecture in Mayan society, one should view it in terms of the relationship between structures and the people who produced them.
The most developed ethnicities
Among the variety of native Mexican cultures, the most developed were the following six ethnicities: Olmecs, Teotihuacan, Toltecs, Mayans, Aztecs, Zapotec, and Mixtec with Olmecs being the first ones to establish a culture. This culture was very influential because the followers borrowed most of the elements from it including the studies on mystery and eternity of the soul. Teotihuacan, another tribe to influence the course of Mayan civilization, reached 200,000 people and founded the largest city of that time – Teotihuacan. Being the urban center, it shaped the political and economic systems in the Mesoamerican area. As to Toltecs, they lived in the northern part of Mexico and also contributed to the formation of the Mayan and Aztec cultures. The first ones to introduce the system of mathematics and astrology, Toltecs were much ahead of their time in scientific developments. Besides successful inventions, they were skillful traders, architects, and engineers. The finest artists and builders, though, belonged to the Zapotec and Mixtec cultures, for they created temples and astonishing metalwork known all over the world. Interestingly, both of these cultures are still alive today. Another thing that survived centuries is Mexico City, which was founded by the tribe of Aztecs under the name of Tenochtitlan (Storrer 2001, p. 214).
The Origins of Mayan Architecture
The uniqueness of Mayan architecture is evident from constructed pyramids built approximately circa 1050 that relied on intricately carved stone to create a stair-step design. These pyramids were built to worship specific gods, whose shrines crowned the constructions. The decipherment of Maya script found on the constructions shows that Mayan artists attached their names to works created. Moreover, architects used complex materials, such as limestone structures and lime stucco, and decorated buildings with carved friezes and stone. As to the size of Mayan temples and pyramids, its secret lies in materials utilized, for the civilization was skillful enough to produce plaster and cement. Mayan creators also used the corbel vault principle – the arch structures meeting at the top (Harris 2005, p. 63).
Another important feature of Mayan construction was the usage of colorful murals: most of the cities were divided into quarters by two streets that met at the right angle, and the images of Mayan gods covered walls and flat roofs of the buildings. In their quest for supreme construction, the Mayans utilized flint, bones, cotton, and even metal as the building materials. Ceramics of different forms and diverse decorations were widely used at those times. As to tombs, they were placed beneath the construction to avoid possible destruction when new temples were built over already existing ones. One of the multiple reasons to believe that Mayan pyramids were constructed to worship gods is the compounds with large open areas in the middle for citizens to view ceremonies.
Religious scenes that are present in all the constructions suggest that spirituality was of supreme importance for the Mayan civilization. Mayan architecture was strongly connected to the calendar. The construction of Castillo is one of the most obvious examples, for each of its stairways had 91 steps with a total of 364 – which directly refers to the calendar year. Four sides of the pyramid had nine terraces divided by stairways, a total of 18 sections, which was the number of months in the calendar.
Other Mayan sites served as the royal palaces and centers of governmental activity. Events as significant as sacrifices or celebrations of the New Year were recorded on the tables or the walls of the temples. Mayans did not possess wheels and metal tools; however, they managed to construct immense cities across the jungles.
Interestingly, the large elite court structures at Classic Maya centers were the residences of royal members and priests. Inhabitants of the court served in the royal court; thus, they were living and working in the same constructions (Takeshi and Houston 2001, p. 35).
Ceremonial platforms, temples, palaces, towers, pyramids, and ball games were the types of constructions that the Maya used.
Ceremonial platforms were usually short and carved with figures on the sides. The upper part of the platform had an altar and the line sticks on the top. Temples, in their turn, had ritual meaning and were situated on the top of the pyramid. They were covered with numerous designs, and internal chambers have been utilized as altars. Palaces were set on the platforms inside of the ceremonial places. Places to live for royalty and noble people had flat walls covered with rich decorations. The role of observatories belonged to towers, which were constructed to conduct astrological and general scientific research. A peculiar fact on Mayan civilization is that when a pyramid was destroyed, a new one was built on the top of the previous one. As ball games were of particular importance for Mayans, the field was built at the entrance. A platform for the ceremonial temple was usually placed above the ball game walls.
