It is important to highlight that the imagined reader is an abstract conceptual category, and that the reading goals of the real readers are always broader that what characterises the imaginary addressee. Therefore, it is not necessary for the real reader to unrestrainedly recognise himself in this created reader. The negotiating competence between the reader and the magazine, through the communication contract, is more vast. This includes order of desire and the imaginary, so that, potentially, any subject is able to recognise the basic elements of the contract and negotiate directions with the publication for their specific reading interests.
The characters that appear on the pages of men’s lifestyle magazines , such as FHM and loaded, are representations of the imaginary addressee’s values and characteristics. Editors and producers ‘engage actively in dialogue with readers’ (Benwell, 2003: 154), they choose topics they find relevant and interesting, not only to meet their readers’ expectations, but theirs as well. These editors claim that these magazines, especially loaded, are ‘born of a desire to offer readers a discourse with which they were already familiar’ (Southwell, 1998:2). They write features as if they are only writing it for themselves, their family and friends and not for their wide specific group of people that continues to buy their magazine. They describe and imagine the readers as someone that is like them, a person that reflects the same life experiences and share an equal amount of banter, so they choose to write about ‘topics and issues our readers talk about amongst themselves – and we write about them in their own language’ (ibid.).
The magazines want to be considered the reader’s ‘best friend’ or ‘mate’, to let the reader know they are the ‘same status as the writer’ (Stevenson et al, 2000:369). They will attempt to make the reader keep on buying the magazine, so they will try to ‘offer handy hints, pointing out obvious pitfalls and supplying ‘useful’ advice.’ (ibid.) This advances the ‘idea that the magazine’s producers were no different from its consumers, such policies spoke of (producers’) commitments to seeing themselves as ‘ordinary blokes’ and their attachment to the new journalist ethic’ (Benwell, 2003: 105).
In these men’s magazines’ context, the representations of the imaginary reader’s values and characteristics can be pointed out in two central axes between the characters. These can be linked to male sexuality and represented by females exposing their naked bodies, as well as linked to the values of femininity represented by the women featured in the magazine reports. In the editorial profile of FHM and loaded, the characters that will stand out the most, whether due to the recurrence of the magazines’ editions, or their own editorial history, are the female models. These female models chosen to figure as the magazine’s imaginary addressee’s sexual pattern, as they also highlight female sexuality as the basis of the reader’s masculinity. As an example, the statement of a men’s lifestyle magazine editor, on naked women exposed in these magazines (Guardian, 25 Nov. 1996):
Peter Howarth (then editor of Esquire) sought to defend his magazine’s reliance on a diet of ‘babes and boobs’ by arguing against the idea that there had been a recent ‘dumbing down of men’s magazines’. Yet he goes on to say that ‘any good magazine must offer a balance of contents, and part of that balance, if it is to reflect the interests of men, will inevitably be articles on beautiful women.’ (Stevenson et al., 2000: 373)
The editorial construction of the imaginary addressee, in this context, makes explicit a particular trait of loaded and FHM magazines’ readers: traditional masculinity, ‘new laddism’, and being straight. Although the thematic interests of the reader are wide (from cars to drinking, from sports to fashion, from films to games, and also from health to beauty), it is always from this heteronormative basis that the imaginary addressee will position himself, as the magazines, mentioned above, are ‘undoubtedly a celebration of white male heterosexuality’ (Stevenson et al. 2000: 372).
But femininity does not only fulfil, in loaded and FHM magazines, the trace of sexuality from the ideal reader. In the imaginary about masculinity , the women play a fundamental role, a relational and/or dual role, which means that hegemonic masculinity presupposes the predominance of a certain configuration of femininity. This will establish a linear bipolarity and generate a difficult and tense dialogue between the polymorphic complexity of female experiences and the authoritarian simplism of guiding patterns.
In conclusion, the data analysed and the topic that was explored about men’s lifestyle magazines and how it represents the traditional masculinity and sexism , describes the ‘new lad’, a prominent media image in the late 1990s. The ‘new lad’ representation is the opposite of the ‘new man’, and was created for the male heterosexual audience that was not ready to let go of the constant irony, anti-heroic and self-deprecating masculinity.
This project also sought to explore the relations between the narrative construction of characters in magazine journalism and the editorial constitution of the ‘ideal reader’.
Masculinity can be defined as attributes that are considered to be characteristic of men. The basic definition may seem harmless, but the way in which masculinity is performed can have a negative effect. Media uses masculinity to display its superiority over the genders and patriarchal views. Music videos such as ‘Blurred Lines’, written and recorded by Robin Thicke featuring T.I. and Pharrell Williams, display such aspects of masculinity. It is not blurred but clear to see that in the video Robin Thicke is promoting a masculine role in order to dominate and suppress women and men of color.
Within the lyrics, he states, “Ok now he was close, tried to domesticate you. But you’re an animal, baby it’s in your nature”. This suggests that women are secondary to men, women should remain within the domestic sphere. The domestic sphere is the idea women should stay in jobs that involve the household or very simple tasked jobs. It was also a way to keep women stagnant as their male counterparts were allowed to grow within their field of work. This pushes the agenda that men are superior to women. Judith Lorber brings about this idea of being secondary in her article entitled ‘The Social Construction of Gender’, which states: “In Western society, man is A, woman is not A but B” (Lorber, 99). This idea of being considered secondary to men within the video is exemplified when a woman is shown holding a lamb, we can assume the lamb is a symbol of how women are viewed as being vulnerable. Considering that lambs are baby sheep that make great prey to predators. He shows women can be prey for men or be protected by a ‘real man’. Sexualizing and objectifying women are a big part of the song and video. The video shows the women nearly naked, while the men are fully clothed. Thicke, as a male pop star, has the privilege of not having to strip to sell records. ‘The Social Construction of Gender’ states: “As a part of a stratification system, gender ranks men above women of the same race and class. Women and men could be different, but equal” (Lorber, 98).
