Even though modern people live in a democratic society with several options to support their rights, there is still some prejudice that is hard to control. One such case can be observed in classrooms when parents and teachers expect masculine disciplines to help boys to develop and grow. Observing the relationships between parents and children, many mothers and fathers use phrases like “Boys should never cry”, “You behave like a girl”, or “You are not a girl”.
Many boys suffer from the division of disciplines into masculine and feminine because they do not have a choice of what a person they want to become. There is a strong imposition to follow a symbolic boy code described by William Pollack (as cited in Kastner) according to which boys have to be “stoic and independent, macho and athletic, powerful and dominant, and phobic of anything close to the feminine”. Gender inequalities are fast developed with unpredictable outcomes.
Mental Health
There is an impressive pressure to be a strong person, and compared to girls who are taught to be pretty, nice, and never aggressive, boys have to develop specific masculine traits. The idea of “toxic masculinity” is characterized by violence, status, and aggression that have a negative outcome on boys’ attitudes towards the world and themselves (Crosson Gilpin and Proulx). Boys do not have a chance to identify their feelings.
In many cases, they have to hide their true intentions and contribute to the development of “depression, conduct disorders, isolation, problematic relationships, and even violence” (Kastner). As a rule, young men cannot address for professional help at this age because any deprivation of the plan to be a man is considered to be a personal mistake that changes public opinion and the whole life. They continue fostering depression and new mental health problems that may result in deviant and emotionless behavior, the lack of control, and high expectations.
Personal Traumas
The presence of masculine disciplines in boys’ life promotes the creation of new standards and the necessity to develop relationships in a specific way. There is a model of dominance and control according to which masculinity is appreciated and respected, and if boys and young men are not able to stay invulnerable, they are ashamed (Kastner). Within a short period under the pressure of social media and regulations, the feeling of shame turns into the feeling the hate and resentfulness. Instead of protecting and controlling human relationships, toxic masculinity becomes a serious threat to society as it is not just a men’s issue.
Masculine disciplines have consequences for girls and women as well with a possibility to “perpetuate a culture of toxic masculinity or disrupt it” (Crosson Gilpin and Proulx). Rules and training should not be emotionless and strict, and students have to focus on their feelings and true attitudes in order not to become the next source of danger.
Solutions
Masculine disciplines cannot be removed from the modern system of education. At the same time, this type of training should not provoke misunderstandings, deprivation of feelings, and a lack of communication. To solve masculine-related problems, Kastner recommends “busting out of those gendered straightjacket” and support boys from time to time. The point is that even if a boy receives a portion of mercy and kindness from parents and teachers, he will hardly be broken or changed. It will become a chance to enhance his self-acceptance and to discover new qualities. Masculine discipline should not change or challenge boys but support and promote the development of their skills and relationships with the outside world.
Many print advertisements which promote cigarettes, alcohol, sport clothes, and perfume for males present strong men who embody the concept of masculinity. In spite of the fact it is popular today to focus on handsome and rather feminine men in advertisements, the idea of masculinity is widely supported in the media and advertising.
In his work, Michael Kimmel focuses on the key claim that the men’s life is regulated by a specific code of masculinity the basic norms of which are to never demonstrate emotions and weakness (Kimmel). This idea is reflected in the Stetson, Djarum Super, and Nike ads. Thus, masculinity is the complex notion which rules the life of men in order to confirm their gender, status, and social position.
The Stetson, Djarum Super, and Nike advertisements seem to be about energetic and confident men and about products which contribute to the males’ active behaviors, but these ads are really about the features and qualities which are associated with masculinity and actions of a ‘real man’ according to the definite code of conduct for males.
Masculinity is a complex of rules and ideas which are usually followed by men during all their life. It depends on the demonstration of strength and focus on success and victory, the demonstration of aggression and readiness to risk. The physical attractiveness and emotional expressiveness are perceived as the female qualities that is why they are prohibited according to the ‘Guy Code’ or code of masculinity (Kimmel). Men are afraid of being compared with women when it is a result of the other men’s perception.
The Stetson advertisement seems to be about a handsome man using the definite perfume. The advertisement to promote the Stetson perfume for males presents a man in a car against the background of the wild nature (“Stetson”).
Discussing the visual with the help of the masculinity lens, it is necessary to concentrate on the details which can attract the men’s attention and become associated with masculinity in order to make the potential male customer buy the product. Thus, the man’s appearance is associated with strength because of the accentuated muscles and the definite male face expression with frowning brows. These details help create the image of a masculine man.
The man is depicted in a red car, and the color is typically associated with courage and aggression. The background of the visual is the picture of the wild nature which can be connected with the pictures of the American wild territories (“Stetson”).
Focusing on the pitch, this advertisement makes the audience believe that the portrayed man can be discussed as the image of the typical American who uses the production of the Stetson company because it emphasizes his masculinity. From this point, the cultural context of the advertisement is presented through the manipulation of the male American’s image.
The above-mentioned details allow speaking about the effective usage of the masculinity idea in promotion. According to Kimmel, men are inclined to focus on the images of ‘real men’ during their childhood in order to follow these ideals during their ‘guy’ period (Kimmel).
The advertisement can be discussed as depending on the strong associations which are the result of the men’s following the code of masculinity. Males are expected to positively react to such elements as the car, which is traditionally a ‘toy’ for adults, the red color associated with aggression, wild nature associated with risks, and muscles along with the masculine appearance associated with strength.
Thus, the male image presented in the advertisement can be discussed as the embodiment of masculinity with references to many rules presented in the Guy Code. The Stetson advertisement seems to be about a handsome man using the definite perfume, but it can also be about the ideal embodiment of a man according to the code of masculinity which is based on associations.
More direct messages are provided in the advertisement developed to promote the Djarum Super cigarettes (“Djarum Super”). The Djarum Super advertisement seems to be about an alpinist who can achieve the highest tops. Smoking is often discussed as a habit which is typical mainly for men.
To make males buy the product, it is important to provide the association which will be pleasant for them. The visual represents a man climbing a rock against the background of strong grey and brown rocks and the pale sky. The man likes extreme, he is not afraid to risk because of focusing on strong feelings and emotions. Red colors are also presented in this visual to emphasize the atmosphere of risk and brutality (“Djarum Super”).
If the man presented in the first advertisement evokes masculinity associations indirectly, the male figure depicted in the second advertisement is directly associated with a strong man who used to overcome problematic situations, barriers, and challenges in order to reach the top.
The advertisement makes the male audience believe that extreme and risks are characteristic for men, and it is one of the masculinity elements. It is possible to predict men’s interest in the brand of cigarettes promoted because of the vivid associations. Thus, the advertisement wants the viewer to believe that smoking is for brave men who can achieve the highest tops. The cultural context is rather insignificant in this case.
Following Kimmel’s discussion of masculinity and men’s fears to be considered as gays, it is necessary to note that the advertisement for the Djarum Super brand rejects any associations with feminine men. The presented man does not cry, but he is persistent while reaching the set goal.
