The Limitless Heart is an autobiographical essay written by Fenton Johnson in 1991 and published in 2017 as part of his essay collection Everywhere Home: A Life in Essays. The events of the essay take place in 1991; it is devoted to describing the unnamed narrator’s visit to the parents of his late partner, whom he had lost to AIDS. Through retelling this encounter and the subsequent evening, Fenton Johnson codes his experience with the intersection of his queerness with his masculine gender identity and shows that multiple resolutions to this internal conflict are possible.
In the essay, it is revealed that the narrator is visiting the parents of his partner, Larry, due to a promise he made to him. However, it then becomes clear the narrator is really mostly visiting Larry’s father, Fred, as the latter “does not talk about Larry with the women of his life”, including his wife and Larry’s mother, Kathy (Johnson). Moreover, even the absence of women does not make it easy for Fred to talk about what he is really feeling regarding his son’s passing. The narrator notes a similar urging in himself, stating that he and Larry’s father both “subscribe implicitly, jointly, unconditionally to this code of conduct” (Johnson). As a result of following this “code of conduct”, the narrator and Larry’s father never discuss directly how Larry’s death affected them and end up exchanging idle stories of the past instead.
Although the intimacy of the moment can hardly be overstated—the narrator is meeting his late partner’s father—both men are constrained by the notions of masculinity that prevent them from sharing their emotions. The masculine “code of conduct” described by Johnson aligns with the findings of gender studies researchers, who shared observations regarding the fact that men are socially discouraged from showing their emotions and crying (Ford 53). In a tragic way, this seems to contrast with the titular ‘limitless heart’ that the narrator used to describe his connection with Larry. In fact, it reads like there is a very palpable wall between the narrator and Larry’s father because, as they are both men, they cannot share what occupies their hearts most.
After his visit to Larry’s parents, the narrator attends a queer bar. There, he encounters a drag performer and becomes witness to him receiving a kiss on his cheek, as well as a dollar bill, from his grandmother in a touching display of support. The heartfelt scene renders the previous episode’s tragedy all the more poignant. Through the juxtaposition, Johnson argues that one is not doomed to be either a gay man or a son-in-law or a son or a man, but that one can combine these multiple identities. Despite the fact that the tension with Larry’s father is never resolved, the essay ends with the narrator thinking of the “limitless heart” yet again, now with a vaguely hopeful undertone to it.
In conclusion, Fenton Johnson’s essay The Limitless Heart presents an honest account of his experience with trying to reconcile his queer identity with his masculinity. The struggles with masculinity he encounters and describes are thoroughly documented in gender studies. Through showing his visit to his late partner’s parents and his observations from a drag bar, he demonstrates that queerness and masculinity can coexist in a single person.
Works Cited
Johnson, Fenton. “The Limitless Heart.” Everywhere Home: A Life in Essays. Sarabande Books, 2017. Web.
Ford, Victoria. “Men Who Care: Analyzing Masculinity within Peer Support Organizations.” Sprinkle: An Undergraduate Journal of Feminist and Queer Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, 2019, pp. 50-61.
This essay attempts to critically and comprehensively review the concept of hegemonic masculinity. The hegemonic masculinity theory is particularly significant in understanding concepts such as the predisposition of men to violence, the evaluation of social network analysis in relation to hegemonic masculinity and the links between social identity and the occupation that someone belongs to.
The essay begins with an introduction and an analysis of the concept of hegemonic masculinity and proceeds to critically analyze articles that address the concept in relation to gender and social change.
Hegemonic Masculinity
Hegemonic masculinity, an influential theory in gender studies was first advanced by R.W Connell; the phrase is used to describe a social construct that is a benchmark for evaluation of all other forms of masculinity.
(Momsen, 2004 p.81-83) Hegemonic masculinity restricts and defines masculine behavior within a given social context and all other forms of masculinity are seen to be subordinate to it. In the society, hegemonic masculinity is not the prevailing form of masculinity; rather, it is a standard, endorsed by the society, against which, men are measured (Schipper, 2009 p.19-20).
Hegemonic masculinity is a theory that proposes that, there exists a normative standard for male behavior in society; men in the society are meant to attain these set standards of masculinity. The theory is characterized by the inclination of men to dominate other men and to subordinate women. Hegemonic masculinity is characterized by aggression, self reliance, and ambition, attitudes that are encouraged in men but are discouraged in women.
Several criticisms have been leveled against the Hegemonic masculinity theory. Connell, the original proponent of the theory cited his inspiration as being rooted in feminist theories that dealt with the concept of patriarchy and the associated issues about the role of men in altering the concept of patriarchy. Critics contend that the theory is responsible for fostering negative attitudes towards the concept of patriarchy (Howson, 2006 p.64).
It is claimed by critics of the theory that hegemonic masculinity is only a theoretical perspective and it cannot be translated in the real world situation. A critique advanced proposes that the theory can be conceived as a type of projection that deliberately victimizes women instead of men.
This victimization is done either collectively or limited to individuals. This is to say, the theory cannot be closely contrasted or applied in examining the lives of any real men. Furthermore, the critics of the Hegemonic masculinity theory propose that the theory fundamentally misconstrues the mental representation of male identity.
Critics also associate the theory with fostering attitudes of male superiority and negative machismo as manifested by excessive aggression and undue self reliance. (Ibid) The hegemonic theory has also been described as providing inexact, indistinct and inaccurate depiction of the concept of gender and masculinity because it does not take into account the unstable nature of all forms of masculinity (Howson, 2006 p.5-7).
In summation, despite the numerous criticisms that have been advanced against the theory, Hegemonic masculinity was and still is a significant theory that provides an in-depth analysis of the concept of masculinity (Speer, 2005 p.107-109).
To adequately discuss the theory of Hegemonic masculinity, it would be important to review a number of articles that address the concept and critically examining the related concepts of gender and social change.
Unlocking Men, Unmasking Masculinities: Doing Men’s work In Prison
The article attempts to establish a credible link between hegemonic masculinity and criminality. There has been prior research that has been done to explore this link; however, what makes this approach different is that it seeks to explore the correlation between correctional interventions and the destructive effects of hyper masculinity in prison.
Hyper masculinity refers to the over emphasis on conventional male behavior manifested by strength, virility and aggression. (Kimmel and Aronson, 2004 p.503-507)
The article examines two related programs initiated in men’s prisons in California and Massachusetts. The survey was carried by consultations and observation with volunteer. Essentially, the article illustrates how the program attempts to deconstruct hyper masculinity in correctional facilities and its effects in assisting inmates in redefining the concept in order to produce pro-social outcomes.
These programs applied are branches of the Mankind project, a large voluntary organization that is founded on the philosophy of the mythopoeticmen’s movement that emphasizes psychological self help, therapeutic techniques and personal growth.
Essentially, the aim of the program is to reorient the inmates’ perceptions of masculinity in a manner that will serve them better both in prison and in their lives after being reintegrated into society (Karp, 2010 p.63). The report highlights the relationship between violent crime and gender.
The figures in the article reveal that more men than women get arrested and convicted for violent crimes in contrast to more women than men who get arrested for non-violent crimes such as prostitution and running away from home However, the statistics also indicate that in recent years, there has been an increase in the number of females arrested and convicted for violent crimes.
Research reveals that, this increase that has been witnessed can be attributed to the net-widening of the criminal justice system and not necessarily as a result of an actual increase in the commission of violent crimes by females (Karp, 2010 p.63).
A number of theories have been advanced in an attempt to explain why more women than men commit crimes. The strain theory proposes that criminality is a function of greed and excessive societal emphasis on material possessions. However this theory does not explain why more men than women commit crime seeing as women are subjected to the same strain as men are.
Moreover, the labeling theory proposes that criminality is caused by shame, stigmatization and out casting especially of members of minority groups. However, this theory does not explain why women, who are subjected to the same conditions as men, are not as inclined to commit crimes (Karp, 2010 p.64-65).
The article proposes that the disparate rates of criminality between men and women can be explained by the hegemonic masculinity conceptualization.
This implies that the hegemonic nature of masculinity that emphasizes strength and aggression predisposes men to violence and consequently violent crime (Messerschmitt, 1993 p.27-30). Hegemonic masculinity is the exclusive premise of men and this may explain why more men than women commit violent crimes.
In my opinion, the theory of Hegemonic masculinity as the possible explanation of the disparate rates of violent crime commission by men and women is to a large extent accurate. This is because; all other theories of criminality adequately address the causes of the phenomena but do not consider why more men than women commit violent crimes. The Hegemonic masculinity theory adequately addresses this question.
In recognition of this fact, the article examines the interventions being initiated in the penal system, for instance the mankind project, the inside circle foundation and the Jericho circle project. These initiatives are meant to offer the inmates an opportunity to experience self discovery and personal growth in an attempt to counter the negative effects of hegemonic and hyper masculinity.