It takes a special type of man to publicly promote behaviors that belittle women and other lower-class men. Robin Thicke is that man. Who also plays a role that is far from reality, perpetuating the notion of a heteronormative idea of attraction. Robin Thicke, T.I., and Pharrell Williams need to maintain boundaries with each other to prevent signs of homoeroticism. Cementing the idea that men should only pursue women. By exemplifying the fact that none of the male performers grope, objectify, or dance with each other. Matthew Barney said: “The masculine mask is worn to achieve a normative performance-oriented phallic heterosexual male sexuality” (Barney, 5). He continued to play the role of a masculine man by standing still in most scenes. In doing so, he conveys that he controls everyone in the video. By having everyone dance around him, Thicke exploits his power over the women while simultaneously degrading lower-class black. Exercising his idea that he, the white man, remains in power. The author of the article entitled ‘Masculinity as Homophobia’, Michael S. Kimmel, stated: “Manhood is equated with power over women and, over other men, everywhere we look. We see the institutional expression of power” (Kimmel, 106). The scene where balloons spelling out “Robin Thicke has a big dick”. His male ego is on display, reminding women that the size of his penis equals the size of his manhood. It also implies to the heteronormative society that having a bigger penis is a sign of possessing more power. The other two male stars in the video, T.I. and Pharrell Williams, are black; Thicke showcases these two men working for the white man. As the two men seductively dance to herd in the women, they do so only to bring them to the main prize, which is Robin Thicke. Using them to do his work, further inserts his dominance in class and race. There are many scenes in which Robin Thicke is centered in the frame, being centered in a frame forces the viewer to make Thicke the center of attraction, as everything else around him is of lesser importance. When he’s not centered, he is positioned in first place on an imaginary podium in other scenes. In one scene, he’s sitting in the middle, a white woman sits to his right a little lower than him, and Pharrell to his left much lower than both Robin and the white woman. This reiterates Judith Lorber’s idea of the white man being number one over the second-class woman, while the black man is placed third in the lowest class.
The media has become a great source to help push on the social view of gender norms and hypermasculinity. Music videos such as ‘Blurred Lines’ continuously perpetuate masculinity to be that of ideas given to us by Judith Lorber, Harry Brod, and Kimmel. Although times are becoming more progressive, the root of masculinity is still heavily displayed within our media. How can we create a change, is it possible that if we were to remove this hypermasculinity from the media if it will even still be desired?
Robert Browning’s My Last Duchess and T.S Eliot’s The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock are monologues that are similar in presenting middle-aged, unmarried men who are suffering from insecurities. Eliot’s 20th century The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock is the story of a man searching for love and acceptance whereas My Last Duchess is set in the 17th century and focuses on a Duke searching for power. Both of these stories focus on the role men have within society, and how they are not achieving their desires. Prufrock is a feminine man whereas the Duke is a hegemonic man. Both My Last Duchess and The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock are both interested in the idea of masculinity yet their approaches to masculinity are quite different. Despite their characters being complete opposites, they are both unsuccessful in obtaining their desires due to their insecurity with manhood. Through the connection of the narrators, I will examine how their desires cause them to feel insecure in their manhood.
Considering the narrators have the same outcome, it is important to analyze their differences, to see why they both have the same result. First, My Last Duchess is a dramatic monologue where the Duke unintentionally reveals himself; when trying to criticize his last duchess he reveals his detestable nature. The Duke first reveals himself to be a man of jealousy, and arrogance. This is shown when the Duke has the portrait of his last duchess painted by Fra Pandolf a man of chastity and honour yet the Duke’s jealousy is so strong that he observes the painter with his wife in order to oversee his wife actions. The duke is so insecure within his relationship he feels he needs to supervise his duchess and Fra even though Fra is a man of faith and would not pursue the duchess. The duke never says that his wife cheated on him however, it is insinuated in the quotation “The bough of cherries some officious fool/ Broke in the orchard for her’ (Browning 27-28). This gives the impression that men often gave her gifts and it made the Duke furious because he thought that men were attracted to her. Later, the duke implies that the duchess was the kind of woman who had to be watched, for she had a heart “too easily impressed” and “her looks went everywhere” (Browning 23-24). The duke is revealing his jealousy because he believes that his duchess was unloyal and seeking the attention of others.
An interesting passage that concludes the poem is when the Duke directs his attention to a sculpture of Neptune taming a seahorse. It is an ironic metaphor for the Duke’s relationship with the duchess. Like the seahorse, the Duchess was a free spirit and rather than improve himself to ‘tame’ her, he simply killed her.
Unlike My Last Duchess, The Love Song for J.Alfred Prufrock is an interior monologue. Prufrock is an anxious man who lacks self- confidence. His anxiety and self-consciousness are highlighted when he is descending the stairs. His emotions overwhelm him and he becomes indecisive. He asks himself “ Do I dare? Do I dare?” he fears that he will “disturb the universe” (Eliot 46). Prufrock fears so much of what others are thinking of him that he continuously doubts himself. He continues to ask himself questions on how to comfort himself but admits he will be unsuccessful. Prufrock worries that the conversation does not apply to him “ women come and go/ Talking of Michelangelo” (Eliot 35-36). Despite that, he does not need to join the conversation he still worries about what others are doing. He fears the judgment of others.
His anxiety is continued to be seen when he asks “Should I, after tea and cakes and ices, / Have the strength to force the moment to its crisis?’ (Eliot 79-80) This shows the absurdity of Prufrock’s worries due to the fact that the order does not matter. Prufrock’s insecurity is shown when he continues to worry and references his balding head twice. A significant quotation that expresses Prufrock’s emasculating anxiety is when he says
“And I have known the arms already, known them all—
Arms that are braceleted and white and bare
(But in the lamplight, downed with light brown hair!)
Is it perfume from a dress
That makes me so digress?
Arms that lie along a table, or wrap about a shawl.
And should I then presume?
And how should I begin? (Eliot 55-59)
Prufrock’s distress over the woman is evident here he cannot approach her. Prufrock is aware that if he does not approach her he will remain unhappy, but he has no confidence in where to begin with the woman. He is terrified to speak to her because he feels he will not be able to explain his feelings well enough, and he does not think that they will be interested in him, therefore, holding him back.