The image can be discussed as supported by the society in relation to the opinion on the ‘real man’ and idea of masculinity (Kimmel). As a result, the advertisement seems to be about brave alpinists, but it could be about such qualities as courage, persistence, confidence, and the ability to take risks which allow speaking about the male’s masculinity.
Nevertheless, the message presented in the advertisement is more effective when it is accompanied by the written text. The advertisements developed to promote the Nike’s campaign seem to be about the famous sportsmen presenting the new shirts in a rather provocative manner.
The advertisement with Aidil Zafuan where the man is stripping off his skin to represent the shirt is accompanied with the controversial slogan “Shirt on. Fear off” (“Nike”). This written text provides the direct reference to the code of masculinity according to which men should not feel any fear and demonstrate their weakness.
The advertisement wants the viewer to believe that men should not feel fear and promote the associated Nike production. Sportsmen are the best models to emphasize the idea of the male strength. Men are interested in sport because they are interested in results, success, and victory.
All these points along with the idea of avoiding fear are highlighted in the Nike advertisement. In spite of the fact the cultural context of the Nike advertisement is specific and the visual represents the Malaysian footballer, the masculinity idea is accentuated clearly and without references to the national or cultural aspect.
It is possible to interpret the Nike advertisement with references to Kimmel’s claim and state that it is easier for men to skip off their skin than to admit or demonstrate their fear (Kimmel). Boys do not cry, and the advertisers operated this idea fully. The advertisement seems to be about sportsmen stripping off their skin, but it is really about the connection between sport, fashion, and masculinity because ‘real men’ do not feel fear and pain, and sportsmen are the best examples.
While the discussed advertisements seem to be promoting the definite products, they are really promoting the image of a man based on the idea of masculinity and encouraging the associated males’ behaviors. A superficial viewer may believe the Stetson, Djarum Super, and Nike advertisements to be about energetic and confident men, but the viewer who is familiar with Kimmel’s claim would see the advertisements as really selling the image of a ‘real man’ whose masculinity is also associated with the usage of the promoted products.
The above-mentioned advertisements attract the male audience because they operate the concepts related to the code of masculinity discussed by Kimmel. The code of masculinity stresses on definite attitudes and behaviors reflecting a man’s masculine nature, and these norms reject any signs of the feminine behaviors in men.
However, the effect can be decreased, if the advertisements are done differently. I can state that if the Stetson advertisement focuses more on a handsome model, the idea to represent a ‘real man’ can fail. If the Djarum Super advertisement is represented with the changed illustration, the idea of masculinity will not work. If the Nike advertisement is presented with the other text, the whole message cannot be interpreted correctly.
Thus, the idea of a ‘real man’ is a complex notion which includes definite actions, emotions, feelings, behaviors, and aspects of appearance, and the Stetson, Djarum Super, and Nike advertisements are developed to support this idea related to the masculinity concept.
Kimmel, Michael. “Bros before Hos: The Guy Code”. Rereading America. Ed. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. USA: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010. 608-617. Print.
There are wavering ideologies regarding masculinity in the contemporary world, and as a result, this has created anxiety among men, as they feel pressured to meet various societal expectations. This anxiety compels men to seek alternatives to prove their masculinity, and as Kimmel asserts, cultural anxieties over masculinity gave rise to the romanticization of the American West and adoration of the American cowboy. The ideology of cowboy superseded the mantle of the breadwinner because its attributes were “rugged individualism, personal autonomy, physical prowess, risk-taking, and adventurous spirit” (Holl & Thompson, 2004, p. 426).
Conflict in comprehending masculinity arises from these two spectrums: the breadwinner, and the atavistic masculinity, that results in an identity crisis that contributes to compensatory consumption as men try to resolve this crisis. Therefore, this paper aims at comprehending a man-of-action hero by delineating the different perceptions of this hero from the society’s and the man’s standpoints.
Men spend hours riding a Harley, brandishing a body-by-Soloflex physique and hunting wild game in an attempt to resolve their insecurity issues in as far as masculinity is concerned. Men feel confined to societal and cultural expectations; hence, Harley riders experience a sense of freedom, which is so alluring to them, and the associated flight experience is deemed valuable. It is seemingly obvious that men are so engraved in sports activities, but the society ignores the underlying reasons for this kind of attachment despite the associated risks. Men consider these sports as a hedonic playpen that gives them the freedom and space they need away from the more serious and confining responsibilities of taking care of their families.
In the article man of action heroes, the man is shown trying to seek an identity in a community that already predefines a masculine man.
The American society’s definition of a man of the hero is one who is a good father, a good husband, and successful in his career, yet this kind of expectation limits the abilities of a man to the extent they feel suffocated. The same is evident in gayism, where there is a preconceived perception of gayism, and any man who seems effeminate is excluded from the flock. Men deem sports as the symbol of their masculinity; hence, any man detected to behave in a queer manner is excluded from the sports.
Men regard sports as the means through which they can dominate women since the job market is seemingly being taken over by women (Anderson, 2002). Sports seem to be the only institution where the rigidity of orthodox masculinity and patriarchy can be maintained; hence, the reason why homophobia prevails notwithstanding the fact that gay male athletes can be equally strong and competitive as their heterosexual male counterparts (Anderson, 2002, p. 861).
In contemporary society, the man is gradually becoming emasculated due to various socioeconomic changes attributed to job insecurities as women become more independent. As result men have resulted in other measures to reaffirm their masculinity through compensatory consumption. Also, in the recent past, men have used compensatory consumption to rebel against their pre-conceived ideologies about manhood. As the man is continually losing masculinity based on the society’s definition, men have cocooned themselves in their own ideologies of masculinity and, thus, strive to achieve them through consumption.
The public forms a predetermined perception of masculinity, and the media seemingly enhances the ideologies revolving around masculinity. In the current world, advertisements, magazines and films all paint a certain picture of masculinity that influences the consumer’s perceptions of an ideal man. In contrast to ancient times where man used to spend his time outdoors hunting or engaging in physical fights, men now have to be part of the bureaucracies that further limits their freedom as they are already confined to their families and the cities where they live (Holl & Thompson, 2004). TV shows and films have thus reinvented the ancient man since they bring out the masculinity in terms of physical prowess and personal autonomy. He media has deviated from painting the man as the sole breadwinner; and this could be attributed to the plasticity of men in trying to forge atavistic masculinity.
The American ideology of a heroic man is based on two conflicting models, one that focuses on cultural virtues and the other one on self-reliance. In a bid to meet the expectations of both, men resort to defensive but inhumane mechanisms in trying to defend their masculinity. Anderson & Umberson (2001, p. 358) indicates that male dominance is portrayed through wife abuse and violence against women. As emasculation is thwarting what men believe to be masculinity, men feel cornered and as a reiteration attack, they become aggressive and violent against their female counterparts, who are gradually becoming liberated and independent. Men, therefore, feel threatened as their superiority over women is overshadowed; thus, they engage in physical violence and sports.