Religion and architecture
Religious beliefs were closely related to agriculture, as Mayans needed accurate predictions of natural cycles. One of the distinguishing features of Mayan religion was the ability to live in harmony with the universe, for Mayans believed that the universe functioned in a pre-determined and predictable way, whereas humans had to adjust to its cycles. It was this belief that had laid the foundation for the development of the calendar. Common religious ceremonies included dancing, prayer, and human sacrifices, which were not always voluntary. The higher the position of a god was, the more blood is required. Mayans believed that the soul was eternal, and it went to the underworld (hell) after death; however, the souls of sacrificed victims and those who died in childbirth were destined to go to heaven. According to Mayan beliefs, the world was created and destroyed four times and has entered its fifth creation.
The stone column with cravings and writings all over it, the Ceremonial Bar at Copan is a Mayan construction famous for its symbols (Herzog 2001, p. 22).
Each side of the column is shaped in the form of a serpent’s head with mouth opened – the two-headed structure of the dragon image found in many other constructions. The image of God in each mouth symbolizes the ruling power and political strength (Push 2001, p. 250). Thus, the column incorporates four distinctive symbols: political power, which is the column itself, religious symbols, depicted through images of gods, astronomical meaning, brought by the double-headed dragon, and architectural necessity as the entrance to the temple. As to political power in the Mayan civilization, it was represented in well-known Ceremonial Axes. The head of the ax symbolized the serpent’s head and serpent’s mouth, and if the construction was prolonged, it looked similar to a serpent’s body, which was the symbol of power.
Cravings of a Manikin Scepter carry a meaning similar to that of a serpent’s head. Manikins were created in god image, while the staff of the scepter was constructed in the image of a serpent shaping one of the legs. Temple of the Seven Dolls is a relatively unknown Mayan construction named after the seven figures raised within the temple. Such signs as constellations, planets and dates graved on the walls point at the fact that the temple served the purpose of an astronomical center. Noteworthy is the construction that is carved into the side and has a rear head of the two-headed monster (Wiseman 2000, p. 63). Faces that are carved out of stone and located on each side are an example of the intersection of symbolism from both astronomical and religious perspectives.
The image of the Temple of the Seven Dolls is presented below:
Mayas used astronomy and mathematics to count and predict seasonal changes such as natural calamities. Information about political events, rituals, agriculture, and science, written on the walls of the temple, is the priceless depiction of the history of this civilization.
As any ancient culture, Mayans have developed their diverse system of symbols, in which diamonds represented the shape of the earth, flowers stood for holy plants, snakes indicated fertility of animals, and the three vertical lines were a sign of ancestors. Double-headed creatures stood separately in this system and were of big importance to the Mayas. A double-headed dragon, for example, was used to conjure the power of the earth and to symbolize the calamities and was depicted with the head of the snake or god’s head inside of the mouth of every dragon.
As it was noted, it aided astronomical alignments with Venus, perhaps, to synchronize or signal agricultural activities; it also symbolized natural calamities associated with the Venus symbol that adorns the Palace of the Governor and works together with a large, adjacent phallic carving at the Palace to conjure the power and fertility of the earth.
A double-headed jaguar, in its turn, was often built at the entrance of construction to symbolize the guards; it was a sign of both authority and power.
As mentioned previously, two heads stood for the specific occurrences of Venus. Snakeheads with opened mouths substituted jaguars’ ears. A similar pattern has been found in Hindu architecture, and the overall facial structure, position of eyes, and nose of these jaguars were different from the natural image.
Mayans had a deep value of their culture and material, as is evident from the city architecture. Being a center of power and religious ceremonies, each Mayan city presented a unique style with features common only to the particular tribe (Rider 2005, p. 28). Mayan architects managed to develop and implement advanced engineering, which guaranteed the supply of water and provisions to inhabitants. In general, Mayans have shared the language and customs, and even though they have practiced human sacrifices, their culture was still less violent compared to other ancient civilizations. The society was arranged under a specific hierarchy with rich people and priests having the most power; however, all citizens had the right to own slaves. As to trade, it was of high importance to Mayan culture, which can be seen from a developed trading system that used river and sea routes.
Urban Architecture
Mayan cities were primarily built for ceremonial purposes, and to make these purposes even more evident, people wore meaningful symbols on their clothes. By Mayan beliefs, the universe had several levels: above, below, west, east, south, and north with each location having its patrons, gods, and goddesses that were of high worship. Under the Creation Myth, the main god initially founded four worlds; he then changed the landscape four times. The myth reflects the importance of the sacred number four to Mayans. They obtained knowledge from other teachings and symbolic studies, which allowed them to ponder their spirituality: reality and myths. A connection between the living essence of a tree and Mayan priests who believed to be able to communicate with it was represented by T. Tree of the World was shaped in the form of a cross, whereas Mayan traditions communicated through architecture and art (Totten 1926, p. 60).