Although these narrators have different character traits they stem from the same place of insecurity. Together the characters demonstrate the wide scale of masculinity. The Duke being hegemonic and Prufrock leaning towards more feminine masculinity. The significance of the narrator’s being polar opposites is that it shows the interests the poets had in creating particular social constructs of masculinity within different eras. According to Butler’s article, she explains that Prufrock embodies Judith Halberstam’s definition of female masculinity,
Masculinity in this society inevitably conjures up notions of power and legitimacy
and privilege; it often symbolically refers to the power of the state and to uneven distributions of wealth. Masculinity seems to extend outward into patriarchy and inward into the family; masculinity represents the power of inheritance, the consequences of the traffic of women, and the promise of social privilege. (1736) “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” embodies the implications of this definition in several ways. First and foremost, if masculinity represents in part “the consequences of the traffic of women,” then Prufrock’s ideation of women as objects of his desire is a type of masculine performance. Therefore, masculinity inhabits the instances of Prufrock’s male gaze, which are present from the first few lines of the poem to its ending (Halberstam 1736).
With that being said Prufrock in mulitple ways truly embodies the definition of female masculinity. Especially due to Prufrock’s idea of a woman being an object of his desire. The significance of Eliot focusing on female masculinity is that it demonstrates the complex array of men during the 20th century.
Looking at the character traits and differences of the narrators the desires of the narrators are understandable. The Duke wants to feel powerful because it makes him feel like a “true man”. Whereas, Prufrock desires a sense of belonging within his subconscious. The Duke’s lack of power is demonstrated through his last duchess. To further understand why the Duke desires power we need to analyze the duchess. The last duchess was a beautiful woman which is evident since he wanted to have a painting of her. When he speaks of the painting, he mentions her blushing “spot of joy”. This suggests that she was easily embarrassed by a compliment. The Duke, however, seems irritated that she was easily pleased “She had/ A heart—how shall I say?—too soon made glad (Browning 23-25). With the Duke reacting in such manner, it demonstrates his need to feel powerful especially compared to his wife. Although Prufrock desires to have a sense of belonging within is subconscious is shown through in a sense a woman as well. When Prufrock is at the party he wishes he could speak to a woman but continues to ask himself questions, yearning for a response. According to an article, it concludes that “the male character’s anxieties and conflicts all the results of a past unsatisfactory mothering situation during his childhood. Hence, the male character, strives perpetually to relinquish and abandon the female characters and his whole life is an endless search for his idealized loved object” (Sistani). Furthermore, in My Last Duchess the duke reveals himself to be powerless and emasculated because his last duchess was willing to put herself before him, causing him to earn for power and according to Efird “the duke becomes” the limit case of the practice of reserve as sexual inhibition that defines normative bourgeois masculinity” (78). “In his confrontation with the Duchess,” Sussman argues, “the Duke confronts a crisis of manhood in that the Duchess challenges both the formation of manliness as reserve as well as, the Duke’s use of such manliness to justify his social position. The female here refuses to recognize the class position that, with clear reference to the Victorian bourgeoisie, is ostensibly validated by sexual and emotional constraint”. Efird’s insight demonstrates that the duke tries to uphold his manhood yet the Duchess makes him feel less than because she does not care that he is a duke.
Coincidently the duchess is why the Duke is unsuccessful in obtaining power. Prufrock is unsuccessful in his search for obtaining a sense of belonging within his subconscious because of fear. One of the reasons that the duchess causes the Duke to be unsuccessful in his search for power is because she makes him feel emasculated. The duke is unsuccessful in his desires because he is not seen by others in the way he wishes to be seen. He continues to show that he is unsuccessful with power because he has to kill his wife in order to feel powerful. This is seen when he has to hide her smile because even though she is dead he still feels powerless in comparison to her. When the duke sees her smile he feels weak and emasculated. Prufrock is afraid, he fears rejection not only from the woman but from himself, he overthinks everything he does. This, in turn, causes him in the end to fail.
T.S Eliot and Robert Browing write poems that tackle the idea of masculinity yet they go with opposite approaches. Despite the narrators being on opposite sides of the masculinity spectrum, their endings are the same. In the end, both characters are unsuccessful in obtaining their desires. Prufrock is incapable of achieving a sense of belonging within his subconscious because he is fearful and anxious. The duke fails to achieve power because of his character traits but as well as his last duchess. Thus, by looking at both, they create a message
Introduction: Unveiling the Complexities of Masculinity in Igbo Society
No singular work of the twentieth century explores the complexity of the Igbo tradition and its ties with concrete nativism and toxic masculinity like Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart does. This adorable story, set in in the transition period that straddles the pre-colonial Igbo society and the time of the arrival of the Europeans, i.e. during the late nineteenth century revolves around Okonkwo as the epicenter of the ideas that the debut novel of Achebe seeks to birth into the world. Umuofia is the fictional Clan from which Okonkwo emanates. The story touches the lives of Okonkwo’s father, Unoka, his wives (especially the vocal Ekwefi), and his children, particularly Nwoye, Ezinma, and Ikemefuna (who was indeed his adopted child.)
The Dual Forces of Fear and Belief: Okonkwo’s Struggle with Masculinity
Achebe shows in Things Fall Apart, an honest description of the inclinations of gender and nativity that ravaged – and still ravages – the traditional Igbo society. The reason for this, as illustrated in the life of Okonkwo is hinged upon the double-edged sword of fear and belief. Okonkwo had an intense, pathological – you might want to say – fear of failure. Of underachievement. Of not doing well. And on account of his experience with his father, Unoka, which was regarded as a failure because he had no property or wealth, owed a lot of debts, and enjoyed playing the flute, mere flute. Also, this fear is somewhat inextricably tied to gender roles, hence the infusion of masculinity. Okonkwo believed that men ought to be successful or die in the process of trying. That a man who did not strive to achieve, or who sought pleasures in ‘meaningless’ things such as music and conversations was a failure and ought not to be valued or regarded. Okonkwo therefore, more specifically put, feared not living up to the standard of men. Secondly, there was a belief that had been ingrained into the very fabric of his existence that the masculine gender was inherently superior and more powerful than its female counterpart. This belief is also held by most members of the Igbo community. This widespread belief in the superiority of men was born out of the idea that males expressed dominant characteristics of anger, violence, and strength which were above the more mellow displays of affection and tenderness that are feminine and weak. This belief underlines many experiences of words and actions in this story. For example, stories of war and battles were masculine and were meant to be told to boys, while folklore was of a feminine inclination. Also, Yam was regarded as the king of crops, a masculine crop to be cultivated by men, while cocoyam and the others were for women.