A Social Network Analysis
The article tries to involve important theory on social life brought forward by Connell’s in two schools. The social theory on gender was developed by Robert Connell to address the prevalent sexual, gender and power inequality between men and women. The theory examines the gender-based division of labor, power and the nature of carthexis (Connell, 1987 p.64-65).
The article uses arithmetical techniques to examine power affairs, violence and social connections in relation to the male supremacy beliefs of the students. In the secondary school in question; one demonstrated the validity of Connell’s theory in the fact that Hegemonic masculinity was placed on top of the hierarchy of other forms of masculinity.
The other secondary school has a different orientation that demonstrates the support for the other viewpoint that gender is relational and that the hypothesized effects are evident, even after considering and accounting for the rest of the explanatory factors. This illustrates the fact that there is considerable empirical evidence to support Connell’s theory (Usher and Robbins, 2010 p.23-25)
The study examines a ruling-class and a middle class school in Australia. The different hierarchical structures are explained by the fact that, the ruling class school fosters attitudes that are based on masculinity. The middle class school has a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach that considers the effects of male dominance, gay-male homophobia, anti-academic attitudes and attitudes of anti-feminism.
The article proposes to establish a relationship between gender and power inequality. The article is significant in that it is the first study undertaken using qualitative research methodology that takes into account the context of the local environment and cultural factors. The study does not work on the assumption that people act independently of the society in which they live.
Essentially, the theory attempts to explain the fundamental relationship between power and violence. This article proposes that, Hegemonic masculinity is an expression of power inequality between men and women. This implies that the power inequality contributes significantly to the commission of violence and the fostering of attitudes of subordination towards women (Usher and Robbins 2010 p.31-35).
Doing Hegemony: Military, Men, and Constructing a Hegemonic Masculinity
This article proposes that Hegemonic masculinity is at the pinnacle of the gender hierarchy. Furthermore, the article proposes that Hegemonic masculinity subordinates all other gender constructs. Conventionally, Hegemonic masculinity is focused on the tenets of self discipline, sadism, belligerence and many other signs of control.
The article is based on a study that involved interviewing 43 men emphasizing the process of establishing Hegemonic masculinity constructs. The interviewees included military officers from different specialties, different rank levels and different levels of ability.
Essentially, this implies that men construct hierarchies that subordinate other people. At the same time, these characteristics show the way men place themselves in supremacy symbolism (Hinojosa, 2010 p.180)
Furthermore, the article examines the ways in which men that are aiming to join military service position themselves on the top of the hegemonic construct of masculinity.
The men present themselves as better placed in terms of intelligence, strength, skills and ability as compared to ordinary civilians. In so doing, this person panning to join the military construct a masculinity that is symbolically dominant over other forms (Hinojosa, 2010 p.181-182)
A critical review of the article establishes a conclusive link between the concepts of social identity and perceptions of the self and their relationship with the institutions that they belong to, in this case, the military. This implies that people who have a career in the military tend to derive a large extent of their personal identity from the occupation that they belong to (Hinojosa, 2010 p.184)
In my opinion, the assertion that people derive a large part of their social identity from the occupation that they belong to is accurate. The article cites conclusive evidence that people planning to join the military have a heightened sense of Hegemonic masculinity. This notion of social change can be directly attributed to their occupation of choice
In conclusion, a critical examination of the three articles establishes a tenable link between hegemonic masculinity, gender and social change. These three concepts are inextricably linked in that the perception of gender is affected by the theory of hegemonic masculinity. On the other hand, both gender and hegemonic masculinity are determined by social change.
References
Connell, R. (1987) Gender and power: society, the person and sexual politics. California: Stanford University Press. p.64-65
Hinojosa, R. (2010) Doing Hegemony: Military, Men, and Constructing a Hegemonic Masculinity. P.180-185
Howson, R. (2006) Challenging hegemonic masculinity. NY: Routledge Publishing Inc. p.64
Karp, D. R. (2010) Unlocking Men, Unmasking Masculinities: Doing Men’s work In Prison. P.63-65
Kimmel, M. S. and Aronson, A. (2004) Men and masculinities: a social, cultural, and historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. CA: ABC-CLIO Inc. p.503-507
Messerschmitt, J.W.(1993) Masculinities and crime: Critique and reconceptualization Of theory. USA: Littlefield Inc. p.27-30
Momsen, J. (2004) Gender and Development. NY: Routledge Publishing Inc. p.81- 83
Schipper, W. C. (2009) Masculinity, spirituality, and sexuality; The interpreted, lived experience. MA: Proquest LLC. p.19-20
Speer, S. A. (2005) Gender talk; feminism, discourse and conversation analysis. NY: RoutledgePublishing Inc. p.107-112 p.107-109
Usher, D and Robbins, G. (2010) A Social Network Analysis. nd. P.23-35
Diverse notions on masculinity aspects are significantly represented in advertising and promotional campaigns of various products. This is due to their effectiveness in promoting sales of products that in turn leads to high profitability in various institutions. As noted by scholars, the evident notions that appertain to masculinity are credible and relevant since most individuals tend to identify themselves with items that depict or portray their characteristic traits.
For instance, men tend to associate themselves with items that portray them as strong, active, tough and aggressive people while women like products that depict their feminine nature. This explains why gender advertisements are relevant, especially in the modern society. It also explains the need for its adoption by institutions that aspire to record exemplary performance.
In the US, gender based advertisement that is an agent of socialization in modern industrial society is widely used because people define themselves by gender. It is also used since gender based adverts contribute to maintaining certain social engagements and constructions among individuals1. It has led to the improvement of general performance in most companies such as Nivea, Samsung and alcoholic corporations.
The companies have been adopting masculinity as a marketing strategy to help in attracting more men to relate with their products and subsequently enticing them to consume the products. The companies’ used this strategy to give the notion that the brands they sell contribute to enhancing certain characteristics of men as evident in Hollywood era advertisements.
This has made most men get attracted with certain alcoholic brands such as Smirnoff and Tusker since they believe that the products hold the capacity of enhancing their true character traits.
Picture adverts with masculine images and evaluation
Indeed, the recent tendency to use masculine celebrities in adverts is not only meant to promote sales of various products that are traditionally regarded as “women’s products”, but to promote the explicit reinforcement of gender stereotypes. The advertisements emphasize the idea that men are ever conquerors and that the products make them more irresistible to women2. They give men a sense of identity that is significant for their social engagements.
Variably, the adverts, for example Nivea advertisement, reinforce that notion that men become more active and bold when they use the product while women are depicted as individuals who get highly attracted to men who use the product. The Nivea advert depicts this notion in a clear and enticing manner as evident in the advert below.
Advertisements for Nivea for Men.3
Nivea adverts shown above give clear attestation on the role that men or individuals with masculine features play in enhancing sales of the product. They give an impression that men can become more attractive when they use the product. They also show that men can become more brave, bold and good social partners since the product enhances their looks.
The images are strategically placed to enable men to identify with the product with an aim of attaining some of the crucial qualities that they need in life. This is evident since the pictures are addressing consumers directly by creating a positive perception in their minds about the product and its potential users.
This has helped in eradicating the traditional stereotypes that has been hampering the sale of Nivea among men since the product was depicted as a woman’s beauty enhancer. As indicated, the advertisement conveys credible massages to both men and women. Firstly, it portrays men as brave, responsible and active personalities who hold the capacity to tackle any issue that may confront them.
Secondly, it portrays men as potential users of Nivea and that the product can effectively revitalize their looks hence they will become more active socially. Similarly, women are depicted as individuals who like or get attracted to men who make bold decisions with the aim of improving their looks.
Consequently, the pictures below show how masculinity concept has been used in the advertisement of Castle ledger and Smirnoff that are renowned beer brands globally. The use of men’s images gives an acute impression that the products hold the capacity of enhancing bravery level of men4. They also depict men as active and flexible individuals. They give the notion that the alcoholic brands are able to turn around men’s lifestyle by instilling noble qualities that most men aspire.
Advertisements for Smirnoff and Castle ledger.5
How notions of masculinity are represented in advertising
Notions of masculinity are represented in advertising in diverse forms that include visual or verbal and imagery forms. The notions help in creating awareness in individuals about products that suits them best and that gives them a sense of identity6. They have been instrumental in enhancing social construction, unity and understanding among individuals of different genders. This is evident since men and women have been able to make relevant selections and purchase items that gave them absolute satisfaction.
The idea about masculinity as a marketing tool is to enable companies to identify and deliver their services to properly segment markets to enhance sales. This ensures that products that are intended to be used by men are well sold to men while female items are also sold to women. It also ensures that producer’s focuses on key customers and produces items that best satisfy their needs with limited complications.