No specific plan was used in the urban designs; however, the constructions were always built by exact mathematical principles, which were still highly symbolic. A connection to symbols as strong as this one indicates that Mayans were advanced in many fields of study including mathematics and astrology. Despite the wide variety of archeological diversity, most of the constructions shared several features such as predetermined axis and plazas that were linked to platforms on which pyramids and temples were built. The cities have also served as political and military centers.
The city of Tikal, located in the forests of Guatemala, is of high significance today, for it is a place with huge plazas, temples, and palaces that deserve closer examination. One of the temples is called “The Great Jaguar” primarily due to its’ height of 45 meters. Other temples – “Temple of the Masks”, “Temple of the Great Priest” (made out of wood), and “Temple of the Bicephalous Snake” – are of big historical value to archeologists largely due to their unique architecture style. Cities were marked by the main plaza or acropolis which functioned as axis Mundi allowing individuals to travel between the different levels of the sacred worlds. As to monumental constructions, they were built by the “sovereign and his court to patent their power and that of the gods, ordering the construction of sumptuous pyramids that emulated the cosmos, from where public messages were transmitted to an illiterate populace that was faithful to the principle of loyalty to their leaders” (Takeshi and Houston 2001, p. 138).
The opportunity to see the traditional houses is hopelessly lost, for they were built out of organic materials and did not survive till the present time. Houses of ordinary people did not present religious and symbolic values; therefore, they did not deserve attention to Mayas. Mostly, the Mayan ordinary houses were set on the platforms divided into family plots depending on the hierarchy of family members. The construction of the house was simple and represented a rectangular room with rounded corners. Mayans believed that evil energy was concentrated in sharp corners and evil souls were able to enter a house through windows at night; therefore, houses were built without windows. The floor was covered with packed soil, and the roof was made out of wood tied together in the form of beams.
To preserve their knowledge for the coming generations, Mayans tried to connect architecture to religion and astronomy (Taschek 2003, p. 378).
The preserved architectural constructions indicate that they have succeeded, and the temples are of big astrological value today. Before designing and constructing their urban cities, Mayans observed and analyzed the rise and set of the sun and recorded the important astrological events. As it was already mentioned, symbols were carved on the walls of every construction and included snakes, animals, flowers, and gods.
Symbolism in Architecture
The Mayans have expressed their vision of the world using the language of architecture to deliver both civil and symbolic messages. Famous pyramids were the depiction of the earth as Mayans believed it had to look like.
Nine levels, nine colonnades, and nine steps used in most constructions represented the nine planets. Astrological measurements were the primary criterion used in buildings. Mayan style can be called controversial due to its simplicity, purity, and complexity at the same time. Architects dressed houses in masks and carved out faces of gods and rulers on the walls, while hieroglyphic paintings were placed on the rock lintels. As to pyramids, they contained even more elements. Most of the constructions were covered with stucco, painted in red color, and covered with miniature lattices of snakes and animals. All these elements made the Mayan architecture especially impressive, and it is sobering to realize how much remains unknown in the archeological records of Mayan early civilization (Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oakes 1998, p. 6).
Mayan art reflected ancient lifestyle: paintings on the stone and carvings in wood represented ancient traditions, customs, and values circulating in the society. This painting illustrates the man, probably the ruler, looking into the mirror held by the servant. His hand gesture symbolizes war. Noteworthy is the fact that the majority of works depict not priests or gods, but common men and women who served their people; however, kings also were an object for depiction if they wanted to memorialize themselves in the history. The scarcity of the metal resource made Maya use it only for ornaments. One of the most well-known Mayan artistic representations is the stairway at Copan – full of statues, figures, and hieroglyphs. The piece of art encompasses royal descent as well as the ritual of bloodletting described in previous sections (Schele 1998, p. 22).
Maya has managed to reach an economic, religious, and social level that was much ahead of their time. Living in harmony with nature and desire to understand the world, their lifestyle gradually revealed new horizons in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Striving to find the balance between the spiritual and physical life, they believed that each person has a soul and should, in the first place, pursue spiritual development, which makes this pageant religion similar to the Christian one. Pieces of Mayan art that survived until the present day are full of symbols representing the fear of gods, nature, and power.