The society had failed terribly in trying to define masculine and what is expected of a man. The result has been an identity crisis that has resulted in negative alternative in an attempt to resolve this crisis. Mena engage in compensatory consumption, and are aggressive and violent as they try to defend their borders.
References
Anderson, E. (2002). Openly gay athletes: contesting hegemonic masculinity in a homophobic environment. Gender and Society, 16(6), 860-877. Web.
Anderson, K. L., & Umberson, D. (2001). Gendering violence: masculinity and power in men’s accounts of domestic violence. Gender and Society, 15(3), 358-380. Web.
Holl, D. B., & Thompson, C. J. (2004). Man-of-action heroes: the pursuit of heroic masculinity in everyday consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 425-440. Web.
Masculinity is a series of features, characteristics, and patterns of behavior that are associated with men. Understanding masculinity may vary depending on country of residence, class, education, age, and many other factors. Jackson and Elmore (2017) distinguish several types of masculinity – dominant (also called hegemonic), complicit, subordinate, and marginalized (pp. 1-2). The latter type is suitable for black men, as they determine their masculinity not only through gender but also adapt it to their race. This feature helps to understand better the difficulties faced by African American men. Black masculinity can be defined through the relationship of a man with his environment and community. In the United States, this relationship is seriously and negatively affected by the historical past. It created conditions for the undeserved unequal position in society and made men to take a defensive stance. The history of slavery and discrimination creates an aggressive, not intellectual, image of black masculinity, which has negative consequences for black men.
A gender identity that defines how people perceive themselves can be distorted in African-American men due to the pressure and prejudice they face. Roles and ideas about black masculinity imposed by the historical past and public opinion can become an obstacle to revealing their inner self. As each person grows older, they encounter gender expectations – in romantic relationships, in clothes preferences, occupation, and other aspects of life. Non-conformity with expectations often leads to condemnation and misunderstanding from a society where there is a clear division of roles for everybody.
Besides gender expectations, racial ones are also imposed on African-American men. Placed in a position where they can only be strong, aggressive, of traditional orientation, men do not get the opportunity to deviate from the role because they will be condemned in this case. Suppressing the inner self can have adverse effects on mental and physical health. Thus, the study of the history of black masculinity demonstrates why society has certain expectations for African-American men and why these prejudices should be abandoned.
Stereotypes and racism are integral to slavery, which flourished during the British colonization of the Americas, and then in the independent United States. Faith in unreasonable, aggressive, but assertive savages helped justify the enslavement of one race. As a result, ideas of white supremacy appeared, because of which slaves were dehumanized and remained only tools, particularly men associated with rough physical work. These ideas were justified in several ways – for example, Bible texts and even scientific racism. The latter method had a strong influence and was rooted in people’s minds for a long time. For instance, scientists seeking evidence of white supremacy spoke of a smaller brain volume and a tendency to barbarism.
Scientific racism intensified along with the need to justify slavery. One of the first to defend the slave trade at the beginning of the 15th century was the Portuguese, who believed that slavery was the salvation of the souls of black people that lived like animals (Ruane, 2019). Thomas Jefferson, who was one of the Founding Fathers, was also a supporter of scientific racism and believed that profound differences in abilities between races exist and are an obstacle to equality (Ruane, 2019). Later, several scientists, for example, Josiah C. Nott, Samuel Cartwright, or Louis Agassiz, were involved in special studies of the physical features of slaves, contributing to the emergence of “polygenism” – belief in different origins of races (Ruane, 2019). The abolition of slavery only transformed this pseudoscientific direction, which finds supporters even among the modern population.
Slaves lived and worked in unfavorable conditions, which affected their character. To prevent possible resistance, Africans were deprived of their own beliefs, learning opportunities and were under control in all imaginable ways (E. Taylor et al., 2019, p. 214). The deprivation of culture and educational opportunities prevented enslaved people from developing spiritually, which consolidated the status of a stupid race. The influence of these actions for a long time determined the masculinity of African American men.
Oppression, mistreatment, hard work, unsuitable living conditions, and other problems naturally caused resistance. The Understanding Slavery Initiative (USI) (n.d.) notes that resistance was manifested in sabotage, theft, refusal to obey, work hours, and other similar measures. Slave owners who did not want to admit the wrongness of their actions interpreted these actions as laziness and applied this characteristic to the whole race. USI (n.d.) also mentions more radical resistance methods – animal poisoning, attack on a slave owner, self-harm, and similar manifestations. Even though there was not a lot of them, such resistance could contribute to creating an aggressive image. Thus, under the oppression of circumstances, slaves were forced to show aggression and sometimes cruelty, even a tiny manifestation of which the enslavers interpreted as a feature of the whole race.
With the prohibition of slavery, discrimination and an entrenched image have not disappeared. Many white people have long been guided by ideas of supremacy and reacted negatively to any attempts to establish equal rights. When the Civil War ended, the Ku Klux Klan’s activities led to many African-Americans’ deaths. Government attempts to protect the liberated people failed, and white citizens took the opportunity to make segregation legal (J. Talor, 2019). Between 1876 and 1964, an African American’s fate and attitude towards them were determined by the Jim Crow segregation laws (E. Taylor et al., 2019, p. 214). They guaranteed that blacks would not receive the same rights as whites, and as a result, oppressed people had fewer opportunities for education, employment, and housing.
The dissatisfaction of white people, their biases, and fears led to another negative phenomenon, which affected African-American men – Lynch’s Law or lynching. This tool of oppression and imposing of the racial hierarchy was lynching – the crowd appointed and committed punishment for a crime, without any legal rights to do it. Such actions were widespread among citizens and were significantly justified by the myth of a black rapist (Schwenk, 1994, p. 312). Jim Crow laws limited communication between races, especially between white women and black men. However, the myth of aggressiveness and barbarism gave rise to a narrative about African-Americans attacking white girls. As a result, any indictment of the white women without verification led to lynching. African-American activist Wells-Barnett (1900), in her speech on the horrors of Lynch Law, notes that many investigations following the execution proved the innocence of the victims. Nevertheless, the crowd’s actions that justified themselves by the protection of women were ignored or even supported by law enforcement agencies.
The negative image was fueled by a culture that reflected the unwillingness of white people to accept equity with freed race. For example, the first long film, The Birth of a Nation, exposed African-Americans as ignorant and rude (Griffith, 1915). Limited opportunities for blacks forced them to live in disadvantaged areas and take on low-paid jobs, which further contributed to the existing masculinity image. Thus, the heritage of slavery and Jim Crow contributed to systemic racism manifested in the 20th-21st centuries.
As society changed, so did the ways in which African Americans were oppressed and portrayed as aggressors. One striking example is how newspapers covered the activities of the Black Panthers Party. Even though the civil rights movement, which used non-violent methods, contributed to Jim Crow laws’ repeal, African-Americans’ discrimination has not disappeared. In search of work, they moved, settled in the ghetto, and continued to live in poverty. At the same time, law enforcement officials increasingly showed cruelty to African-Americans. Weary and frightened by such cases, the discriminated population wanted to defend themselves and created the Black Panther Party. Initially, they sought to conduct citizens’ patrols to prevent cruelty and then expanded their activities and engaged in social programs.