The notions have been used as strategic performance tools since women and men have different behaviors, attitudinal aspects and social status that inform their life ideals or choices. The behavioral and attitudinal differences make them equally distinct in terms of their needs and social engagements. Indeed, men need items that build their body structure, enhance their confidence and make them active as evident in the Nivea, castle ledger and Hollywood era adverts7.
On the contrary, women are always in need of items that portray their feminine nature that relate them to smartness and good looks. This gives credible explanation why men and women’s images, such as Sean John, are increasingly being used in advertisements of diverse products.
Therefore, masculinity that is currently being represented in advertising helps them identify and understand the suitability of various products in advancing their wellbeing. This enables them to make viable decisions when purchasing various products especially for those who have no information about the role of the items.
For instance, feminine images are being placed on advertisements that create awareness on products that enhances beauty such as body lotions to enable women to understand that the product suits them best. Variably, men are attached to the advertisements that display products that enhance strength, confidentiality, activeness and innovation8. They are used in advertising products such as Smirnoff beer that is believed to enhance individual’s active nature and strength.
The advertisement creates the notion that if one drinks the beer then he is bound to be more active and confident like a king. Some companies also use sportsmen in their advertisements to give a notion that the item that is advertised is a major contributor to their status.
This makes the adverts enticing and attractive to various individuals since they draw their attention hence they always want to use the items. This has seen most individuals purchase products since they feel that their identity is secure and to test how well the item can transform their wellbeing as portrayed in the images presented.
Modern time masculinity advertising and the benefits that marketers receive in using celebrities
As noted, masculinity is a set of qualities, characteristics or roles that are generally typical to men. The characteristics and qualities have a degree of comparison as evident in Hollywood advertisements that were executed to create awareness on basic items that men require for their wellbeing9.
It is imperative to note that over the years, institutions have redesigned their advertisement strategies that have seen them use celebrity images while advertising products. For instance, most companies use sportsmen, musicians and international artists in their advertisements.
The images of the celebrities such as Sean John, Rudolph Valentino and Drogba are used to attract more customers since they have strong and solid fun base. They are influential personalities that are recognized in most settings and individuals tend to emulate their actions or utilize the resources that they endorse.
As noted by10 that celebrities are respected individuals with immense dignity in most settings that makes people to easily subscribe to their ideals and lifestyle.
Their status earns products that they endorse a lot of credibility that contributes in enhancing sales of their items. This is because such products receive positive perception among potential users11. This explains how marketers have been able to benefit from celebrities whose influence is regarded as credible assets to diverse corporations.
Evidently, the use of celebrity images in advertisements has made products such as Samsung TVs, Nivea body lotions and perfumes sale more. In particular, Samsung company has been selling more units of TV sets since it adopted the use of masculine sports personality in its advertisement.
This gives the notion that the TV sets are strong, durable and effective compared to other sets in the market. The use of sports celebrities has also enabled most corporations to promote their products usage by individuals. It has also benefited marketers since it is a strategic tool that facilitates awareness creation of items to potential customers.
Different arguments and contradictions from different scholars
Indeed, most scholars and renowned researchers assert that masculinity is a noble strategy that promotes development and satisfaction of customer needs promptly. They affirm that the technique enables companies to segment their customers effectively and deliver to them the items that suit their needs. They also assert that gender advertising facilitates planting of product images in individual’s minds hence embrace their usage.
It builds credibility nature and relevance of a product in transforming one’s lifestyle that leads to high demand of a product. Clearly, those who subscribe to the idea that the notions of masculinity in advertising are vital indicate various reasons for their reasoning12.
First, they state that the concept remains a viable marketing strategy that enables Companies to classify their customers effectively. This enables them to know their needs and what they consider as significant in life. They also establish how the products are able to meet the needs of consumers.
Secondly, the concept promotes sales of items since it creates awareness about the existence of products that a company manufactures for potential consumers and how the products relate to them. This has been instrumental in shaping men and women’s perceptions about certain products that are made to suit their needs.
Thirdly, gender advertising serves the social purpose of convincing both women and men to consider purchasing or utilizing certain products. This is evident in most settings for instance, alcohol beverages companies are attaching images of players when advertising beer brands to give an impression that the products are essential in shaping their lifestyle.
It is interesting to note that cars are also classified based on gender options or identity. There are some cars that are designed with masculine features that are meant for men while others are designed with feminine features. This has been a growing trend as evident where most manufacturers’ uses men’s images when advertising cars that are meant for men and women’s images in cars that are meant for female gender13.
This kind of advertisements enables women to purchase cars that they easily identify themselves with and portray their feminine nature and beauty. It also enables men to know and identify cars that compliment their behavior and portray their masculine features.
Despite the concept’s nobleness, its critics cite that it holds no capacity to steer growth in institutions, especially in the current competitive environment where companies should focus on producing items that serves both gender. They cite that gender advertising cannot lead to higher performance and attainment of high standard of competitiveness. They reason that the discriminatory nature of the concept may dent its sustainability since individuals in the current world tend to use products without gender considerations.
According to Brian Krans 14 the world is currently becoming a global village where most items are shared between men and women with limited gender considerations. He affirms that most products such as body lotions that enhance beauty are nowadays used by both men and women.
Therefore, instilling the notion that such products are meant for women may make a company lose out on potential male buyers. This may lead to low profitability. Generally, gender based advertising gives specific impressions that make potential product users in diverse settings to feel scared in making even enquiries about such items.
Conclusion
Indeed, the use of masculinity variations in aiding advertisement campaigns is real and is gaining momentum in different facets of operation. This is evident since most institutions are currently focusing on gender advertisement as a performance strategy that aims at enhancing sales units. It is instrumental because gender advertisement such as the use of the images of masculine men helps in defining gender variations that contribute in influencing individual’s product selection.
Bibliography
Bret, Carroll. American masculinities a historical encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks, CA [etc.]: Sage, 2003.
Brian, Baker. Masculinity in fiction and film representing men in popular genres. London: Continuum Press, 2006.
Cracker Brian. Great 2009 Castle Lager advert – Video Dailymotion.
Michael, Bell., Campbell, Hugh, and Finney Margaret. Country boys: masculinity and rural life. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006.
Nudd Tim. Nivea for Men Products – List of Adverts.
Reken, Feasey. Masculinity and Popular Television. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
Zwick, Dettey and Schroeder Johnathan. Mirrors of Masculinity: Representation and Identity in Advertising. Consumption Markets and Culture, Vol. 7, no. 3, 2004.
Footnotes
Baker Brian, Masculinity in fiction and film representing men in popular genres (London: Continuum Press, 2006), 67.
Tim Nudd, Nivea for Men Products – List of Adverts.
Tim Nudd, Nivea for Men Products – List of Adverts.
Brian Cracker, Great 2009 Castle Lager advert – Video Dailymotion.
Brian Cracker, Great 2009 Castle Lager advert – Video Dailymotion, Last modified March 1, 2013.
Baker Brian, Masculinity in fiction and film representing men in popular genres (London: Continuum Press, 2006), 67.
Bell Michael., Hugh Campbell and Margaret Finney, Country boys: masculinity and rural life (University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006), 203-250
Amanda Hess, How Men’s Magazines Sell Masculinity to Young, Low-Income Men.
Cheng Hong and Kara Chan, Advertising and Chinese Society: Impacts and Issues (Frederiksberg, Denmark: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2009), 251.
Carroll Bret, American masculinities a historical encyclopedia, (Thousand Oaks, CA [etc.]: Sage, 2003), 1-169.
Dettey Zwick and Johnathan Schroeder, Mirrors of Masculinity: Representation and Identity in Advertising. Consumption Markets and Culture, Vol. 7, no. 3 (2004): pp. 21-52.
Dettey Zwick and Johnathan Schroeder, Mirrors of Masculinity: Representation and Identity in Advertising. Consumption Markets and Culture, Vol. 7, no. 3 (2004): pp. 21-52.
Feasey Reken, Masculinity and Popular Television (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), 1-29.
Brian Krans Hypermasculinity in Advertising: Selling Manly Men to Regular Men.
Many countries all over the world are making strides towards gender equality. Unlike sex which is determined biologically, gender on the other hand is a social construct.