Double-headed monsters, serpents, gods, and rituals are only a few of them. Mayan architecture carries information about the life of Mayan people, their beliefs and expectations, and symbolizes the spirituality of those who created it. In this system, the hieroglyphs delivered the message of cosmic connections: “the connections made between men and gods through the ritual ball game cycle and the connection between the power of this cycle and that of the ruling elite who controlled it” (Rex, Reese-Taylor and Headrick 2001, p. 233).
The Temple of the Seven Dolls at Yucatan, which is known for the unique placement of eight faces on the sides, was erected to aid astronomical observation of key stars and planets on the dates used for agricultural activities.
The depiction of eight faces was very symbolic in terms of Mayan architecture, especially during the construction of the pyramid, courtyards, and other buildings. For example, the Palace of the Governor could serve the aim of the astronomical observatory as well, for it was believed that rulers were the closest ones to the gods, and the ruler’s palace was considered the place where the truth of life would become clearer. Interestingly, Mayans intensively observed the planet of Venus. The reason for such attention was in the planet’s movements, which played a key role in the development of the calendar cycles.
Architecture and Art
Mayan art can be found on all architectural constructions of Maya, though today pieces of work more recently come in the form of ritual objects. Interestingly, the focus of Mayan art was primarily set on the human figures and animals whose designs were used to decorate the pottery and temple walls.
The hieroglyphs can also be viewed as art when presented on statues and carvings, walls of the temples, and pyramids. Most of Mayan art and architecture was financed and controlled by kings and nobles who wanted to ensure their place in history, and the architects were of high value to Mayan society, even though most of them were slaves and belonged to kings.
Art is the easiest way to reveal the interactions of society with the surrounding world, for it was widely used in decorating different types of constructions.
Returning to hieroglyphic art, one of the most well-known and valuable inscriptions is presented on the stairway at Copan, which is covered with the complex statues, figures, and hieroglyphs, all together forming the ray of Mayan symbols. This particular stairway is very rich in symbols because it was used to make sacrifices to gods. Gods and worshipping were of supreme importance to Mayans who believed that gods were the dead rulers of their nation having the power to either bless or curse the tribe depending on the number of sacrifices made. For this reason, architects decorated sites with religious symbols and images of gods. Interestingly, the most widespread scenes depicted on walls are images of the seated captive (involved in the bloodletting ritual) and royal audience.
Both the king and the captive are depicted seated, and their only difference is in leg position – the captive has the rope over his legs, while the king’s legs are folded. This seemingly unimportant detail carries the deep meaning – leg position determined to the social status of the person.
Buildings were decorated with mosaics, which were well-formed and engraved on different parts of the construction, while sculptures were used to decorate facades. Regarding the fact that Mayans lived thousands of years ago and had a limited set of tools, the sculptures look even gracious. All of Maya’s artwork was handmade only and took up to several years to complete. Talking about a highly developed nation it is important to note that Mayans have managed to apply the technologies that many other nations discovered only years later.
In particular, the stone blocks used for outer constructions were cut and polished, while the interior walls were covered with lime stucco. Human statues twice as big as the natural size and large colonnades guarded entrances to the temples. The process of erecting constructions as large as mentioned above remains an unsolved riddle.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Mayan architecture and culture are interrelated. Mayan pyramids and palaces that were built strictly by principles of mathematics indicate the high level of scientific development in a society. Most of the constructions served as astrological, religious, and civil institutions and were covered with numerous symbols, the examination of which helps to understand the Mayan culture better.
Without having wheels and metal tools, Mayans have managed to construct buildings of huge parameters and filled them with mystery and symbolic meaning. The importance of religion is also depicted in Mayan architecture – the walls of temples and palaces are covered with the paintings of priests, gods, and kings. For many years to come, modern society will try to uncover all mysteries of Maya hidden in the architecture and pieces of art.
References
Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oakes. Edited by Stephen D. Houston. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oakes Research Library and Collection, 1998.
Harris, Cyril. Dictionary of Architecture and Construction (Dictionary of Architecture & Construction). McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 2005
Herzog, Lawrence. From Aztec to High Tech: Architecture and Landscape across the Mexico-United States Border (Creating the North American Landscape). The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
Inomata, Takeshi and Styephen D. Houston. Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya. Vol. 1, Boulder, CO: Westviiew Press, 2001.
Inomata, Takeshi and Stephen D. Houston. Royal Courts of the Ancient Maya. Vol. 2, Data and Case Studies. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001.
Koontz, Rex, Kathryn Reese-Taylor, and Annabeth Headrick. Landscape and Power in Ancient Mesoamerica. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001.