These fears and beliefs go a long way to show through the lenses of Okonkwo how much gender roles meant to the traditional Igbo society and how masculinity, that is, toxic masculinity, was the order of the day.
Nativism and Its Interplay with Toxic Masculinity
Also, there was a very expressive display of Nativism, which is simply a policy of protecting the interests of native-born inhabitants against those of immigrants, in Achebe’s spectacular story. It was shown in the interaction between Okonkwo, the protagonist, and the ideas of the newly coming white men. Okonkwo, who had so much respect and affiliation with his culture did not fancy the idea of foreigners introducing novelties to the Clan. And to worsen it all, these novelties were greatly antagonistic to the already existing and predominant cultures and lifestyles of their society and time. It is this nativism that heralded the dangerous spiral that led to his eventual downfall especially when one considers its interrelatedness with toxic masculinity, as there is always a need for a man, at that time, to prove his worth. To remain resolute and unshaken. To be stubborn and resistant. Okonkwo displayed in full these so-called masculine characteristics and it did not end well.
This essay seeks to explore the many ways in which Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, having Okonkwo in the middle of everything, expressed the important themes of Nativism and toxic masculinity, citing various examples that sprouted chapter after chapter for the most part of the book.
In the first part of Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, there is a clear explanation of Unoka and his laziness and Okonkwo’s bitterness towards the man who happened to be his father. The first chapter opens up by describing Okonkwo as a brave man with great achievements, “His fame rested on solid personal achievements. As a young man of eighteen he had brought honor to his village by throwing Amalinze the Cat”. This description contrasts sharply with his lazy father, who was no good. He was a man who was poor, could only take one wife, and was largely unable to support his family. Indeed, he owed too many debts and was frequently called an “Agbala”, a word that means a woman, or a man who has taken no titles. Unoka, who enjoyed music, was greatly hated by his son, Okonkwo, and this strong sense of displeasure and disregard was brought upon Okonkwo’s first son, Nwoye who was also remarkably lazy.
The Generational Impact: Okonkwo’s Relationship with His Sons
In the book’s second chapter, Achebe wrote, “Okonkwo’s first son, Nwoye, was then twelve years old but was already causing his father great anxiety for his incipient laziness. In Okonkwo’s opinion, laziness is not a characteristic of men. Men ought to be hard-working, they should love battles and farming. They should not be interested in music and conversations. They should be action men. Okonkwo always enjoined his male children to listen, to his, masculine stories of violence and bloodshed instead of the more creative stories of the tortoise and his wily ways and other soft, weakening stories, as Okonkwo thought. These latter stories were those Nwoye preferred, and for this constant drift away from masculinity as it seemed, he received a constant beating from his father. Once, he declared, that rather than having a son who cannot hold up his head in the gathering of the clan, he would rather “strangle him with his own hands” (Achebe page 28)
Okonkwo, indeed, had a life that was devoted to masculinity in a way that became toxic. He did not want his manliness to be questioned. This was shown in the story of his adopted son, Ikemefuna, whom he grew so fond of (although he never showed it) and ended up killing because ‘He was afraid of being thought weak” (Achebe Page 53).
Many a time, Okonkwo put his masculinity at the very fore of his existence. He raised a family with a military hand and no affection or compassion whatsoever for his wife and children because those were traits of weakness and femininity. He insisted that his sons, no matter how young, learned how to grow Yams. “Yam stood for manliness” (Achebe Page 28).
Okonkwo did not want his position as a man, and as the head of the family to be questioned by anybody, and hence he did not take any challenge or questioning of authority lightly. Ekwefi had once had an argument during the New Yam Festival with her husband, Okonkwo, and on that account, ‘Okonkwo gave her a sound beating and left her and her only daughter weeping” (Achebe Page 33) and even when she mocked his poor skills at hunting, he shot at her with his gun because his masculinity cannot and should not be questioned.
This position of Okonkwo did great in keeping him at a great distance from his children. Indeed, over many centuries the African patriarchal system has allowed men to dominate women, and also encouraged a sort of distance between them and the children because they cannot afford to show affection otherwise they would be ruled off as being weak. This, as expected made the relationship between himself and his children very tenuous.
In an essay, Khumalo Thuso, states that contrary to popular belief in the Igbo society, men (fathers) should be more involved in raising their children. He argues that feeding, bathing, affection, etc. do not make a man less masculine but a better contributor to society. (Khumalo Thuso, 2014).
The Role of Women in a Masculine-Dominated Society
But as is widespread knowledge, women are not respected in the traditional Igbo society. Of course, it is a man’s world, they say. Achebe shows this in the ninth chapter of Things Fall Apart, the only chapter where Okonkwo’s mother was mentioned. He had in that paragraph recalled his mother’s stories about why mosquitoes always went for the ears which he thought was “as silly as all women’s stories”. Biodun Jeyifo comments on this in his work, where he writes that “Okonkwo’s memory of his mother’s stories in his childhood is very easily suppressed; and it is easily consigned to the domain of “silly women’s stories” (Biodun Jeyifo, 1993).
There is also an associated fear that comes with the relationship between the men and the women which Jeyifo describes as a “deep-rooted male insecurity about fear of female power and creativity with a corresponding need or will to tame it, domesticate it, marginalize it, and project it as the gift and vocation of a few ‘exceptional’ women who are thus; like Chielo in Things Fall Apart, ‘honorary men’ (Biodun Jeyifo, 1993).
Therefore, it is evident that as far as the narrative of the life and time of Okonkwo is concerned in Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, women occupied a tiny, irrelevant and insignificant space within the grand scheme of social, political, and economic things.
There was also in the book a sort of silencing of the female characters. In the analysis of “The Headstrong Historian,” VanZanteen uncovers the absence of direct speech from any of the female characters. (VanZanteen, 2015).
Things Fall Apart has been a prototype narration of the role masculinity plays in the Igbo tradition. Also, many other works have unconsciously displayed a sort of toxic masculinity. In Petra Fiserora’s analysis of “Hunter’s Run”, an American Sci-fi novel, she writes that “the novel is filled to the brim with commentary on men and ‘mankind’ so much so that the greatest plot point is when the protagonist confronts his harmful ideal of hegemonic masculinity and admits that he despises the toxic person that it has made him”. And the authors of this book did not see this and instead describes the book as having the themes of humanity and identity.