The society’s expectations about the roles and attitudes of a particular sex consist of issues that give rise to gender discrimination. This means that, problems which cause gender discrimination are social or natural problems. While the society expresses discrimination against women in various ways through cultural attitude and social structures, the men do not equally find it easy in the society due to the society’s unreasonable standards of masculinity. (Stockman, 412)
Some analyst believe that the problem of masculinity is a personal problem of the individual involved but, when the person involved indulges in illegal or social disruptive actions just to prove his masculinity, the repercussions of such actions are on the larger society. These men go to the extent of indulging in crime or other social vices just to prove their masculinity because, there are social consequences that arise if a man fails to prove his masculinity in certain societies. (Stockman, 312)
This essay will analyze how different society’s construction of masculinity can cause social problems. Also, the social problems which arise from this societal act and are considered most urgent will be highlighted. Lastly, the essay will show how the intersection of gender and other social constructs like class, ethnicity and race could result into social rifts and problems.
Social construction of masculinity in Asian societies
Every society views and constructs masculinity to suit the social and cultural values of such a society thus there is always a difference in the method which societies use to construct masculinity. The Asian society constructs masculinity in a different way from the American society.
In an Asian society, masculinity is perceived in a distinctive and different manner from the America’s hegemonic way of masculinity. In other words, the Asian society does not view masculinity in opposition to feminine gender and it seems the Asians are creating a new kind of masculinity which is free from male dominance.
The Asian society is constructing a new kind of masculinity which is based on mental power. For instance, an Asian man feels undermined and challenged if an Asian woman dates or prefers men of different race like; an American or African. This is a clear case of the male ego been at play and to the Asian society, the man’s masculinity is challenged. It is expected of the man to rise to the occasion and defend himself or show his American contemporary his masculinity.
So, in the Asian society, masculinity is all about the show of psychological power. Although it is important to note that women as human beings are entitled to choose a spouse or boyfriend from any society they deem fit regardless of age, color, race or height. But the Asian society perceives an Asian woman dating a man of another race as abandonment, rejection, and shame on the Asian men available. (Stockman, 541)
Culturally, the Asian men tend to portray more traditional gender roles and the willingness of Asian men to assist or help their women with domestic tasks confirms the fact Asian-Americans are more cultured. It is worthy of note that, no innate or universal gender qualities naturally accompany physical sex differences but some societies believe gender qualities are related to biological sex differences. In a nut shell, the Asian society constructs masculinity on ego and mental power. (Donnalyn, 444)
Social construction of masculinity in American societies
In contrast to the Asian way of constructing masculinity, the American society constructs hegemonic masculinity. The perception of masculinity in the American society plays out through pride and physical strength. (Carrigan, 364)
Standing up for your family, friends and the powerless in the society is the America’s perception of masculinity. Due to this societal expectation which constructs masculinity, young American men often commit time and money towards developing muscles and are sometimes even obsessed with body building.
Even the American females prefer a masculine man to one who is caring, brainy and smart but not masculine. The American media and celebrities also contribute in shaping the perception of masculinity in physical terms. Media generated images of an ideal male body often affects the society’s perception of masculinity which prior to the high technological influenced 21st century, where based on behavioral qualities like; responsibility, confidence, character and attitude. (Stockman, 91)
Unlike the Asian society which constructs masculinity through ego and mental abilities, the American society views masculinity in physical terms. However, these different perspectives of masculinity work in separate ways in different societies. What seems to be a bigger problem is, having people from these separate societies with their respective opinions about masculinity to live together in a common society and perceive masculinity in the same light. (Carrigan, 401)
American’s view towards Asian masculinity
America’s color discrimination towards other races particularly Asians and Africans date back to many centuries. The American legislation had historically denied people of color equal rights and justice. Racism against Asians can be traced back to the 1882 Chinese exclusion act and the 1917 immigration act that denied entry into the United States of America to Chinese, Japanese, Asian Indians and Koreans. It was until the 1965 immigration act that, the ban against Asian immigrants was lifted. (Carrigan, 300)
Today however, racism in America is portrayed through the media in spite of the color blind ideology campaign in America. Scenes of robbery in America films are always played by African-Americans while scenes of cyber crime and computer hacking are always played by Asian-Americans. This negative roles played by African-Americans and Asian-Americans convey and infuse racial ideologies into the society. (Carrigan, 302)
The American media also tries to portray masculinity in terms of physical strength by show showing male ideal bodies and the Asian style of masculinity which is mental power is underestimated. The Asian males are seen as less masculine males due to the absence of muscles and the macho thing. (Kristen, 222)
The Asian females are also treated as lesser beings not worth taking serious in interracial relationships between American men and Asian females. The American society believes that a man’s muscles also, define how sexy he can be. Thus, the American men tend to look down on their Asian contemporaries believing the Asian females are always eager to have American men and will always choose them over the Asian men due to the fact that American men are sexier and masculine. (Donnalyn, 312)
Enculturation of Asian men and the American society
Due to modernized methods’ of racism against Asians and Africans through the media, enculturation of Asian of men and the American society becomes very difficult and tough.
Factors like racism and Asian masculinity been considered as less masculine in the American society, could sometimes lead to depression of Asian-American men. If the immediate society where an individual resides perceives such an individual as a lesser person due to certain societal believes, this could lead to mental breakdown of such a person.
In spite of good and sound moral qualities like, attitude, responsibility and character of Asian men, they are still perceived as lesser beings in an American society and Asian-American men find it hard to live a normal life as they are always conscious of their environment. (Davis, 763)
To further buttress my point, academic surveys in the United States of America rate Asian-Americans as been more intelligent and perform better in math and science than Americans but they are termed less sexy. This seemingly intelligence of Asians does not help or affect their enculturation and the American society. (Davis, 345)
Balancing out family and cultural values by Asians in an American society is a difficult task. In an American society where sex among college youths and adolescents has become a norm, the Asian cultural way of a woman preserving herself becomes very tough to maintain in such environment.
Also, the high rate of alcohol consumption among American youths affects Asian-Americans negatively as they are mocked when they refuse to partake in these acts with their contemporaries. All these actors negatively affect Asian-American and enculturation becomes nearly impossible. (Kristen, 204)
Invisibility of Asian men in the society
There is an absence of Asian-American men in public and political offices due to several reasons. This could be attributed to many factors like, racism, lack of self esteem as a result of constant intimidation from the American indigenes. (Davis, 109)
The Asian-American men are termed or described as intelligent but they are not seen actively participating in the building of the society due to the aforementioned reasons. Instead of involving Asian-Americans by either political appointments or giving them the chance to hold public offices, the American media rather brands Asian-Americans as quiet and reserved men who prefer to keep to themselves. (Kristen, 314)
However, what the American media does not talk about is the fact that, been quiet and reserved does not stop an individual from performing his or her civic responsibility. And if this is the case, why are Asian-Americans not seen in public or political offices? This clearly shows that, there is more to the absence of Asian-Americans in the society than the excuse of been quiet and reserved which the American media feeds the public. (Davis, 241)
Being quiet and reserved has never and will never stop an individual from holding a political or public office if given the privilege and opportunity. The only perimeter that can be used to measure the success or failure of Asian-Americans is by giving them a level playing ground opportunity with their indigenous American contemporaries to hold public or political offices. (Donnalyn, 152)
Conclusion
With all the aforementioned examples, it is clear how the society’s construction of masculinity can cause social problems like racism, depression, loosing family and cultural values.
In pursuit of true masculinity just to prove critics wrong, some men indulge in social vices like; murder, theft and rape. (Carrigan, 152) These vices have immense and devastating repercussions on the society or community. Also, other social problems like racism which occur from the society’s construction of masculinity could result to depression and sometimes suicide. (Carrigan, 142)
No matter how it is termed or described, society’s construction of masculinity is not in the best interest of the society as people from all gender and sexes are capable of been useful if given the right platform. It is difficult to choose a particular social problem which results from the society’s construction of masculinity as the most urgent.
Rather, I would conclude that constructing masculinity itself is a societal lapse that should be discouraged immediately in all societies. (Anderson, 124) The resulting social problems could vary from one individual to another so, it is difficult to choose one as the most urgent.
Perhaps what is most urgent is the need to stop societal construction of masculinity which in turn pushes individuals to perpetrate crimes or other social vices. In a nut shell, if people are not pushed to go extra miles just to prove masculinity as the society expects of them, then there will perhaps be less or even absent social problems. It is highly important and urgent to discourage masculinity in societies. (Anderson, 112)
Works Cited
Anderson, Eric. Inclusive masculinity: The changing nature of masculinities. New York: Routledge, 2009. Print
Carrigan, Tony. Towards a new sociology of masculinity: The making of masculinities. Boston: Allen 1987. Print.
Davis, Andrea. The limits of masculinity: A new psychology of men. New York: Harper. 2005. Print.
Donnalyn, Pompper. Masculinities, the Metro sexual, and Media Images: Across Dimensions of Age and Ethnicity. Florida: Springer, 2010. Print.
Kristen, Barber. The well-coiffed man: Class, race, and heterosexual masculinity in the hair salon. California: Blackwell, 2008. Print.