Proskkouriakoff, Tatiana. An Album of Maya Architecture: Second Edition. Norman, OK: The Univeristy of Oklahoma Press, 1970.
Push, T W. “Flood, Reptiles, Serpent Temples: The Imago Mundi of Late Post Classic Mayapan.” Ancient Mesoamerica 12, (2001): 247-258.
What is the difference between Mayan culture and Olmec culture and what controversies do exist between the two? Mayan Culture is a culture that emerged after the fall of the urban culture in 900 A.D. It is a Mesoamerican culture that came to be in the classical period and it was characterized with cultural creativity that took place in the whole region. They borrowed many cultural traits from the North and at the same time developed their own. The combination of the two revolutionized the subsequent Mesoamerican cultures. Much of this culture is still in use and valued among the Native Americans especially in Guatemala and Hondulus. On the other hand we have the Omes Culture. This was first noted in Mesoamerica and was deemed to be the mother of the Pre-Hispanic Mexican Culture. This culture began in the period between 1600B.C. and 1400B.C in the Southeastern Mexico. It was believed that these people created their first cities in this region. In this research paper, the main focus will be on the differences between the two cultures and the controversies that exist.
The classical Mayan culture developed in Mesoamerican Southern lowland areas. It was characterized by a lot of constructions, urbanism, monumental inscriptions and the people city empire that comprised of many city states and some of these cities are Tikal, Calkment, palenque Dos pilas Uaxactum, Bonampak, Copan and Alturitta. (Fagan, B.1991)
The most notable feature of these people is the construction of the pyramids that were constructed non-religious centers and in palaces where their rulers resided. There are other notable and highly valued archeological materials that remained and these are the stone slabs that were known as ‘Stelae’ but the Mayan referred to them as ‘tetun’ These curved stone slabs portray rulers with some texts written in hieroglyphics explaining their military victories genealogy and some other achievements they had.
The Mayan people just like the other Mesoamericans were long distance traders. Examples of those who participated with Mayans in the long distance trade were the Teotihuacán, various groups in Mexico and the Zapotech some things that attests to this fact have been collected by the archeologists and these are items such as Cacao, jade, seashells and obsidian, most of them which were used in trade. Miller M. and Simon M..2004)
Controversies between two cultures
There was some controversy on who between the Olmecs and the Mayans owned some particular cultures. For example a colossal head was discovered in 1862 along the Mexican Gulf in Mexico and to be specific in Veraoruz. Later some other cultural materials that were termed as Olmec were discovered in several sites in Mexico and Central America. Most of these findings were not known who was the original owner so they were misinterpreted. At that time, the Mayan culture was assumed to be the Mexican ‘mother culture’ thereby disputing the other theories that held that Olmecs were the owners of these cultures. This was not the truth of the matter but mere allegations that were without any foundation. Far much later in 1939 another caring of a head with an Olmec design on the side of the head was found. It had an Olmec label and dating system on the other side.
This disrupted the zealously held belief that the Mayan were the first to use the culture. The belief that the Olmec were the original in using this culture was later grounded by the radiocarbon dating. This discovery almost made the two cultures to switch sides and the Olmec to be referred by man as the mother culture.
Michael Coe (38-42) says that Oimec culture was the original culture and that the Mayan and the rest were dependent on it. Since the quintessential site of Laventa was discovered, the scholars have raised some speculations on the relationship about the art and iconography between the Mayan and the Oimec Culture. Many have come to the conclusion that the Laventa monuments were the original products of Mayan people. The recent advert of archeological and effective research methods have brought people to the attention that there is an analogy between the Olmec and the Mayan culture. They show that there are some Olmec traits in these iconographs and arts that were incorporated in the later Mayan cultures.
Description of the Olmec culture
The Olmec history that came to be even before 1200 BC shows that their civilization was favored by the well watered alluvial soil which was very suitable for agriculture and to be specific the maize production a civilization that is comparable with that of the Mesopotamian region. The population concentration in San Lorenzo is assumed to be the motivating factor behind the rise of elite class that led to the creation of symbolic and highly sophisticated artifacts, which were used to define the Oimec culture. This shows that these early elites were part of the long distant traders that carried their trading activities in Mesoamerica. For example these sophisticated artifacts of the Oimec are believed to have become from the Motagua river valley in Guatemala while Obsidian were also found in the same region but in the highlands. (VanDerwarker, 2006)
The decline of the Olmec culture started sometimes back in the 900 BCE but the cause is not well known but it is believed that the internal uprisings and the change of the river course could have contributed. The Olimecs are the first people who came up with the zero concept, calendar and the creation of hierographics as a mode of writing. Their myths and rituals greatly influenced the Mayan, Mixtec, Zapotech and Aztec cultures.