The media, influenced by their own beliefs and public opinion, reflected the party’s men as cruel and aggressive. Russonello (2016), in an article dedicated to the fiftieth anniversary of the formation of the Black Panthers party, considers how the media wrote about them. Not expecting such actions and resistance from African Americans, newspapers in which journalists mainly were white reacted sharply. For example, in one of their first articles about Panthers, Times called party representatives “Armed Negroes” (Russonello, 2016, para. 9). Similar negatively colored descriptions arose in other articles, exposing the party as an anti-white marginal group. The media did not describe how the party’s activities were provoked, what role the policemen play in it. Panther’s social activities were presented as a way of influencing children’s minds and were also given a negative color. Thus, discriminatory police activities continued and then led to the emergence of new movements.
Police actions confirming the discriminatory misconception about African-Americans as aggressive criminals led to the emergence of another movement in the 21st century. Black Lives Matter (BLM) originated in response to the killings of black people by the police. One of the first victims whose death caused the public outcry was Eric Garner, killed in 2014 due to strangulation during a police arrest (Bennett, 2021). In the same year, a twelve-year-old boy Tamir Rice was killed, because of a toy weapon in his hands (Bennett, 2021). The mass protests of 2020 were caused by the murder of George Floyd, who was injured due to police brutality. These killings demonstrate the prejudices inherent in humans, and, in these cases, biased individuals have abused their power.
In the modern world, the view of black masculinity is still strong. Its image is manifested in culture, media and is sometimes supported by black men themselves. Music and films contributed to creating a unique culture associated with African Americans’ lives (Sexton, 2017, p. viii). It often contains elements such as drug or arms trafficking, particular patterns of behavior, and even clothing style. For example, the image source is hip-hop music, whose representatives are mainly African American men (Máthé, 2019, p.65). Films such as Snitch, directed by Waugh (2013), support stereotypes by inviting black actors to drug-dealers’ roles. A significant number of black successful in sports supports the stereotype of special physical abilities. As a result, the image of black masculinity has become valuable for advertising, making race a commodity again (Matlon, 2019). These manifestations of culture had a special force at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
The world, nevertheless, develops trying to hear oppressed groups and to achieve equality and justice. The image of black masculinity is also modified, in particular in culture. For example, according to Máthé (2019), the new generation of hip-hop performers use a more intellectual approach to the personal image (p. 65). Cinema, in turn, is also noted by several changes and deviations from the invitation of the African Americans to typical roles of criminals. For example, the director Jenkins’s (2016) movie Moonlight represents the main character from the emotional side. It shows how the pressure from society and the aspiration to correspond to the idea of black masculinity brings negative consequences. Indeed, research by Griffith et al. (2012) proves that similar desire “to correspond” can negatively affect the mental and physical health of men. Considering current trends in openness, and justice there is a chance that the existing image of toxic black masculinity will be reconceptualized.
In conclusion, the vision of black masculinity is composed of not only gender but also race. Historically, in America, black men were seen as chattel necessary for physical work. Discriminatory laws have long also restricted access to education and other privileges. Men were forced to protect themselves and their families, live in disadvantaged areas, and take up any work. As a result, the image of aggressive, strong physically, but not intellectually men arose, which affects black masculinity. The image in various historical periods was supported by culture and the media influencing existing biases and leading to harmful actions, particularly police brutality. Such toxic masculinity can have more adverse effects on personal identity. However, in current conditions, it is possible to rethink the existing image of black masculinity, and changes are already manifested in culture.
References
Bennett, G. (2021). Black history. The Guardian. Web.
Griffith, D. M., Gunter, K., & Watkins, D. C. (2012). Measuring masculinity in research on men of color: Findings and future directions. American Journal of Public Health, 102(S2), S187-S194. Web.
Griffith, D. W. (1915). The Birth of a Nation [Film]. Epoch Producing Co.
Jackson, R. L., & Elmore, B. (2017). Black masculinity. In K. Y. Yun (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication (pp. 1-5). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Web.
Jenkins, B. (2016). Moonlight [Film]. A24.
Máthé, N. (2019). Representations of black masculinity in the 2010s Hip-Hop. Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai-Philologia, 64(1), 65-80.
Matlon, J. (2019). Black masculinity under racial capitalism. Boston Review. Web.
Ruane, M. E. (2019). A brief history of the enduring phony science that perpetuates white supremacy. The Washington Post. Web.
Russonello, G. (2016). Fascination and fear: Covering the Black Panthers. The New York Times. Web.
Schwenk, K. (1994). Lynching and rape: Border cases in African American history and fiction. In W. Sollors & M. Diedrich (Eds.), The Columbiad: Defining moments in African American literature and culture (pp. 312-324). Harvard University Press.
Sexton, J. (2017). Black masculinity and the cinema of policing. Palgrave Macmillan.
Taylor, E., Guy-Walls, P., Wilkerson, P., & Addae, R. (2019). The historical perspectives of stereotypes on African American males. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 4(3), 213-225. Web.
Taylor, J. R. (2019). A history of tolerance for violence has laid the groundwork for injustice today. American Bar Association. Web.
Mass shooting cases are widely discussed in the United States, yet sentencing criminals and applying preventative measures do not decrease these severe offenses. In searching for the root causes, social interpretation of masculinity has been analyzed to reveal that boys are often unable to express themselves due to the manhood stereotypes. The aggression men hoard exceeded the limits they could carry and leads to severe actions like mass shootings.
In response to this serious social phenomenon, journalists from various professional backgrounds researched different perspectives of the causes and outcomes of the incorrect perception of masculinity. For example, Michael Ian Black, in the article “The Boys Are Not All Right” (2018), discusses that the masculinity model is outdated, while boys are still being affected by its false explanations of strength and invulnerability. The author developed the writing based on the Florida school mass shooting that occurred in February 2018, where a boy killed 17 people. The article’s main topic reflects that while feminism allows girls to express themselves fully, boys experience the opposite as they are locked into the borders of masculine stereotypes. Black (2018) explains that “boys are trapped in the suffocating model of masculinity, where manhood is measured in strength with no way to be vulnerable, and manliness is about having power over others.” Severe events like shootings appear due to the inability to be heard or show weakness which leads to the aggression increase, and men use the externalizing approach to get rid of it.