In the second and third parts of the outstanding novel, Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe brings to the fore the component of Okonkwo which is Nativism. It is in these parts that the Europeans come into the Umuofia clan armed with the soothing, soft, religion of Christianity. This religion sought to destroy all that the customs of the Umuofia clan had built and established, and Okonkwo found this absolutely repulsive and uncomfortable.
Rahul Singh explores nativism and masculinity in his work titled, “Things fall apart as a postcolonial text – An assertion of African culture”. He tells us how the emergence of a mellow religion that followed the coming of the Europeans created a split in the beliefs of the people of the Umuofia clan and especially the younger generation who grew towards Christianity and her ways and consequently let go of their traditional beliefs. This, Okonkwo did not like (Singh, Rahul, 2013).
Even more so that his first son, Nwoye found the softness and calm of this new religion attractive. In the book, Obierika, in response to Okonkwo’s question of whether the white man understood their custom said, “How can he when he does not even speak our tongue? But he says that our customs are bad, and our own brothers who have taken up his religion also say that our customs are bad. How do you think we can fight when our own brothers have turned against us? The white man is very clever. He came quietly and peaceably with his religion. We were amused at his foolishness and allowed him to stay. Now he has won over our brothers, and our clan can no longer act like one. He has put a knife on the things that held us together and we have fallen apart” (Achebe, page 176)
Okonkwo, after a while of the coming of the perceived intruders, decided to wage war against them. During a meeting in that regard, a messenger from the white men was beheaded by him because he had tried to stop the meeting. And in order not to face the humiliation of being tried in a court ruled by these white people. In order not to have his masculinity questioned. Rather than all that show of weakness, Okonkwo thought that he’d rather face death, leading him to take his own life.
Conclusion: The Tragic Downfall of Okonkwo and the Igbo Tradition
In conclusion, In the classic novel, Things Fall Apart, Achebe’s narration of the complexities of the Igbo tradition that had in its fabrics the themes of nativism and toxic masculinity explains the life of Okonkwo, who was a strong, hardworking man, unlike his father, and had in him a strong fear for failure, which he considered a feature of men who should not be called men. It is this fear of not being seen as man enough that drives him directly into prosperity, and indirectly into an unexpected sad end of death. His life is examined in relation to that of his family and other members of the Umuofia clan.
The ego of men is displayed in several instances in the book Things Fall Apart. Also, the need for women to tend to these fragile egos or face the consequences is also shown. The demand for male children to live up to such masculine expectations was typified by the relationship between Okonkwo and his son, Nwoye.
In addition, the fastidious nature of Okonkwo when it came to customs and culture cannot be overlooked. Okonkwo did not want the dilution of his culture. He did not want the foreign inflections. He despised the femininity of the Christian religion, and her attempt to alter the beliefs held firmly by his clan members. Okonkwo was said to have stood his ground. Without compromise, and even murdered one of the messengers of the Europeans.
And instead of being tried by a foreign, strange, jury full of weak, emotional, feminine men, he would resort to taking his own life seeing as his own clan’s people were not one anymore and the strings of custom and tradition that seemed to have held them together had been severed by the incoming of these foreigners and everything they stood for, everything he stood for had fallen apart.
Works Cited
Achebe Chinua, Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1994.
Fiserova, Petra, “Monster: Masculinity as an invisible major theme in hunter’s run” Journal of International Women’s studies. 20.3 (2019); 17-27.
Jeyifo, Biodun. “Okonkwo and his the mother; Things Fall Apart and issues of gender in the constitution of African post-colonial discourse” Callaloo, Vol. 16, no. 4, 1993, pp 847-858. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2932213
Khumalo, Thuso. “African Fathers Urged to Step out of Toxic Masculinity”. Washington: federal information and news dispatch, Inc, 2014.
Singh, Rahul. “Things fall apart as a post-colonial text – an assertion of African culture” Language in India, Aug. 2013, p.271.
Vanzant, Susan. “The Headstrong Historian”: Writing with Things Fall Apart. Research in African Literatures, vol. 46, no.2 (2015), pp 85-103
“Who can be wise, amazed, temp’rate and furious, loyal and neutral, in a moment? No man.” Emma-Rose Devine Reports T he clock of manhood is certainly missing a hand. And in irony, time is changing, society is evolving, but the phrase ‘masculinity’ has been smeared and altered. Further threading through the dignified silence of our society, shackled by misogyny, and distorting our views. The damage is radiating throughout society and leaving a standardised concept of ‘toxic masculinity’. Social and cultural platforms over the years have evolved to normalise society’s construction of toxic masculinity by personifying ideal manhood. Believing that these implication are not impacting society, and in particular you, further elaborates on our society’s standardisation of inhuman ideologies. A multitude of patriarchal nations have resisted to putting an end to gender violence, due to it having unwanted effects on traditional customs.
Numerous countries are protuberant examples of toxic masculinity that have further been ingrained into the traditional and cultural customs. Masculinity in our society is worrying and further exemplifies the obscurity of the objectification of women embedded throughout My Last Duchess. “Though his fair daughter’s self, as I avowed / At starting, is my object” (Browning, R., 1842). Note the reference to the next potential duchess as an object. This is explicit wording from Robert Browning to exemplify the meaning of toxic masculinity throughout the Victorian Era. The Duke regards his wife as an art object to be owned and perhaps thrown away when unsatisfactory. However, the effects on toxic masculinity can be weaved throughout society through societal and cultural settings. Femininity and masculinity in social and cultural contexts have become toxic ideologies throughout Macbeth. The illogicality of males and females is the most obvious representation of Shakespeare’s contradiction on what constitutes gender. Shakespeare expresses his thoughts on sexism by using Lady Macbeth as his voice. Personifying the contradiction of the accepted social hierarchy of the Elizabethan era. “Come, you spirits / That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here” (1.5.38-39) (Shakespeare, W., Raffel, B., & Bloom, H., 1606). Thus, exemplifying the removal of all embodiments of feminist qualities to ensure control.