The Olimecs are widely known for their originalities for example they are known their culture of blood letting human writing, epigraphy, zero invention, ballgame and the afore mentioned Mesoamerican calendar. Their states were hierarchically organized and were very influential on other cultures that followed as they emulated this culture.
There is a controversy that resulted after some artifacts were excavated southeastern settlements in Mexico, which believed to form the Olmec civilization however this belief was not shared by all as they portrayed some remnant of the language that was used together with some for example a cylindrical ceramic seal together with some pieces of jade plague were formed in 1997 and 1998 after some excavations were done in Sam Andres site. These items contained some symbols that were curved on them which according to archeologists contained some writing system that were common to the Oimec spoken language (Bower B. 2002).
The scientists concluded that those writings were characteristics of the ancient New World olmec’s writing about some critics especially those from the Harvard University agreed that it was not possible to interpret the grammatical writing based on a meager suggestive symbols and signs. They concluded that those symbols could have designs that represented other things like people, gods, objects in Stuart’s view who is a scientist based at Harvard University rather than what was termed as Olmec’s grammatical writing style. According to this scientist who is a specialist in Mayan Culture argued that researches that were done prior to that period had revealed that Olmecs used pictorial writing but not symbols. The inscriptions that were found on the seal and on the plague were hieroglyphics that were interpreted as ‘king 3 A jaw. This had some relevance with the olmec’s trend of referring to name of a particular day in their two hundred and sixty calendar and to the king born on the same day. This was according to some other people but the researchers were completely unable to decipher the hieroglyphics which those from Harvard University concluded to have been Mayan writings thus contradicting the theory they were Oimec’s culture. (Bower B. 2002)
There is still controversy over the symbols that were found on a serpentine rock that was excavated in 2006 in a site near the Sam Lorenzo. The rock had sixty-two symbols inscribed on it but twenty-eight of them were unique or they were not seen prior to that period. Many archeologists concluded that the symbols were common to the ancient writing of the Columbians but others differed in their view because of the uniqueness of the stone and yet it was excavated in the same archeological sites. They wondered why the stone did not bear any resemblance to one of the many Mesoamericans writing style. Others viewed them as transitional script between Mayan writing and the ancient Olmecs writing format. Up to now it has not yet been established whose culture it was for there are those who believe it was characteristic of Olmec culture while others hold that the symbols worked more of the Mayan culture. There are also those who believed that the hieroglyphics were the product of the two cultures. (Drew, D 2004)
The belief that Epi-Olmec Script, which was a writing that was in use before the Mayan writing that it was a transitional script between the two cultures is not yet clarified.
According to the research findings that were released on 5th January 2006 by the National Geographic, shows that Mayan writings date back to 400 BC. This suggests that Mayan writing was as old as the oldest know form of writing by Zapotec. If this is the case, there is no controversy that arises between the Oimec’s writing and that of the Maya. This is because the Olmec writing is believed to have been in use before that one by Zapotech and is believed to have been originated in the period between 900 to 600 BCE. (Culbert T. P 1997)
The Mayan people practiced human sacrifices. In their rituals, people were killed while their legs and hands were firmly held then the priest would rip open the said person’s heart and tore his/her heart open as a form of a sacrifice or offering. This culture is clearly depicted in Mayan pictorial texts on objects. Children were the most offered form of human sacrifice as it was held that they were pure from blasphemes. The Oimec were also believed to have practiced human sacrifice or blood letting exercises but there is evidence that attests or supports this belief. So the theory is speculative unlike that of the Mayan. There is none of the Olmec’s artifacts or even any influenced artifacts that are known but there have been discovered disarticulated femurs and skills at El Manati excavation site. There has also been found some full skeletons of children in a heap of other offerings adding weight to the speculation that the Olmecs could have been practicing child sacrifice Burt the cause of the death of these infants is not yet established.