To explore the reasons for mass shootings and their relationship to masculinity, the authors study crimes based on regions and discuss the findings with psychology and sociology professionals. For example, Phillip Reese, in the article “When Masculinity Turns Toxic: A Gender Profile of Mass Shootings” (2019), describes the mass shootings in California, and applies gender-based statistics that reveal the men’s domination in these offenses. The author’s conversations with professors submit the main topic as they provide evidence that men who commit murder tend to feel a fundamental diminishing of their masculinity (Reese). Moreover, the article recommends reviewing how masculinity is being portrayed by media and in boys’ education. Reese (2019) states that to decrease mass shootings, society must “emphasize reducing “toxic masculinity,” the pernicious societal norm that being a man means “you can’t show emotion, seek help, be fully human, be vulnerable.” It is crucial to identify the conditions and triggers that lead men to aggressive self-expression such as shootings to eliminate the root causes of its misinterpretation towards the younger generations.
Masculinity in its toxic variation is also applied as a cause for mass shootings in the columns explaining people’s motivation to kill. Indeed, Clarence Page, in the article “What Role Does Toxic Masculinity Play in Mass Shootings?” (2019), discusses that although severe mental conditions presented as motivation, most of the shooters were white heterosexual men with no diseases. The author’s research revealed that the killers are often affected by the middle-class instability, inability to have benefits given to diverse groups’ representatives, and demand to fit the social perception of masculinity. Page (2019) states that “whether it is hatred, mental illness or confusing lessons about the meaning of manhood, we need to find ways to prevent that trigger from being pulled.” The article highlights that toxic masculinity is preventable, and it must be addressed to eliminate social issues and decrease the number of aggressive crimes.
Boys develop particular expectations from society about manhood’s outcomes such as admiration and women’s attention. However, the modern world does not promise that masculine behavior causes these benefits, and men face rejection and the inability to express emotions due to outdated standards. Writers continue a discussion of the aggressiveness based on toxic masculinity by pointing the attention to misogynist terrorism. For example, Jessica Valenti, in the article “When Misogynists Become Terrorists” (2018), describes the men’s movements that promote aggressive sexism, rape, and claims that women owe to obey them. The author explains that toxic masculinity that does not meet the expected outcomes like female attention grows into aggression that is being expressed by abuse and murder. Valenti (2018) explains that “American culture still largely sees men’s sexism as something innate rather than deviant; the misogynist tendencies of mass shooters become afterthoughts rather than predictable and stark warnings.” Moreover, the presence of hate towards women influences the younger generations and makes boys think that they will not be men without a constant showing of strength and dominance.
Various perspectives of viewing masculinity as a cause of mass shootings reveal the critical role social stereotypes and biases play in self-perception. Writers argue that American society needs to urgently address the masculinity issue and help men eliminate their fears of showing vulnerability or weakness. The feminism movement profoundly impacted women’s ability to feel comfortable in the modern world, and the male half equally deserves to express human nature. The way men are being portrayed requires revision because the switches in how the media and historical examples represent “heroes” will help the younger generations avoid committing crimes like mass shootings.
References
Black, Michael Ian. “The Boys Are Not All Right.” The New York Times, 2018.
Page, Clarence. “What Role Does Toxic Masculinity Play in Mass Shootings?” The Chicago Tribune, 2019.
Reese, Phillip. “When Masculinity Turns Toxic: A Gender Profile of Mass Shootings.” The Los Angeles Times, 2019.
Valenti, Jessica. “When Misogynists Become Terrorists.” The New York Times, 2018.
The term masculinity is one of the most discussed in modern society. Many professionals are studying this topic in more depth to understand the main aspects that differ masculinity from femininity and why it could be related to both men and women. This essay will show how the term masculinity has developed throughout generations and its meaning in 2020. Moreover, I will present strong evidence and argument to support or deny the basic understanding of masculinity.
Every culture can define the term masculinity in different ways, and it might not have a strong definition that will fit every nation. Every culture has an idea of gender, but not all can define the term masculinity correctly (Connell 1). In the modern world, this idea means that the action which people do reflect their gender. Originally, gender was defined by physiological factors like body structure and structural processes. However, this meaning started to fade, and masculinity could be applicable to both males and females. Connell stated that in 2020 masculinity and femininity are not related to the physiological structure of the human body but personal characteristics (4). Society is not a biological process, and gender stereotypes are not fixed. Everyone has a unique way of thinking, and people understand masculinity differently. While one group of men believes that masculinity can only be referred to their physiological structure, the other group can apply this term to many women who show a strong characteristic of their minds.
The definition of masculinity started its existence many years ago, and past generations faced different understandings of this idea. For instance, according to Morris and Ratajczak, gender played a huge role in the development of masculinity and femininity (1988). Women in the United States were not allowed to do men’s work as it was not accepted by society. Moreover, in some states, women, who tried to do the work, which was originally assigned to men, were not accepted by society. Men also could not do women’s work as it was humiliating and unacceptable for them. Consequently, the terms masculinity and femininity started to play a huge role in the past. The difference in appearance and body structure were the main factors that defined these two terms. The way to change the idea of masculinity was not easy, and many people had to go through discrimination and humiliation to change the world for the better. For instance, American society did not want to see a woman as a president. However, in 2020 the relation to the ruling woman has changed, and gender stereotypes are not strong (Cohen 9). Masculinity which was closely connected to gender, does not play any role in the political sphere these days, and people can accept women as the head of the government.
A long and difficult path to change has brought many positive results to the present. The modern society of the United States managed to achieve equality and defend its rights. For example, the modern feminist movement supports the idea that women can complete men’s work, and males should not insult women for doing work that has historically been assigned to them (Connell 7). Moreover, in 2020 almost every human desire could be fulfilled, and gender change began to gain great popularity. The traditional understanding of gender started to disappear, and people relate masculinity and femininity to the inner world of every person.
To conclude everything that has been stated so far, the term masculinity has changed, and the primary definition created many years ago might not be applicable to the idea carried nowadays. With the development of society, such terms as gender should not have one explanation. Each person has a right to create their personal definitions of gender and pass them on to the future generation.
Works Cited
Cohen, Nancy L. Breakthrough: The Making of America’s First Woman President. Counterpoint, 2016.
Connell, Raewyn. The Social Organization of Masculinity. Routledge, 2020.
Morris, Edward W. and Ratajczak, Kathleen. “Critical Masculinity Studies and Research on Violence Against Women: AN Assessment of Past Scholarship and Future Directions”. PubMed, vol. 26, no. 16, 2019, pp. 1980-2006.
History shows that the collective gender of the ruling class significantly influences the nature of legislation and the social structure of the countries in which they govern. The chronology of United States (US) legislation is an example; it has gone from masculine to gender-neutral in terms of rights and responsibilities. Early American laws impeded the development of female and racial solidarity and women’s empowerment due to its underlying male perspective.
Women Legal Position
The first American laws significantly constrained the rights of both white women and women of color. Husbands had to go to court instead of their spouses for the defense to be considered valid (Winter, 1639). For example, there is a recording of how “John Winter… defends his wife against charges that she had cruelly beaten Priscilla” (Winter, 1639, para. 2). The laws applied to women of color were even more restrictive and repressive (Snyder, 2015). They were designed this way because male legislators feared that equal rights would create chaos and disorder (Carrol, 2003). Therefore, the early US masculine legal system intentionally suppressed women’s legal position.