Shakespeare and Browning’s portrayal of the Elizabethan and Victorian society is a reflection on our culture’s misconceptions of social evolution. A failure to evolve can be considered an adherence to the conception of men’s objectification of women. In its purest sign of toxic, masculinity has led women to be more masculine throughout the ages to further gain power. Thus, defining the actions of numerous characters throughout both the poem and play, embodying those of the pillars of modern masculinity. Modern versions of masculinity have taken a similar approach to femvertising. The new campaign, Gillette, has thoughtfully and critically examined what “The Best A Man Can Get”, the brands iconic slogan, means today. Tackling issues of toxic masculinity in a post #MeToo era. As a result, some perceive the advertisement as negative – a condemnation as opposed to a celebration of boys. Gillette, the shaving company, has been bombarded with both abuse and praise after having 200,000 comments just days after being launched. The number of likes hit 287, 000. While, the number of dislikes exceeded 769,000. (Topping, Lyons and Weaver, 2019) Angry comments covered a range of issues throughout the advertisement.
All contributing to the same delusional comment, ‘Society is falling apart due to men simply not being “manly” enough’. Do we need to indulge into prehistoric times to ensure men can be considered “manly” enough through their toxic behaviours? We need to reimagine what masculinity can be, rather than sticking with outdated notions of the past. During 1842, the publication of My Last Duchess, women were oppressed. Yet, the poem indulges less on the feudalistic ways of medieval Europe, but rather focuses more of an attack on the bias, overbearing views and rules associated with this era. Robert Browning use of the wording, “E’en then would be some stooping, and I choose / Never to stoop” (Browning, R., 1842), definitely depicts a particular revealing of the Dukes character. Speaking to a servant during this time, further implies that he saw his wife as someone lower than the servant of a noble of a lower ranking. Further personifying the accepted social and cultural hierarchy of the Victorian era. Have this ideologies really advanced from Shakespearean century? Macbeth, explores the contentious definition of masculinity by portraying the male protagonist’s to struggle to uphold and establish his independence as a man. Throughout the play, it can be concluded that Macbeth switches between two differential statuses; one embodies absolute susceptibility and the other defines a perfect example of idyllic heroic manhood.
The ideology of heroism positions Macbeth to possess masculinity which is paradoxically woven within violent aggression and nobility. Macbeth soon comes to recognise the absurdity to upholding such deceitful and deluding notions past the murder of Duncan and the guards. However, when Macbeth is interrogated by Macduff on the killing of the guards, Macbeth public criticizes the views on man. His response of “Who can be wise, amazed, temp’rate and furious, loyal and neutral, in a moment? No man’ (Shakespeare, W., Raffel, B., & Bloom, H., 1606) can be further linked to Shakespeare’s outcry of the impossibility of establishing ideal manhood. Further exemplifying our nation’s non – altruistic society and exhibiting our need to let go of the hierarchal statues of men. We must not follow these primeval precedents. Male violence doesn’t emanate from something considered immoral or toxic that’s crept into the nature of masculinity itself. But rather, it is constructed through men’s social and political settings, the construction of which set them up for inner conflict over social expectations and male entitlement. Toxic masculinity is especially harmful in the ideology, that it holds structure of patriarchy that stop women from accessing certain positions for power or more essentially challenges their basic human rights. These toxic behaviours continue to become more paradoxical.
The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare states that 1 woman a week is killed by a current or former partner. Imagine the lives of the women that have been lost. The lives of the women that will be lost. The lives of those dearest. Your life. You don’t have to imagine. It’s here. And it’s not going away any time soon. However, this does not contradict our patriarchal society. Appearing to embody those of the pillars of prehistoric culture. Note Browning’s use of dramatic monologue to emphasising the Dukes dominant role in the situation. Due to the Duchesses “spot of joy…I gave commands; / Then all smiles stopped together” (Browning, R., 1842). The attention that the Duke wishes to possess was not given in full, defining the Duchess as someone he simply cannot handle. This allows him to give commands for her death. Notice the obvious parallels between modern society and prehistoric era. Deaths’ of women are still occurring at the hands of toxic masculinity. Do the deaths of women need to be slammed across news screens or smacked against our faces for people to get a grip on the matter at hand? I guess not, that would only further standardise the objectification of women. The death of Lady Macduff and her children was initiated by Macbeth himself. Post finding out the death of his family, Macduff further asks “What, all my pretty chickens and their dam / At one fell swoop?”(Shakespeare, W., Raffel, B., & Bloom, H., 1606) Shakespeare’s choice of wording, “chicken” in particular, illustrates the vulnerability and helplessness Lady Macduff possessed. The use of this terminology further implies men’s superiority through the helplessness women embody.
Violence is a key influence in the term toxic masculinity. However, it can be further defined that the death of women has become a way to ensure man’s ability to control those around them. Social and cultural norms are highly influential over violence. These norms are further creating an environment that fosters and migrates violence and its toxic effects. In a world where the revolution of science and technology have been our pinpoint for celebration, has led to the question, are humans, the beating heart of society, making the change for evolution? Or rather is it survival of the fittest? Allowing our downfall to impact all. Quite simply, the answer that we beckon for is explicit throughout classic literature. The social and cultural parallels between prehistoric and modern society have evolved to normalise the construction of toxic masculinity. We need to redefine what masculinity can be rather then sticking with outdated notions of the past. For society to move forward, We need to stop looking back.
Every year, approximately 45,000 people lose their lives through the act of suicide, making this the tenth leading cause of death across America. Statistics show that it is more common for men to go through with self-harm and be successful than women. In the military, suicide rates have been significantly increasing over the years. This is the second cause of death in the United States military, majority involving the use of firearms due to the easy access of these weapons. According to an article from “Uniformed Services University: Center for Deployment Psychology”, “the most common individual stressors identified for both military suicide decedents and military suicide attempts were relationship problems, administrative/legal issues and workplace difficulties.” This does not include any undergoing medical conditions or the effects an individual goes through during and after deployment. A major example of this would be that only thirty to forty percent of veterans out of more than 2.5 million active duty members who were deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan since 9/11 have asked for help relating to their mental health. This is due to the impact of what is known as the military’s masculine culture, making these men feel as though they are to push through everything and continuing to be tough throughout every aspect of life, truly causing more harm in the end. Military masculinity in relation to our men’s mental health has a great influence, resulting in the number of suicides to continually rise.