Stockman, Robinson. Marked men: White masculinity in crisis. New York: Columbia University Press. 2000. Print.
Masculinity and femininity is always influenced by geographical, cultural, and historical location. Currently, the combined influence of gay movements and feminism has blown up the conception of a standardized definition of masculinity and femininity.
Therefore, it is becoming increasingly fashionable to adopt the term masculinity or femininity not only to reflect the modern times, but also to depict the cultural construction and manifestation of masculinity and femininity to closer and more accurate scrutiny (Beynon, 2002, p. 1). In this regard, social, behavioral, and cultural scientists are specifically concerned with various ways in which gender acquires different meanings and contexts.
pecifically, gender is more associated with definitions attached to notions within the cultural and historical framework. According to Andersen and Taylor (2010), gender roles are closely associated with masculinity and femininity in different cultures. In western industrialized societies, people intend to believe that these masculinity and femininity should be absolutely juxtaposed as two opposite sexes due to the social functions they perform. This is why the era of capitalism is highly distinguished among other historical periods.
Cultural Variations of Masculinity and Femininity in the Era of Industrialization
Given that maleness has a biological orientation, then masculinity must have a cultural one. According to Beynon (2002), masculinity “can never float free of culture” (p. 2). Culture shapes and expresses masculinity differently at different points in time in different situations and different areas by groups and individual.
For instance, Hispanic professional males depict a somewhat higher robustness rating than other categories (Long and Martinez, 1997). In Hispanic cultural societies, traditional masculinity is associated with power status. Hispanic professional men (and women) fight the challenges of attempting to balance the popular cultural values in the United States with their ethnic identity and ethnic values.
Traditional masculinity has an appreciable influence on Hispanic men’s perception of self. Thus, social counselors must consider the cultural values and ethnic identity when handling a social issue involving the Hispanics. In addition, Beynon (2002, p. 2), argues that, masculinity in the first place exists merely as fantasy about what men ought to be, a blurry construction to assist individuals structure and make sense of their lives.
Much research has been done on discussing gender differences from a cross-cultural perspective. To enlarge on this point, Costa et al. (2001) have found out that there are significant gender variations that were observed across cultures. Specifically, the researchers have defined that gender difference were the most communicated ones in American and European cultures where traditional gender roles are diminished.
Such a behavior is explained by the fact that gender aspects are more perceived as roles people perform, but not as cultural traits. Regarding the identified period, the industrialized society is more on presenting direct associations with their social roles where males and females distinction come to the forth and are recognized as norms for behavior.
Full opposition for two-gender dimension has also been supported by Gaudreau (1977) whose research proves that the terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are perceived as independent traits, but not as bipolar dimension.
In general, cross-cultural research on masculinity and femininity indicates that all cultures assign different roles to men and women. However, characteristics that are associated with each indicate some cultural diversity. Due to the fact that gender variations have been perceived as cultural determinants influencing the formation of societies, it has significant social meaning.
Historical Patterns of Masculinity and Femininity during Capitalist Period
Historical variations of gender distinctions are also heavily discussed by researchers in terms of social and dimensions. Furthermore, the studies have also underscored such aspects as domesticity and public movements related to masculinity-femininity aspects. Therefore, these differences and variations play a significant role in forming various social dimensions and evaluating social situation.
The observations made by Sethi (1984) has shown that industrialization have displayed tangible chances to the concepts of gender influencing such aspects as residence patterns, house composition, and sleeping accommodations. With regard to historical perspectives, gender and social reproduction are introduced by feminist theory.
In particular, Laslett (1989) argues that societies Europe and North America in the twentieth century were oriented on such social differences as consumerism, procreation, sexuality, and family strategies. In this respect, the researcher supports the idea that re-organization of gender relations have given rise to the development of macro-historical processes. In whole, femininity and masculinity in the industrialized society is presented as two opposite conceptions that have a potent impact on social reproduction.
The acceptable way for expressing masculinity in the modern American cultural society was for a young American man to enroll for war. Indeed a traditional way to lure young American men to enroll to war was to remind them of opportunities it offers to act heroically (Boyle, 2011, p. 149).
This approach exploits the mentality of young American men of equating heroics with masculinity. This reveals how cultural perception of masculinity-femininity can be use to motivate people towards a specific social course. These young American adults go to war with hope of getting an opportunity to perform heroic acts thereby expressing his masculinity. Nevertheless, most of the American war narratives depict the outright converse.
These narratives depict vain attempts by men to exhibit traditional paradigm of masculinity, because they manifest a state of being out of control and in need of rescue (Boyle, 2011, p 149); a traditional view of femininity. This misconception of masculinity is accountable for increase captivity and rescue associated with the intention to pull a heroic masculinity stunt.
In whole, the are of industrialization witnessed constantly changing patterns of masculinity and femininity that were based on chances in social perception of gender roles. Ranging from traditional norms on assessing gender relations to more radical, historical variations are also connected with social movements dedicated to the protection of human rights, such gender equality. In addition, racial disparities also significantly influenced the situation within the identified period.
Conclusion
Studies exploring cultural and historical variations of masculinity and femininity in the era of industrialization have revealed a number of important assumptions. First, cultural variations in gender functions exist due to the shifts in stereotypes and outlooks on social roles of males and females in society. Second, different industrialized societies propagandized various functions and influences in terms of domesticity, consumerism, and bipolar dimension.
Finally, industrialized society is more inclined to present direct, traditional traits attached to the terms under analysis. With regard to historical perspectives, most of past events are also connected with shaping different stereotypes connected to femininity and masculinity, ranging from traditional patterns to the emergence of sub-cultural forms. Both aspects are significant in defining the social significant of these shifts for the formation new patterns and variations.
Reference List
Andersen, M. L., and Taylor, H. F. (2010). Society: The Essentials. US: Cengage Learning.
Beynon, J. (2002). Masculinities and culture. Philadelphia : Open University Press.
Costa, P. Jr., Terracciano, A., and McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81(2), 322-331.
Gaudreau, P. (1977). Factor analysis of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 45(2), 299-302.
Laslett, B., and Brenner, J. (1989). Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives. Annual Review of Sociology. 15, 381-404.
Long, V., & Martinez, E. (1997). Masculinity, Femininity, and Hispanic
professionals Men’s self-esteem and self acceptance . The journal of psychology,131(5), 481-488.
Sethi, R. R. and Allen, M. J. (1984). Sex-role Stereotype in Northern India and the United States. Sex Roles. 11(7-8), 615-626.
Fairytales are considered to be the ultimate examples of values and morals that are designed to teach the children about the world around, the society and life in general. The most popular fairytales are the basis of all the magical stories parents tell their children before bed. Of course, these fairytales are very old; they came to us from medieval times, most of them originally are very violent, they are filled with scenes of abuse, they feature ogres, eating people, witches burnt alive and vicious monsters. Many of the scary and unsuitable for the children’s psychology elements were changed or removed from the fairytales. Modern “Cinderella”, “Beauty and the Beast” and “Sleeping Beauty” were stripped of violent details, but they kept the old-fashioned views about gender roles, which make them rather sexist.
“Cinderella” supposedly is designed to teach young girls to be hardworking, forgiving and kind-hearted, but, actually, there is no logical connection between the main character’s hard physical labor and her miraculous visit to the royal ball. The girl did not earn this privilege. This means that the story’s coded meaning is that everything can be simply given to a person one day. Besides, the theme that stands out the most in the tale is the simple girl’s luck to marry someone from higher social class, which is depicted as the most amazing event. This is a case of utter classism. The role of a woman is to look good and attract attention, while a man needs to be privileged to be considered as a worthy partner.
“Beauty and the Beast” is supposed to teach children to see what is beneath the outer shell of a person, their true nature, their personality, whereas actually, this is another story about a shallow woman that would not agree to marry a man just because he does not look good, even though she is in love with him. Of course, as soon as the true beauty of the Beast is revealed as he turned into a beautiful man, Belle suddenly decided to spend the rest of her life with him. Sexism here is quite subtle, because the girl falls in love with the Beast before he becomes good looking, yet refuses to be with him. The role of a man is to generously supply a woman with all kinds of luxuries, while the woman is to just be pretty and obedient.
“Sleeping Beauty” carries a very simple message of waiting for the prince. The princess is not recommended to become a better person, pursue any kind of education or career. She is recommended to wait for the prince to arrive and find her, even if it takes a hundred years. According to this tale, a woman is not required to do anything in order to find her life partner, it is the man’s role to find her and make all the first steps.