Female and Racial Solidarity
Early US laws also forbade the formation of female and racial solidarity. The first legislation formulated only by men tied social status to the inheritable characteristic of the individual, where the mother’s race was the decisive factor (Snyder, 2015). This rule deliberately maintained the divisive societal structure and racial and gender prejudices. It also supported the development of the master-slave type of relations between representatives of higher and lower social strata, even of the same race and gender. The case of John Winter’s wife, who beat her maid, is an indication of it. (Winter, 1639). Any attempt to form female and racial solidarity was systematically suppressed.
Conclusion
This work explores how the first US legal system obstructed women’s empowerment and female and racial solidarity. Developed inferences lead to the question of how gender percentage in legislators influences the conceptual nature of laws, rights, and legal duties of a country over time. Another one is how dominant female legislatures affect social unity and racial relations.
References
Carrol, B. (2004). American Revolution. In B. Carrol (Ed.), American masculinities: A historical encyclopedia (pp. 1-4). SAGE Publications.
Snyder, T. L. (2015). Women, race, and the law in early America. In J. Butler (Ed.), Oxford research encyclopedia of American history (pp. 1-23). Oxford University Press.
Winters, J. (1639). Servitude in New England. Digital History. Web.
Masculinity is a construction viewed from several perspectives, such as social, historical, and political perspectives, and is all about the attributes that make up a man. From a societal perspective, it is accurate to define masculinity as the behaviors or roles considered appropriate for the male gender compared to the female gender. As opposed to being biologically driven, masculinity is all about the power and dominance of one person or party over another. From a broadened angle point of view, it is a fact that masculinity is not an object but rather an aspect of a larger structure in society (Connell, 2020). This can explain why it is also true to state that masculinity is not only exhibited by the male gender but is also present in the female one, hence why there exists female masculinity. In this modern society, masculinity is present even without the presence of the male gender (Halberstam, 1998). Among the ways of explaining why such a situation comes to be is the fact that masculinity is a relative attribute that needs to be defined by the activities, processes, practices, and relationships that men and women conduct and engage in their gendered lives (Connell, 2020). The purpose of developing is essay is to define and discuss masculinity, its theories, and approaches while basing its argument on photographs. In addition, it will discuss the production and distribution of the said photographs and explore how they relate to masculinity and the relevant theories that can be associated with the images.
The First Photograph
Catherine Opie captured the first photograph being examined in this essay in 2008. First of all, it is important to note that Catherine Opie, the photographer, is well known for capturing images that represent the view of manliness. The photograph is classified as belonging to a project known as the Regen Project and was published and distributed to the world from the Los Angeles and Thomas Dane Gallery in London. The image is called Rusty, one of the American footballers who participated in the 2007-9 series.
Photograph 1
Rusty, from the photograph, is depicted to be a muscular young teen who is in his sports gear. This was either during or after the football game. The gender differences approach to masculinity focuses on comparing the male gender to the female gender regarding their practices, behaviors, or even work choices (Stergiou-Kita, Lafrance, Pritlove, & Power, 2017). In this society, it is reliable to point out that American Football is all about power and dominance and is most likely to be played by men compared to the female population that engages in the sport. Rusty, in this photograph, is fitted in his shoulder pads and is holding a helmet in his hand, which is a clear indication of the extremeness of the sport. However, this star image does not represent the reality of who Rusty is. Despite looking like he is heading to a soldier’s battlefield, we can tell that Rusty is young by showing his face. In addition, his body armor is bigger than his size, and he has a whiskery beard on him. The masculine guy in the image is not the same as Rusty in reality. The expectation of society makes him pose for the photograph whole gazing with body armor, yet we can tell that he is not as tough as the image portrays him.
According to the embodiment theory, the processes that people engage in and the associated values later become a part of them (Stergiou-Kita et al.,.2017). For example, it is accurate to say that Rusty and his fellow teammates might become great football players with muscular bodies if they keep practicing the art. Just as they wish to be huge and muscular, practicing the same exercise over time will eventually to them gaining the same structure. The embodiment theory is thus a key in explaining the social status of people like Rusty and the values such persons depicted in the society hence the reason why masculinity is relative in this case.
The Second Photograph
This image was captured in the year 2000 and is found under the series known as Soldiers. The photograph was captured by Adi Nes, who was associated with Praz-Delavallade Paris in Los Angeles. The photo was shared and distributed to the world from their website. Here, the image shows soldiers who are urinating, probably after a long trip or activity. In this photo, gender and masculinity are evident. Looking at the photograph from the gender differences approach, it is noticeable that none of the four soldiers appear to be female. According to society, people who were fit to be soldiers were of the male gender because of their activities. It is a fact that extreme risk-related workplaces still belong to the male gender compared to the percentage of females in the same career (Stergiou-Kita et al.,.2017). The gender differences approach asserts that women are naturally assigned to attend to detailed work, for example, domestic work.
Photograph 2
On the contrary, the male gender is physically built to attend to tasks that are physically demanding. However, it is important to note that it is also true that a significant percentage of men and women can do the tasks that their opposite-gender counterparts do (Halberstam, 1998). For example, many women are joining the military nowadays as well as men joining the service industry such as the hospitality industry or such.
From the photograph, we can see the soldiers are on extremely dry land, which shows an appreciation of masculinity. The dry land and the soldiers indicate the power and the domination needed to conquer the situation. It would be true to say that women soldiers would also survive the land and the war at large, but it is equally true that a large percentage of men would do it better, attributed to their gender and how their bodies are built to pursue barriers.
Conclusion
In conclusion, all of the above-discussed images depicted elements of gender and masculinity. The gender processes, such as playing football and being a soldier, were all defined by the participants’ bodily structures and abilities and helped understand masculinity from the gender differences approach and the embodiment theory. While there are other approaches and theories to diversity, it is a fact that masculinity is not limited to gender, race, social class, or environment but rather is an expression of power and the willingness to do more under different circumstances. Masculinity is also associated with a lot of benefits that are of benefit to society; hence there is a good reason to embrace it without oppressing those who do not portray the same characteristics.
Reference
Halberstam, J. (1998). 1. An Introduction to Female Masculinity: Masculinity without Men. In Female masculinity (pp. 1-44). Duke University Press.
Stergiou-Kita, M., Lafrance, M., Pritlove, C., & Power, N. (2017). Examining theoretical approaches to men and masculinity in the context of high-risk work: Applications, benefits and challenges. Safety science, 96, 150-160.
The Social Organization of Masculinity Raewyn Connell (2020)
I reviewed several articles on dress and identity, but they did not satisfy me for various reasons. The study “Open Dialogue: Artists and Designers of Afro-Caribbean Descent” by Walters (2019) interested me at first by its name. However, the abstract made it clear that although the topic of this work is unique, it is too specific. The structure of the work is also inappropriate, since it is the authors’ reflection but not scientific research. I was also interested in the work “An Exploration of Dress and Identity Among New Mothers: The Implications of Breastfeeding for Clothing Choice” by Brown and Hodges (2018). However, although its abstract is interesting because the authors research socially important topics, the study is short as well as list of cited sources, and the methods of research are not described.