Just like the religions that appeared later, the Mayan religion believed that the nature of time was cyclical. The rituals as well as the ceremonies they performed had some cyclical nature as they ere done after some period of time. They even indicated on their calendar when these particular ceremonies would be held. It was the role of the Mayan priest to give interpretations to these cyclical events and ceremonies and fore see what will happen in the future in relation to their calendars. The priests were also to be very observant so that they would advise their people if it was the appropriate time to hold their rituals by looking at the heavenly bodies. There is no further insight on the Mayan religion but it is common that they believed that the universe or the cosmos was three planed, that is the earth, the underworld and the sky. (Davies, N. 1998)
Defference between Mayan culture and Olmec culture
Unlike the Mayans whose religious activities were solely done by the priests, the Olmec’s religious activities were done by a combination of the priests, shamans and the rulers. The rulers were the most valued of the three as they were believed to have some links with the Olmec deities or that they had an upper hand to the supernatural powers that gave legitimacy to their rule.
The Mayan people lived in tropical forests where they developed an urban culture and their key city was known as Tivel but urbanization was not confined to this city as it extended to others such as Hondurus in the south. The urban centers received raw materials from the temperate highlands. The Mayans urban culture in the tropical rain forest could not be fully developed as the area was very moist and there is too much cold, so human survival was minimal. (Davies, N. 1982) For this reason the agricultural production was dismal as the rains were continuous. There was no area that was densely populated, as it is known that in a whine square mile you could not find more than 30 people as people kept migrating to other areas that were more favorable than this region. Despite the fact that the environment was unsuitable for agricultural production, they applied various sophisticated means of food production. In the past they practiced what was known as shift cultivation but later they switched to forest gardens, raised fields digging fallows and terracing to control soil erosion. They also practiced what is known as wild harvesting or collecting wild fruits to feed their families especially during the classical period.
Unlike the Mayans, the Olmecs had diverse source of food though they were also agriculturalist. They (Olmecs) lived in river valley where they relied on floods to plant their crops. They lived in a different environment with a different climatic conditions unlike the Mayans who lived in tropical zone with an all year rains. These people lived in rather dryer land where they relied on floods instead of rains. They used slash and burn method of clearing new agricultural fields. They deserted their old farming plots once they were mined all its nutrients and looked for another virgin land. (Coe, M.D 2002)
Unlike the Mayans, the Olmec’s fields were located just outside the village but those for the Mayans were in the forest. The Olmecs did not practice wild harvesting to feed their population as they had a variety of crops such as beans, sweet potatoes and squash. They also produced cash crop like cotton. Their diet because of this overtime they seemed to shift to maize production. They also grew fruits that were supplemented with other sources of food such as snake, mollusks, crabs that were got from the nearby rivers. They also caught shellfish especially those that resided along the coastal regions. They also hunted dear, rabbit birds and raccoons. (Diehl, R. A 2004)
The Mayan art is referred by many as the most classical and beautiful work ever known in the ancient new world. Their carvings and reliefs were extremely good. They were professionals curved expressing every form of human being such that by a very look at them you would know how the classical civilization of the Mayans was. There is very little evidence of the classical paintings but the pottery and ceramics are evident. Mayan culture is among the few known art works that have their name attached. They are best known for their expertise in making pyramids whose skills were never matched by any other group. On the other hand, the Olmecs artwork is mostly in monumental statuary and in jade work. Much of their arts are reflective of religious works as they use icongraphs, which portray religious meanings. They made art works where they curved beautiful humans that could only be compared with the Mayan work. Apart from these, they also curved other objects such as fish and birds, which were reflective of the diversity of their culture. Their way of curving heads was unique as no other pre-co
Lumbian community ever curved helmeted heads and the motive for this is not yet known.
The social and political structures of the Mayan people were hierarchically organized and at the top there was a rule who was as an A jaw. His dynasty never exceeded capital city although a few of them did exceeded patronized and ruled over these small polities that were within their vicinity. All the kingdom had a name that never sounded the same as the name of the location and the identity of the kingdom was that of a political unit. The Mayans embraced the idea of royal household centrality and more specifically on the King’s people. Contrally to the Mayans, little is known about the organization of the Olmec society both socially and politically. (Coe Michael D. 1999)
Though no evidence hints about the type of arrangement that they had, the colossal heads they curved are believed to be indicative of the kingdomship political units. Those are believed to be the heads of the rulers but they do not have any name curved or inscribed on them like in the Mayan culture where every work of art had the name of that figure. For these reasons the date that archeologists have is based on assumption or speculation. The belief that colossal heads were those of their rulers lead archeologists to conclude that the Olmec society was highly centralized with a clear hierarchical structure. (Miller M and Karl T. 1993)
The use of long calendar has no relationship with the Mayans and it is highly unlikely that it was their ingenuity because this long count calendar and its subsequent calculations were found outside the Mayan territory. Infact about six artifacts with these characteristics were found within the Oimec’s mainland so it is assumed that they must be the ones who came up with these ideas. The Mayans in a bid to keep their cyclical times, they devised a caledrical system and it consisted of 260 days which had two cycles that is thirteen days were numbered which twenty of them were named.