Masculinity is separated into four categories: hegemony, subordination, complicity, and marginalization. Hegemony rules over all forms of masculinity and femininity because it motivates men to display identity traits consisting of violence, aggression, toughness, and many more characteristic qualities pertaining to this kind of manner. Due to one of the major objectives of the military standing for the protection of woman and children, every soldier must not represent or demonstrate any feminine-like attributes.
Hence the reason why the military break down men so much to the point where they no longer even uphold their original identity as a normal civilian. When men first undergo training, the majority of the practice is to eliminate all femininity qualities about one’s character. Once this process is complete, then that individual is now the definition of a “true man” in the eyes of the military system. Therefore, because of cultural masculinity and the pressure society puts upon people to follow specific gender identities, military masculinity has surfaced and shaped the way in which the military teaches our men how to think and behave. Military masculinity is a form of hegemonic masculinity. As a result of military service, this type of masculinity is assembled. Among various societies, it is thought that boys become men through the initiation process into the military institution. Militarized masculinity adds to the achievement of power and violence. Masculinity itself is not necessarily “violent” but by going through military service, this becomes the outcome. This form of masculinity molded and maintained within this environment shaped the idea of the construction about the ‘other’.
As stated in “Tough Obedience: How is Militarized Masculinity Linked with Violence in the Army”, “Gender theory makes use of comparisons to construct the binary opposition between masculinity and femininity. Just as the soldier is conditioned to consider the enemy as the “other” – someone who does not deserve to live – and thereby justifying the destruction of the enemy through violence and killing, so is the same logic used to justify eradicating femininity to make it possible for militarized masculinity to occur. It follows that the army is a system in which the soldier is being taught to use violence as a means of destroying the ‘other’, where that ‘other’ can be just as much perceived as the enemy both within the same army unit or beyond it. Femininity – perceived as the total opposite of masculinity – becomes the “enemy other”, which needs to be dominated and destroyed.” (Abrahamyan, 2017) Thus, the role of a soldier consists of demonstrating the capabilities to obey commands from higher ranks and illustrate strength in every aspect of service.
Determining the variances between masculinity, gender and identity are complex. One has to have a profound understanding of the social, cultural, environmental, and biological concepts to emphasize the differences. Consequently, the primary goal of this essay is to gain in-depth insights into the formation of the social aspects highlighted above.
In this case, acquiring information from books such as Young Masculinities: Understanding Boys in Contemporary Society by Frosh, Phoenix, and Pattman, Male Impersonators: Men Performing Masculinity by Simpson, and The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities and Schooling by Ghaill will assist in seeing the role of educational sphere in the development of masculinity by highlighting the importance of emotions, affection, fluidity, and lively experience of this social aspect. In the end, the conclusions are drawn to summarize the primary outcomes of the paper associated with the new insights of masculinity.
Gender, Identity, and Masculinity
Gender, identity, and masculinity are highly dependent on external factors such as culture and social constructionism theory of gender. Despite the contrary, the differences tend to exist. For instance, in comparison to sex, gender is not a genetic phenomenon, and it is dependent on a plethora of circumstances. The physiological features of an individual do not determine it.
The key definers of gender are its performativity and relational nature, as an individual interferes in the social interactions associated with the particular gender role (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). It is a socially constructed phenomenon due to the well-established perceptions of femininity and masculinity in the community. The primary issue is the need to perform it and act and dress as a representative of a particular gender (Ghaill 1998). The society accepts the deviations from gender’s commonly recognized norms and contributes to the fluidity of one’s perception of self.
As for the identity, it is highly based on the cultural dogmas and their collaboration with historical events and levels of power (Ghaill 1998). The development of identity is a continuous process, and the masculine self-identification pertains to the presence of dominant features associated with the manhood reflected in culture (Ghaill 1998). Thus, the sense of masculinity is highly connected to social institutions such as schools. For instance, the majority of researchers refer to the fact that “masculine perspectives are pervasively dominant” (Ghaill 1998, p. 2). Despite the essence of education institutions, the perceived male’s behaviour is affected by ideologies and dogmas of a particular culture (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
The externalities are the primary differences that influence the definition of identity, masculinity, and gender. Gender is highly dependent on social norms while being altered by the behavioral patterns common in society. The identity has a connection with the cultural dogmas and beliefs of the community. In the intervening time, the masculinity pertains to the understanding of the gravity of power and domination. Apart from the cultural dogmas, one active contributor to the development of masculine and feminine behavioral patterns is an educational institution. Teachers often employ particular role models associated with a particular gender and create a perception of femininity and masculinity among students.
Types of Masculinity and Performance
Simultaneously, it remains evident that gender is performed differently and reflected in our behavioural patterns, appearances, and decision-making principles. A similar concept can be applied to the doctrines of masculinity. According to the various theoretical frameworks and social theories, one of its sub-definitions is hegemonic masculinity. It remains apparent that the critical element that shapes of this type of masculinity are an emphasis on dominant cultural modes (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
In this case, the hegemonic masculinity prioritizes the essence of supremacy and is contradistinguished to the nature of femininity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). It is the commonly accepted mode, and it is reflected by portraying the leading position of males in the society, their heterosexuality, and a desire to compete (Ghaill 1998). For instance, one of the examples of performance is having achievements in sports and taking care of children and animals (Ghaill 1998). Adult males and young children feel the significance of this characteristic and value it.
Thus, the fluidity of gender implies that the masculinity has different variations. Despite having well-established masculine features and being delineated by the communal interactions, values, culture and social class, the nature of the performance of masculinity is still dynamic and open to changes (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
In this case, there is a concept of masculinity, which does not have as authoritarian dogmas as hegemonic one has. This type implies the elements of feminization, and one of the examples is presenting flowers to the male teacher by the male student (Ghaill 1998). This behavior is viewed as atypical to masculinity and often causes dissonance in the group or community.