I also found an article that meets all criteria but has an unclear topic for me. The study ”’Because They Are Me’: Dress and the Making of Gender” by Shefer, Ratele, and Clowes (2017) also attracted me by socially important gender issues. However, the authors consider the topic in a wide range and the context of the culture of South Africa, so I preferred the more familiar Canadian culture and the more specific issue of gender. Thus, two scientific papers, which at first glance seemed interesting to me, turned out to be insufficiently structured and detailed for analysis. Another study met all the criteria, but its topic seemed less clear to me than the problems in the article that I eventually selected.
Introduction
In most cases, clothing identifies social status, gender, and even the character of a person as people choose outfits that correspond to their internal state. However, at the same time, there are many stereotypes associated with dressing, especially the gender of a person and his or her expression of masculinity and femininity. Ben Barry’s article “(Re) Fashioning Masculinity: Social Identity and Context in Men’s Hybrid Masculinities through Dress,” published in 2018 in Gender & Society Journal, explains these stereotypes.
Barry (2018) explores men’s ways to do masculinity and femininity through dressing, depending on their social and professional status. I chose this article because modern standards impose more rules on men in clothes than women, for example, a skirt or a shiny T-shirt is considered a manifestation of femininity. For this reason, I am interested in exploring the manifestations of masculinity through men through clothes, and understand how cultural norms influence their behavior. Consequently, the article written by Ben Barry will be analyzed and evaluated in this paper.
Preliminaries and Fields of the Research
This article is an example of scientific work on the topic of identity and clothing. The title of the work makes clear features of its content, and the abstract reflects the main hypotheses, the relevance of the topic, and the overall results of the study. The list of sources that were used to create and conduct the study belong to various scientific fields, which demonstrates its richness and versatile approach to exploring the issue. The reference list displays scientific sources about sociology, psychology, gender sciences, and even history. Consequently, the preliminaries of the article reflect the high quality and validity of the study.
Moreover, the work clearly shows that the research was conducted in different scientific fields, and its results are also applicable to different areas. The author emphasizes that his research and findings related to gender sciences and sociology, since the topic of hybrid masculinity has been studied by scholars in these areas (Barry, 2018). Also, some explanations of the phrases of men and their understanding of their own behavior demonstrate the indirect involvement of psychology, and comments on the evolution of male fashion show the historical elements of the study (Barry, 2018). Thus, it should be noted that the author critically and qualitatively investigated the topic of masculinity and its expression through dress.
Summary of the Article
This study seeks to examine the relationship between ways of masculinity demonstrating through dressing in men and the context in which they are found in everyday life. Barry (2018) clearly substantiates the need for this research by presenting a literature review on the expression of masculinity, dressing methods, and the various contexts in which they intersect. However, although articles on feminine representations of men through dress in the context of certain events, for example, the Burning Man festival, or the LGBTQ+ rights parade, are presented in the scientific literature, there are no studies of the same behavior in everyday life (Barry, 2018).
There are also works devoted to the manifestations of hybrid masculinity through various external manifestations in men’s regular activities, but not through clothes. Thus, the author gives enough arguments for the benefit of this study.
The article has an extensive theoretical part, which explains the features of the men’s manifestation of masculinity and femininity and the factors on which they depend. In this part, Barry (2018) defines the main points that are the basis of his research and leads to its main part. Part of the discussion includes three ways men do hybrid masculinities through dress, such as disavowing, reining-in, and celebrating feminine dress (Barry, 2018). Each of the concepts is presented with examples of participants’ interviews that most clearly reflect the features of the group.
The main findings of the study divided due to each of the created concepts. Men disavowing feminine clothes have a high socioeconomic status and hold leadership positions and professions (Barry, 2018). Consequently, the manifestation of femininity threatens the loss of their authority among colleagues and subordinates and other gender advantages. Men with middle income and are more creative but located in settings that valorized hegemonic masculine ideals professions combine some feminine elements of dressing with a masculine style (Barry, 2018). However, they remove these elements if they threaten their power and work status.
At the same time, men celebrating feminine dress in most cases are representatives of the queer community and have the least social power; however, in some cases, they use masculine clothing to avoid discrimination (Barry, 2018). Thus, the author fulfilled the purpose of the study by consistently determining the dependence of the dressing method as a manifestation of masculinity and the social and professional status of men.
The Relevance of Findings and Contribution of the Author
A review of the literature and current trends in the perception of gender images by society shows that the author’s findings are useful and relevant. The topic of gender identity and social attitude is significant because, despite the struggle for equality in democratic countries, stereotypes and discrimination still play a big role. For some people, such conditions cause discomfort as they are forced to hide their tastes due to the bias of others. The issue of clothing as an expression of masculinity and femininity is also particularly acute, since people of all genders, orientations, and ethnic groups are faced with it. Consequently, the findings on ways to make masculinity in men allow us to understand the impact and causes of deep-seated stereotypes and use them to help society.
In addition, the contribution of these findings is the expansion of gender and social studies of hybrid masculinity. This topic is gaining its relevance due to changing trends in interpersonal relationships and ways of expressing identity. However, there is practically no research on such an essential aspect as casual clothes, so the results of Barry’s research make a significant contribution to the understanding of this topic. Thus, the findings of the study are relevant and meaningful, since they reveal a new aspect of the perception of gender by society.
Theories and Definitions
The study is based on several theories of the manifestation of masculinity by men, as well as methods of dressing. The works of Bridges and Pascoe (2014) and Bridges (2009) are most often used by the author, since they are aimed at studying hybrid masculinity. The author also refers to several theories of fashion to emphasize its changes and to note the typical feminine and muscular images in modern culture.
Moreover, the work has several interrelated terms to describe the characteristics of men’s clothing, depending on their goals and the context in which they are located. These terms are “unmarking,” “marking,” “and re-marking” (Barry, 2018). They mean a way of dressing in which men show typical masculinity, mark marginalized gender performances with feminine elements, or change common feminine or muscular images to the opposite (Barry, 2018). These definitions are ideal for describing features of the topic and particular parts of the study.
Methods of Research and Application
The methods for collecting and analyzing information are clearly and consistently described in the article. The author uses a qualitative research method and an interviewing to collect data on the daily wardrobe of men, their perception of their own style, and its impact on their lives (Barry, 2018). Barry (2018) also explains the way of sampling selection by the diversity of race, work, age, and orientation of participants. Information analysis includes several methods, such as the constant comparison strategy, the codes of sensitizing concepts, and Rice’s and grounded theory methods (Barry, 2018). The author logically explained the necessity and appropriateness of their use, which is consistent with the topic of his research.