The theme of desperate search for a prince penetrates every single one of the three chosen fairytales. The image of prince here stands for such attributes as attractive appearance, wealth and a title, these features are portrayed as something a woman needs to wait for or look for to obtain happiness and good life. Sexism in all of these fairytales is directed at both genders. Men are under the pressure of being good looking or rich in order to be desired, and women are artificially limited to pursue only successful men, the concept of any achievements from the side of ladies is completely omitted. Their main and only achievement and goal in life is to marry someone rich and handsome. Without the prince, good future and happy life are unattainable.
Today, media represents men and masculinity in different ways. Different sources point at how men are required to behave and present themselves in order to appear like male. With time, the different aspects that would associate with masculinity are gradually fading and new ideas quickly emerging to define masculinity. In the past, people used masculinity to identify with one’s gender (Clark “Fight Club” 411).
Nevertheless, the onset of equality in the contemporary society is gradually making it hard to see the distinction between femininity and masculinity. In the United States and other developed countries, capitalism is putting immense pressure on masculinity. In her chef-d’oeuvre article, Ta laments how capitalism, through the aspect of creating and accumulating profits, has affected masculinity in the American society (265).
Moreover, increase in advertisement programs is making people change their views regarding masculinity. It is becoming hard for modern men to achieve definite ideals attributed to masculinity (Clark “Fight Club” 413-419).
In trying to assert his masculinity, today, the contemporary man portrays his masculinity through addressing his pain and fears, as well as through violence. This paper seeks to bring out the theme of masculinity in the masterpiece, Fight Club.
Nature of masculinity
Fight Club is one of the narratives that effectively bring out the state of masculinity as well as the nature of masculinity in the modern western culture. In addition, the novel brings out the level of crisis in masculinity, which is prevalent in the current capitalist culture. It would be imperative to note that masculinity does not necessarily portray in an individual’s physiological attributes.
Instead, one’s behaviors portray masculinity. Both men and women may display masculinity based on their behaviors. Consequently, masculinity is not entirely an exclusive male attribute. In Fight Club, numerous scenes portray the theme of masculinity.
For instance, in one of the scenes, Jack opts to attend the meetings held by the “remaining men together” as a way of helping him retain his masculinity (Fight Club). This group consists of men who have lost their testicles due to cancer.
Nevertheless, their association helps them retain their masculinity. Being together allows them to engage in activities that are mostly associated with masculinity, thus regaining their masculinity.
In her article, Ta posits that Jack endures a false emasculative fear, which borders on the baseless belief that all things are terrifying to his priapic abilities (270). The only way to overcome this suffering is by ensuring that he associates with other men and partakes in games or fights that are attributed to masculinity.
Women may portray masculine features, while men may exhibit feminine features. Normally, attributes like autonomy, affluence, and strength represents masculinity. Nevertheless, traditions dictate that females should not exhibit masculine characteristics (Faludi 547-551). With time, changes in the Western culture have resulted in male victimization.
The emergence of consumerism and capitalistic culture has given way to a crisis in masculinity. In her book, Susan Faludi shows how consumerism has led to male victimization. She posits, “After World War II, manhood signified the guarantee of novel borders for their lads to surmount a culture where historical inherent qualities of masculinity could be carried on” (Faludi 597).
According to Faludi, the consumerism culture led to men embarking on the business of enriching themselves, and in the process, they abandoned activities that once portrayed their masculinity (599). Initially, features like scars, muscles, and courage portrayed masculinity. Nevertheless, capitalism has substituted these features with affluence and power (Foucault 123).
More and more women have become wealthier than men have, thus leading to male victimization. In Fight Club, male victimization has affected Jack mentally, eventually forcing him to come up with a fight club. He establishes the fight club as a consolation since it gives him an opportunity to meet with other men and engage in activities that assure them of their masculinity.
Masculinity and identity
One of the roles of masculinity is that it helps in establishing one’s identity especially in men. In Fight Club, Jack struggles to establish his identity. He ends up attending numerous support groups and tries to associate with them in the name of seeking self-identity. He ultimately joins the fight club after realizing that he could only establish his identity in such a place (Fight Club).
In her well-researched book, Men and Masculinity, Sweetman, “Identity only becomes an issue when it is in crisis, when something assumed to be fixed, coherent, and stable is displaced by the experience of doubt and uncertainty” (14).
In Fight Club, Jack perceives this uncertainty and qualm as a change in masculinity. In the past, features like endurance, strength, power, and knack to tolerate pain were regarded as some of the masculine traits (Palahniuk 65).
However, since the onset of the Industrial Revolution, technology has significantly substituted these traits. Faludi posits that the industrial revolution led to a transition from creation of goods to the creation of knowledge (487). Consequently, industrial revolution took away most activities that satisfied men’s masculinity, thus leaving them with limited activities. Currently, men enjoy “ornamental” masculinity.
Men like Jack were confined in rooms to work with phones and computers. The masculine rebirth that Jack and Tyler are going through compels them to establish the fight club (Palahniuk 65).
The fight club gives Jack and other men an opportunity to engage on physical combat, which that reinvigorates their masculinity. In one of the scenes Tyler posits, “We have no great war, no great depression… our great war is a spiritual war…our great depression is our lives” (Fight Club).
This assertion confirms Tyler’s belief that men can only regain their masculinity through violence. When Bob meets other men in the “remaining men together”, he reminds them “We’re still men” (Fight Club). Bob goes on to apply some masculine techniques during his fight in the club. He uses these techniques as a way of showing others that despite losing their testicles they are still men and thus have all it takes to be men.
One of the factors that make Jack join the “remaining men together” group is that it allows him release his emotions as a man (Palahniuk 68). Some activities can lower one’s masculinity if done in public; for instance, if a man cries in public, it would show that he is not mature enough.
Hence, at times, men suffer emotionally in the name of preserving their masculinity. Therefore, joining the “remaining men together” group gives Jack an opportunity to release his emotions through crying.
Media and masculinity
In the Fight Club film, Tyler makes numerous comments regarding consumerism and identity. For instance, when travelling in a bus, he makes a comment on a Calvin Klein advertisement. Tyler uses the advertisement to bring out his perception on what men ought to look like. In his elaborative book, Masculinity and Culture, Beynon goes ahead to coin a new word, viz. “mediated masculinity” (64).
He shows the different ways that media portrays masculinity. Today, media has a significant influence on masculinity. Different media presentations and advertisements portray masculinity in different ways making it hard for people to identify the real and ideal masculinity. For instance, in a bid to come up with a mental representation of Tyler, Jack almost buys to the masculine ideas brought out by media.
According to Jack, Tyler carries all the ideal qualities that he believes a real man ought to portray. He has everything that entails masculinity and that Jack lacks (Lee 418-421). It would be correct to assert that Tyler is a super-masculinized replica of Jack. At the end of the film, Tyler returns in a more advanced masculine state. His muscles are well pronounced and he has shaved his head as a symbol of asserting his masculinity.
Castration and masculinity
Fight Club refers to castration as one of the aspects that kill male identity. In the later scenes of the film, Tyler makes some remarks on Jack’s house after it is destroyed. He tells Jack to relax and be thankful that nothing worse happened like a woman cutting off his manhood and disgracefully tossing it out of a speeding vehicle (Fight Club).
According to this remark, Tyler shows that material things do not necessarily portray masculinity. In spite of Jack losing his house, he still has his masculinity. Losing manhood is one of the ways through which men may lose their masculinity. Throughout the film, Tyler shows how castration is a major threat to masculinity by threatening to chop off the manhood of those men opposes his policies of the project mayhem.
Tyler feels that people in the higher echelon of capitalism are responsible for the rampant emasculation witnessed in the society. Therefore, to ensure that he overcomes this emasculation, he threatens the perpetrators with castration. Later in the film, Jack kills himself as away of eliminating Tyler (Fight Club).
In a way, this move symbolizes castration. Tyler possesses numerous masculine qualities that Jack lacks. Hence, to do away with these qualities, Jack opts to kill himself as an avenue to eliminate the masculinity attributes in Tyler.
Male bonding
Fight club brings out numerous insights into the elements that underscore the current mode of bonding amongst men. Throughout the film, men relate with one another by shunning what they perceive to be feminine. In one instance, Tyler and Jack discuss their fathers and the responsibilities bestowed on them as men.
Jack claims that his father abdicated his responsibility as a parent by leaving him in the hands of his mother for upbringing. Rather than taking care of Jack, the father went out to marry numerous women.
On the other side, Tyler goes on to claim, “We’re a generation of men raised by women; I’m not sure if another woman is what we need” (Fight Club). This aspect signifies the level to which men in the capitalistic society are trying to do away with issues to do with feminism as a way of retracing their masculinity. They feel that associating with women would make it hard for them to regain their masculinity.