Conclusion
The two cultures that is Mayan and the Oimec differed a lot that they had in common. It is only in some far areas that the two converged for example they both practiced agriculture, organized society with a hierarchical structure although that of the Olmec was speculative they also practiced human offering though again that of the Olmec was not evident. On the other hand the two differed for example in their work or art where the Mayans inscribed the details of their work while the Olmecs didn’t. The Mayans lived in tropical zones while the Olmecs lived in the river valleys. There has been a controversy that has existed over originality of some artifacts for example the inscriptions that were found on the seal and the plaque.
Work cited
Bower B. Script Delivery: New World Writing Takes Disputed Turn Controversy over Artifacts From Oimec Civilization. 2002. Web.
Coe, M.D. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs London: Thames: 2002; 118.
Culbert T.P. Classic Maya Collapse. University of New Mexico Press. 1977; 96.
Coe Michael D. The Maya. Thames and Hudson, New York. 1999; 58.
Davies, N. The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico, Penguin Books. 1982; 98-100.
Diehl, R. A. The Olmecs: America’s First Civilization, Thames & Hudson, London. 2004; 78.
Drew D. The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings, New edition, London: Phoenix Press. 2004; 158-162.
Fagan, B. Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade. Thames and Hudson, London. 1991;56,59.
Miller M and Karl T. The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames and Hudson.1993; 85-92.
Miller M. and Simon. Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson. 2004; 117-123.
VanDerwarker, Amber Farming, Hunting, and Fishing in the Olmec World, University of Texas Press. 2006; 189-201.
Webster D.L. The Fall of the Ancient Maya. London: Thames & Hudson. 2002; 45.
Is the world going to end on 2012. There are a rising number of experts who believe that if the world does not actually end in 2012, some kind of cataclysmic event will definitely take place which end the world as we know it. So what is the basis of this doomsday prophecy? Apparently, the highly sophisticated Mayan calendar comes to end on December 21, 2012. This ending of the calendar is construed by many to signify the end of the world.
Main body
The Mayan civilization was extremely advanced in mathematics, engineering and astronomy. They were also very particular about their dates and had several calendars to mark their dates. These calendars were highly accurate, perhaps even more accurate than the Gregorian calendar which we use today. One of these calendars, known as the “long count calendar” had a complex system to mark each day and this calendar records dates for 5126 years starting with 3114 BC. However, on 21 December 2012, this calendar comes to an abrupt end. The Mayans do not give any reason for this abrupt ending living the field wide open for scientists and pseudo-scientists to interpret it in whatever way they please. And the doomsday theory advocates have interpreted it to mean the end of the world.
However, this is one prophecy which seems to be backed by scientific evidence. According to John Major Jenkins, the Mayan calendar was very precise and it predicted a very special happening in the universe on 21 December 2012. Our galaxy revolves around the center of the Milky Way and once every 25800 year, the Earth comes into direct alignment with the sun and the galactic center. On 21 December 2012, such an alignment will take place. No one knows what this unique event will cause but according to a documentary aired on the History Channel in August 2006, it will have dire consequences. According to this documentary, the geophysicists predict that this unique alignment will result in a “pole shift”. What this means is that entire mantel of the Earth will shift in a matter of days, perhaps even hours, so that the poles would shift to somewhere near the equator. It is not hard to imagine the consequence of such an event with the polar ice melting and many of the low lying areas getting completely submerged.
This event, however, seems to be so unlikely that most people do not really believe in this doomsday theory. Instead, researchers like Jenkins believe that the on or around this day their will be some great cataclysmic event but nothing as drastic as the pole shift or the end of the world. Jenkins also does not believe that December 21, 2012 marks the end of time. Instead, in his opinion, time is cyclic and the date only marks the end of one cycle and beginning of another.
Another person who predicts this doomsday is Jose Arguelles, who arguably came up with this 2012 date. However, most critics feel that there are a lot of loopholes in his arguments and dismiss him as just another doomsday advocate.
Reference
Jenkins, J.M. “2012: The Doomsday Prophecy”. History Channel. 2006. Web.