This study has mainly theoretical application as it explores the basics of gender representation by society. The author contributes to the study of hybrid muscularity, as well as the relationship between body, dress, and identity. In addition, this work can be used in psychology to counsel men who feel the pressure of their social and professional status on their identity due to the typical gender perceptions of society. However, these data must be rethought and designed for use in this area. Therefore, the main application of the work is theoretical; however, it makes a significant contribution to the study of an individual’s sexuality.
Appropriateness of Citation
The article uses a wide variation of the literature cited and quoted by the author. For example, “Bridges and Pascoe (2014) suggested that one consequence of hybrid masculinities is that it fortifies inequalities in new ways” (Barry, 2018, p.15). In this case, the author uses a quote from the article “Hybrid masculinities: New directions in the sociology of men and masculinities” to emphasize his statement about new types of inequality caused by manifestations of hybrid masculinity (Barry, 2018).
The author tells about a white doctor with high earnings who follows a style that emphasizes masculine culture (Barry, 2018). However, the doctor can use the elements of feminine clothes that will not affect his masculine image as he has a higher and protected social status. Although Bridges and Pascoe (2014) emphasize other aspects by talking about inequality, such as same-sex intercourses of heterosexual men, or attitudes toward parenthood, the idea noted by Barry is also present in work. In addition, factors of race and social status are discussed in the same context, which confirms the relevance of citation.
Furthermore, this quote is appropriate as it emphasizes the author’s statement. Barry (2018) explains the features of Kartick’s hybrid masculinity and the reasons for its feminine performances by using the cited idea. Bridges and Pascoe (2014) argue for inequality and less concern for white, wealthy straight men about their masculinity, which allows them to exhibit hybrid masculinity. Since Kartick is an example of such a man, an idea was used to confirm the statement. Thus, the citation used by the author is useful and appropriate in this case.
Strengths and Weaknesses
This article is an excellent example of a scholarly paper, since it has a strong theoretical base, a sound organizational structure, and a suitable research method. The minor weakness is the lack of clearly formulated objects and research hypotheses. However, since the author used a qualitative method of analysis, these elements are not mandatory, and the main goal of the work is achieved. Another drawback is a small sample of respondents as the risk of error increases.
However, a qualitative research method complicates the data collection process, so a small group of participants was optimal for the author. In addition, since interviews were conducted with each participant individually, and there was a possibility of clarification, the error that usually exists in quantitative studies was eliminated. Consequently, the sample size most likely did not significantly affect the results.
At the same time, the strengths are the clear structure of the work, the availability of detailed explanations of the main aspects, and citations of other authors. These features helped the author to gradually reveal the topic and importance of the study, as well as form conclusions. In addition, many specific examples from the interview and their interpretation contributed to the revealing of the behavior of men in all three groups. Thus, it should be noted that the article is an example of qualitative scientific research.
Conclusion
Therefore, the author of the article “(Re) Fashioning Masculinity” complies with all the criteria of a scholarly article and shows an example of proper and detailed research. The literature and ideas correspond to the topic of the work and are cited appropriately, the information is clearly structured, and all statements are justified. Findings of work have great importance in various fields of science and complement the existing literature on identity and clothing, as well as human sexuality.
In addition, the author chose a convenient and most accurate method of collecting and analyzing information for this topic, which guarantees the accuracy of the results. All statements and suggestions in the article were also supported by evidence from other scientific sources, which proves their relevance and reliability. Thus, the study is a relevant, convincing, and justified example of research that is useful to science and society, and there are only a few details that can improve it.
References
Barry, B. (2018). (Re) Fashioning masculinity: Social identity and context in men’s hybrid masculinities through dress. Gender & Society, 32(5), 638–662. Web.
Bridges, T., & Pascoe, C. J. (2014). Hybrid masculinities: New directions in the sociology of men and masculinities. Sociology Compass, 8(3), 246–258. Web.
Brown, V., & Hodges, N. (2019). An exploration of dress and identity among new mothers: The implications of breastfeeding for clothing choice. Fashion, Style & Popular Culture, 6(2), 225–241. Web.
Shefer, T., Ratele, K., & Clowes, L. (2017). “‘Because they are me”: Dress and the making of gender. South African Review of Sociology, 48(4), 63–81. Web.
Walters, K. (2019). Open dialogue: Artists and designers of Afro-Caribbean descent. Design and Culture, 12(1), 83–101. Web.
Like many other species, humans display the so-called sexual dimorphism: males and females possess dissimilar physical traits and characteristics. Some of these traits, such as facial structure, body shape, primary, and secondary sex characteristics, are straightforward; others, however, are more subtle. Bailey and Hurd (2005) report that digit ratio might be a reliable clue that is associated with prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone or greater sensitivity to androgens. The present research investigates whether males, indeed, display higher length ratio between ring fingers and female fingers than females.
Methods
Graph 1. Age distribution among research participants.
For this research, 28 students were recruited through the convenience sampling method; 15 (52%) of them were females, and the remaining 13 (48%) – males. As shown in Graph 1, the age characteristic of the sample was quite homogenous, with all the participants falling within the range between 20 and 21. Data collection was achieved by measuring the lengths of the second and fourth finger of each participant. Later, with the help of Excel software, the ratio between the measurements was calculated (see Table 1).
Daan
M
90
100
0.90
Basel
M
75
82
0.91
Max
M
89
96
0.93
Steven
M
78
84
0.93
Bram
M
75
80
0.94
Jelte
M
92
98
0.94
wilco
M
81
86
0.94
David
M
78
85
0.95
Koen
M
86
91
0.98
Jan
M
90
92
0.97
Men
M
86
90
0.95
Men
M
82
92
0.89
Men
M
89
95
0.93
Sissy
F
85
90
0.94
Denise
F
75
78
0.96
Laura
F
75
75
1.00
Ikki
F
77
75
1.03
Nienke
F
76
73
1.04
Jolien
F
76
73
1.04
Anna Mae
F
75
72
1.04
Mare
F
82
78
1.05
Sarah
F
74
70
1.06
Merel
F
80
75
1.07
Eva
F
85
78
1.09
Woman
F
80
78
1.02
Woman
F
85
80
1.06
Woman
F
75
70
1.07
Woman
F
76
71
1.07
Table 1. Participants’ measurements.
Results
Graph 2. Men’s and women’s digit ratios, plotted.
As seen from 2, ratios among men and women did not show much of variance across the board. However, upon closer look, one may notice that women’s ratios were slightly higher than those of men. In actuality, the lowest ratio (0.90) belongs to a male participant, while the highest ratio (1.09) belongs to a woman.
Discussion and Conclusion
The present research has shown to contradict the existing evidence on masculinity and femininity and its association with digit ratio. One caveat that should be pointed out is that the present research did not seek to measure hormone level in participants, which would have probably yielded deeper insights. Another limitation to be taken into account is the small number of participants (Cresswell & Cresswell, 2017). The results demonstrated that women were more likely to have longer ring fingers as compared to index fingers.
References
Bailey, A. & Hurd, P. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology, 68(3), 215-222.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