Capitalism has made it hard for men to have a father figure that acts as their role model. Hence, the modern man is turning to media in pursuit for a male role model. Throughout his early life, Jack lacked a father to look upon as his role model. Hence, he did not develop a burly male bond. Therefore, to ensure that he develops a male bond, Jack opts to only associate with fellow men and do away with women.
Tyler goes on to claim that he has not managed to achieve all the expectations bestowed on him by his father (Palahniuk 67). He posits that at different stages in his life, he is expected to complete his college education, get a job, and marry. Nevertheless, he asserts that he is not ready to get married since he still feels immature.
Due to lack of proper fatherly upbringing, Jack and Tyler are incapable of assuming their responsibilities as men. Fight Club shows how capitalism is leading to the emergence of a generation made up of “eternal adolescents” (Palahniuk 69). There is no paternal bond between fathers and their sonnies.
The overriding bond between the two protagonists underscores another type of attachment in the film. Prior to learning that Tyler is a replica of Jack, one may treat the two as different personalities. At the beginning, jack views Tyler as the exact opposite of himself. Later, he develops interests in Tyler’s entire viewpoint on life and perceives him as his chance to snub capitalism and its weakening effects (Palahniuk 45).
Another male bond stands out conspicuously in the fight club. Jack is strongly attached to the cohorts of the project mayhem. Initially, the bond between Jack and Bob is emotional, but later it becomes violent upon the establishment of the fighting club. The establishment of the fighting club brings together men from different backgrounds that are tied together by their desire to surmount the emasculation caused by consumerism.
As the film progresses, the fight club transforms into project mayhem, that is, a group established with the sole objective of fighting capitalism, which the group members perceive as the main cause of their emasculation.
Conclusion
Fight Club brings out the current level of emasculation caused by capitalism as well as the possible risks posed by the current crisis. Capitalism and its effects receive a vehement condemnation throughout the book as well as the film. The film blames capitalism for the prevailing meagerness of the contemporary masculinity.
Michael Clark warns that violence would do little to help in curbing the current level of emasculation that men are experiencing. Rather than resulting to violence and discrimination, Clark assets that the way out is probably “not to battle consumerism, but to abandon it, to begin increasingly making other, non-consumerist kinds of choices, within the web of relationships that constitute our…communities of life” (“Faludi, Fight Club” 74).
According to Clark, men ought to come up with solutions that involves all the stakeholders rather than excluding women in their struggle (“Faludi, Fight Club” 76). This move would help in bringing together the two genders to solve a common problem.
It would help men to shun from engaging in self-destructive activities like the establishment of fight clubs. Instead, both men and women would come up with strategies to reignite the sense of social efficacy, thus encouraging cooperation and somehow convince men that their masculinity is not under threat.
Works Cited
Beynon, John. Masculinity and Culture. London: Loutledge, 2003. Print.
Clark, Michael. “Faludi, Fight Club, and phallic masculinity: Exploring the emasculating economics of patriarchy.” Journal of Men’s Studies 11.1 (2002): 65-76. Print.
Clark, Suzanne. “Fight Club: Historicizing the rhetoric of masculinity, violence, and sentimentality.” Journal of Advanced Composition 21.2 (2001): 411-420. Print.
Faludi, Susan. Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man. New York: William Marrow and Company Inc., 1999. Print.
Fight Club. Dir. David Fincher. Perf. Edward Norton, Brad Pitt, and Helena Bonham Carter. Twentieth Century Fox, 2002. DVD.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. New York: Random House Inc., 1995. Print.
Lee, Terry. “Virtual Violence in Fight Club: This is what transformation of masculine ego feels like.” Journal of American & Comparative Cultures 25.4 (2002): 418-423. Print.
Ying-ru, Lu. “Feminizing The Masculine Body In Carson Mccullers’S The Ballad Of The Sad Cafe”. Journal Of Literature And Art Studies, vol 8, no. 10, 2018. David Publishing Company, doi:10.17265/2159-5836/2018.10.002.
This article is written with the intention to analyze the use and the application of the feminine and masculine language and imagery in The Ballad Of The Sad Café. In particular, it tackles the ways gender normativity and specific perceptions apply to the body that is placed in the center of the narration. Furthermore, it comments on the story’s exploration of the relationships between gender-conforming and gender-nonconforming people through the lens of marriage, sex, and uneven social power. The introductory paragraph lists some of the foundational theories in relation to the gender binary in modern society. The concepts of sex, gender, masculine and feminine as recognized by the modern social sciences are brought up by the author for the later application to the story in question. The author brings particular attention to the potential of disconnect between gender and sex, and the ways in which said disconnect can be expressed.
Then, the article proceeds to apply the concepts from the introduction to the main character of The Ballad Of The Sad Café. Her name is Amelia, and she is a masculine-looking and masculine-presenting brewery owner. The article goes over the signs and expressions of Amelia’s gender non-conformity in detail. Quotations mention the discourse that she generates around herself by the virtue of body type, clothes, facial expressions, movements, and behavioral patterns. It then follows to depict the disconnect that the gender-conforming society experiences when another character, a handsome and successful man named Macy, prefers Amelia to feminine girls that swarm him.
The article highlights the topics of patriarchy and heteronormativity analyzing Amelia’s unease in her marriage to Macy and his lack of success in attempts to have sexual intercourse with her. It examines the original short story step by step, establishing the links between the fictional narrative and the scientific basis of historical gender relations. It presents a literature review of sorts, discussing the ways in which the themes stated in the introductory paragraph form the core of the story. It is therefore symbolic that the article is published under the Literature Studies section of the source journal. In a fitting manner, it concludes with a short list of references to the papers on the gender binary, sociological connotations of marriage, and The Ballad Of The Sad Café itself.
The article was published in the Journal of Literature And Arts Studies in October 2018, still counting as a relevant piece of research in the literary studies field. This journal covers a variety of liberal arts-centered fields, also publishing culture studies and language studies works. It is a credible, widely distributed publication, and the article opening its Literature Studies section is a sign of its exceptional quality. The author masterfully utilizes their modern knowledge of gender theory and body sociology to conceptualize the themes of the 1951 piece for the modern reader. The only potential critique of the article might come down to the lack of the historical context discussion, which is not present at all. With Carson’s book being published in the middle of the XX century, and Carson herself coming from the patriarchal American South, greater attention to gender history would benefit the article. The focus article, therefore, provides a general analysis of the story themes from the perspective of the gender binary, without elaborating on the evolution of this area of social science.
Toxic masculinity is the sum of values and behaviors that are traditionally viewed as “masculine” in many cultures and includes several crucial characteristics that allow calling it toxic. First of all, toxic masculinity suppresses feelings and refuses to display them because it is viewed as a sign of weakness (Salam, 2019). Secondly, it requires a man to maintain the appearance of hardness and toughness at all times so that no one could doubt his manhood (Salam, 2019). Additionally, toxic masculinity views aggression and violence as a sign of power and the main grounds to decide whether someone is worthy of respect (Salam, 2019). Finally, it is also related to misogynistic views: while it praises supposedly male characteristics, such as toughness, it also despises supposedly womanly qualities, such as emotionality or concern for others (Baldoni, 2017). Put together, these qualities can harm those around a man who believes in toxic masculinity. Moreover, they can harm such a man himself because they make him more likely to get into trouble or on the receiving end of disciplinary action.
Eddie Carbone may serve as an example of toxic masculinity, which does him much harm by the end of the play. He convinces himself that Rodolfo does not truly love Catherine because he thinks that openly displaying one’s love for a woman as unmanly – therefore, it must be a trick. In this sense, Eddie demonstrates a disregard for emotions typical for toxic masculinity (Salam, 2019). He does not care about what Catherine wants for herself, showing the toxic masculine disregard for women (Baldoni, 2017). He tries to physically dominate Rodolfo under the pretext of teaching him to box – and, as such, use violence and aggression to assume his power (Salam, 2019). Finally, he attacks Marco with a knife, demanding that he would clear his name, even though Marco has already proven to be stronger (Salam, 2019). It suggests that appearing tough and uncompromising in matters of honor is more important for Eddie than the actual chances of winning a fight against Marco. As a result, Eddie’s fate by the end of the play is a clear illustration of how toxic masculinity can be dangerous and harmful.
Gender is a major organizer of friendship (Traustadottir, 2008).
It is a challenging act to establish friendship in our dispensation, where people will be lovers of self, lovers of money, proud, ungrateful, unholy, heartless, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God.
Talking about friendship in antiquity, it existed even at Abraham’s dispensation, where God called him a friend – “Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him as righteousness–and he was called a friend of God (ESV, James 2.23).”
Thesis Statement
True friendships occur within the bounds of faith, hope, and the greatest of all, love. If there is no trust, there is no relationship. Female’s friendly relationships with other females are noticeable but male to male relationships are notable. Man’s love or affection for his fellow man is ardent and histories are witnesses to that conclusion. There may be some who maligned male-to-male friendships resulting in an erroneous assumption, e.g. those men involved in that kind of relationship are homosexuals, but I strongly disagree with their malicious supposition.
Argument
True friendships of men with other men are recorded in history and of the many greatest examples of a true friendship between men are Jesus and John; also David and Jonathan. I believe that the Bible must be the formidable bastion of this kind of belief, and as many people know, it is the oldest and the most sold books humans have ever known.
Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice, which later Michael Radford used to direct the movie, The Merchant of Venice, is a remarkable example of a true friendship. In this story, Antonio loved Bassanio so much that he is willing to risk even his life for the sake of Bassanio’s love for Portia. Antonio’s love (philia) conceived another love (eros).
Gallipoli, an Australian film by Peter Weir, shows how friendship emerged through the pressures and bounds of being a soldier on the battlefield. This film portrays strong trust and the courage to face adversities even facing death.
Beyond reasonable doubt, male friendship is different from gay friendship.
La Cage aux Folles, a movie directed by Édouard Molinaro, depicts a gay marriage between Renato and Albin; so it is not a pure male-to-male relationship.
Honestly, I did not like the story of Goethe, The Sorrows of Young Werther. The true essence of love and friendship is pure and undefiled and not jealous.
Pressures
Men in adult friendships encounter great barriers such as competition, traditional masculine stereotypes, and fear of homosexuality, but these are just some of the barriers to overcome. According to Hale Dwoskin, these are so-called social barriers –
Competition. It is a nature of a man to be competitive. Some competition may lead to greediness, either in power, wealth, or fame. The famous saying, “The earth is enough for man’s need but not enough for man’s greed,” is one of the proofs of the substance of competition that hinders true friendship.
Traditional masculine stereotypes. Different cultures have different stereotypes. It is a norm for some cultures that a man must show emotional toughness. Though for some cultures it is normal for a man to cry to show the abundance of his true emotions, like “What you see is what you get” feeling.
Fear of homosexuality. This is a lambast miscalculations of a wrongful mind. Being in love, not in lust, with another man is not a shame as long as it is done decently and in order.
Patterns of male friendship
According to Rannveig Traustadottir, the great friendships written in history exist between men, and friendships among men are often romanticized and idealized. Men’s friendships are described through bravery and physical sacrifice in aiding others.
Bell claims that historical accounts are not distinguished by closeness and compassion for another man because “masculine values have made those kinds of feelings inappropriate and highly suspect–they were unmanly” (1981, p. 75).
Researchers observed that men have considerably fewer friends than women, especially close friendships or best friends (Bell, 1981; Block, 1980; Fasteau, 1991; Smith, 1983). This seems to be true but no man is an island, otherwise, he is dead.
Block (1980) listed various social connections between men, in leisure, sports, gadgets suiting their flavors and favors. While women are noticeably intimate, some men tend not to, but it is a fact that there are men who are intimate with their male friends.
In connection with the three great barriers mentioned above, the competition, traditional masculine stereotypes in some cultures, and the fear of homosexuality, the benefit of male friendship is almost the same as female friendship. According to Sherrod (1989), in terms of self-disclosure and emotional expressiveness, men’s friendships nevertheless reduce depression in the same way that women’s friendships do. Furthermore, when men attain a high level of intimacy with other men, they usually follow a different path than women, one that emphasizes activities and companionship over self-disclosure and emotional expressiveness.
Definition through Comparison and Contrast
Cicero defined friendship as an absolute agreement on all subjects human and divine, bounded with mutual goodwill and affection. He believed that befriending a man for sensual pleasures is the ideal of brute beasts; that is weak and uncertain with caprice as its foundation than wisdom. However, befriending a man through virtue is a noble doctrine.
Furthermore, he had confidence in the purity and virtue of friendship. Both Cicero and Plutarch believe that knavery, deceit, and dishonesty destroy a friendship, seeing that nobody is eviler than fooling one’s self. Therefore, practicing honesty is the noblest virtue a man can achieve.
Cicero defined friendship as an absolute agreement on all subjects human and divine, bounded with mutual goodwill and affection. He believed that befriending a man for sensual pleasures is the ideal of brute beasts; that is weak and uncertain with caprice as its foundation than wisdom. However, befriending a man through virtue is a noble doctrine.
It is his conviction that friendship can only exist between good men. Moreover, he stated that only mature adults can have genuine friendships; and assures that in the face of a true friend a man sees as it were a second self.
Cicero warns us that there is nothing that causes people to display worse carelessness, and pay graver penalties, than their selection and acquisition of friends.
We suffer from carelessness in many of our undertakings: in none more than in selecting and cultivating our friends. We put the cart before the horse, and shut the stable door when the steed is stolen, in defiance of the old proverb. For, having mutually involved ourselves in a long-standing intimacy or by actual obligations, all of a sudden some cause of offense arises and we break off our friendships in full career.
Satisfy your judgment before engaging your affections: not love first and judge afterward. It is this that makes such carelessness in a matter of supreme importance all the more worthy of blame.
Cicero also believes that true friends do things without expecting anything in return. He also believes that a friend’s vested interest is not a cause for demoralizing yourself, because he believes that ignorance is the cause of evil.
He is certain that friendship fails because one forsakes to endure faith, respect, and truth in their relationship. Irrevocably, in every broken relationship, something wrong has existed.
On the other hand, Plutarch believed that a man can gain profit from one’s enemy and is capable of converting this enmity into benevolence. He also noted that it is a peculiar mark of immoral habit to feel more ashamed of our faults before our enemies than before our friends. Moreover, fear and shame are not vital elements in developing one’s character. It is the perception of turning enemies reviling prompted by anger, greed, or envy which cures some evil in a person’s soul which friends oftentimes do not recognize. Ardent enemies, through reviling, can turn a man from mistakes.
It is wise that a man must examine himself if charged by slanderous allegations and seek for the cause of such revilings, serving the purpose of the doubt, if a man unknowingly commits what an enemy is accusing of.
Plutarch’s outstanding perspective of enemies suggests that false accusations must not be despised nor disregarded just because it is false, but rather consider what word or act of yours, which of your pursuits or associations, has given color to the calumny, and then be studiously careful to avoid it. For if others by becoming involved in undesired situations thereby learn a useful lesson, thus developing a strong foundation of one’s character by taking an enemy as a teacher without fee, and profiting thereby, and thus learning, to some extent, the things of which he was unaware. For there are many things which an enemy is quicker to perceive than a friend, and inherent in hatred, along with curiosity, is the inability to hold one’s tongue.
Conclusion
Noblemen have high respect for the value of friendship and regarding virtue as the greatest factor for an everlasting relationship. Also, ambition, power, and glory are major conflicts in attaining genuine friendship; however other men did not regard this as hindrances but challenges in bringing the best out of one’s enemies, thus opening an avenue for love and affection to spring, though some give serious attention in befriending a person and he thought that it is better to befriend a person at home.
Despite this, showing compassion for an enemy in affliction or dire situation is the hardest yet honorable thing to achieve.
Biblical philosophy that inspires classical philosophy is a stronghold of a true relationship to guide the 21st century.
“That which has been is now; and that which is to be has already been; and God requires that which is past (MKJV, Ecc. 3.15).”
References
Devere, Heather. “Friendship”. Web.
Traustadottir, Rannveig. “Gender Patterns in Friendships”. Web.
The Internet Movie Database. “The Merchant of Venice”. 2004. Web.
Internet Broadway Database. La Cage aux Folles. Web.
National Film & Sound Archive. “Gallipoli”. 1981. Web.
Letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero, with his treatises on friendship and old age; translated by E. S. Shuckburgh. And Letters of Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, translated by William Melmoth, rev. by… New York, P. F. Collier [c1909]. Series title: The Harvard classics v.9.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius: Laelius; a dialogue on friendship, by M. Tullius Cicero; ed., with notes, vocabulary, and biographical index by E. S. Shuckburgh… New ed. rev. and enl., for use in American colleges, by Henry Clark Johnson… New York, London, Macmillan and co., 1913. Series title: Elementary classics.
Halsall, Paul. Ancient History Sourcebook: Cicero: On Friendship, or Laelius. 1998. Web.
Thayer, Bill. How to profit by One’s Enemies. Plutarch, Moralia. v. II. Web.
Gertrude Emilie. “The Classical Journal”. Vol. 45, No. 8 (1950), pp. 379-383. Web.
Cicero, M.T. On Friendship (De Amicitia), Translated by E. S. Shuckburgh. Web.
The Bible. Modern King James Version. Proverbs 22.24.
The Bible. Modern King James Version. Ecclesiastes 3.15.