Simultaneously, it was revealed in the interviews that the emblematic masculine roles taken among boys are machos and lads (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001; Ghaill 1998). For instance, lads did not highlight their schoolwork of high importance and attempted to intervene into the school system (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
As for the macho lads, this social group had similar perceptions of the academic excellence, but they claimed that the school assignments have to be completed by girls. The representatives of these social groups wanted to gain attention and respect by their strength and dominance. On the contrary, honor students expressed high concerns about academic performance, and this aspect differentiated them from the rest of the class.
Masculinity and Interpretive Methodology
The controversial nature of masculinity is a clear driver for conducting numerous studies in this field to understand its conceptualization. In this case, it is critical to depict the correlation between masculinity and interpretive methodology. Initially, this type of the research pertains to the importance of the social construction theory and the possibility to access reality via “boys’ aspirations and anxieties, their pride and loss” (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001, p. 13). In other words, it assists in seeing the connection between the personal, social values, and behavior of a person. In the context of the topic of masculinity, Frosh, Phoenix, Pattman and Ghaill tend to portray the interdependence between the principles of masculinity in their behavioral patterns, values, and decision-making.
In the interim, this research helps see the presence of the social construction theory of gender in the shaping of masculinity. For instance, it is impractical to assess the masculinity of the participants separately from their background, style, and culture (Ghaill 1998). The research reflects that conflicts with the boys’ personal anxieties and social norms are the primary drivers for showing the male’s competitiveness and strength (Ghaill 1998). It remains apparent that the participants have to retain the commonly accepted characteristics of hegemonic masculinity and adapt their individual traits to the social expectations. In this case, the interpretive methodology can reveal that predominance of the hegemony is the primary cause of the development of homophobia in adolescents and younger boys (Ghaill 1998). The interpretive research tends to highlight these connections and has a tendency to reveal gaps such as disparities and stereotyping linked to masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation.
Fluidity of Masculinity
Sequentially, fluidity is one of the critical matters, which have an effect on the performance of masculinity. Despite a clearly identified nature of masculinity and a rationale for its development, the fluid masculinity cannot be disregarded. This aspect implies the presence of variations in the commonly accepted characteristics of masculinity and its dependence on the personal, professional, and social values. Thus, in the context of this case, it is vital to depict the changes in the educational sphere, as this theme is vehemently discussed in the books.
In spite of the importance of hegemonic masculinity in the learning process, the modern classroom tends to be extremely tolerant by making transparent transitions between male and female roles (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). For instance, the example of Oliver shows that not complying with the initial definition of masculinity such as loving football and disregarding schoolwork did not question his manhood (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). His answers and behavior did not create a wrongful perception of his sexuality, and female students and teachers appreciated his attention and efforts (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
Other boys’ orientation was questioned since they did not comply with the ‘tough’ definition of masculinity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). The behavior of the described participants was tolerated by girls and teachers. However, the majority of the male students in the class reflected another variation of masculinity, which embraces aggression and toughness to comply with the commonly accepted masculine principles.
Males’ Affections and Emotions
Despite being socially constructed, the masculinity has a reflection of the personality and the behavioral patterns. In the interim, it has a potential correlation with cultural dogmas, as the majority of the rituals are defined by the culture (Ghaill 1998). Concurrently, race, cultural background, and parenting have a critical effect on the understanding of males’ traits and characteristics (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). A combination of these concepts highlights that men’s performance of affection and emotions can be differentiated from the commonly accepted behavioral patterns among women.
As for the example for the emotions employed by male students, Frosh, Phoenix and Pattman offer an analysis of the boys’ responsiveness and emotionality during the interviews (2001). In this instance, the authors refer to narrative and thematic assessments to depict the correlation between the biographical elements and masculine identity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
It remains apparent that initially, the boys were associated as being less emotional and talkative. However, the study revealed that during the individual interviews, the participants were open are expressed their opinions about girls, bullying, homophobia, and racism (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Subsequently, the directness of their responses decreased during the group interviews, but the male students were contented joking and discussing the topics (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Nevertheless, the sense of competitiveness and desire to show their strength did not allow them to express their negative attitudes about bullying.
Their emotionality and affection to girls were completely different during the mixed-gender group discussions. In this case, the boys felt like the dominant participants and did not want to show their weaknesses. It remains evident that a commixture of these factors portrays that boys have a tendency to adjust their emotionality and affections to the commonly accepted concepts of hegemonic masculinity. In this case, the males cannot complain and present their feelings openly, as it creates a perception of homosexuality and a high-level feminization.
Working Class Adolescents and Masculinity
Due to the dependence of masculinity on an extended variety of social factors, it pertains to the fact that adolescents from working class families have a different understanding of this concept. Thus, their behavioral patterns and attitudes tend to reflect their values associated with masculinity. Consequently, in the context of this topic, it is vital to highlight the effect of the social class on the self-esteem and attitude. For instance, the private school boys from a high socio-economic status initially emphasized their “intellectual and moral superiority” (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
The excellence in the academic performance was the most significant part of their future economic stability and career development (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). The progress of these social values pertained to the principles of masculinity accepted in the family, as, in this case, the perception of masculinity is linked to hard work and economic independence.
On the contrary, the boys from the middle-class and working families had a radically different understanding of masculinity. The public schoolers emphasized the need to be aggressive and did not consider that the schoolwork will affect their future lives (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). This ideographic London sample helped see that these concepts are the commonly accepted principles of hegemonic masculinity. Instantaneously, the current changes in the working class emphasized the need that individuals from the working class have to change their perception of masculinity and be prepared for subordinator roles (Ghaill 1998). This alteration does not comply with the initial model of hegemonic masculinity, but it will help male students to adapt to the reality.
As for the individualistic understanding of the masculinity, it is vehemently affected by the attitudes and values of the family (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). In the intervening time, it is also influenced by race and ethnicity. For example, being a Turkish student differentiates a male individual from his classmates and creates a dissimilar perception of masculinity and the lack of understanding between students from dissimilar cultures (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). The isolation of the particular ethnic groups defines a communication gap between students and makes it impossible to copy the common masculinity identification in the classroom.
Embodied Experience and Construction of Masculinity
Despite the essence of social, cultural, and historical factors to the understanding of the critical features of masculinity, the embodied experience plays a critical role in the development of the particular performance and behavioral patterns. The strength of masculinity is dependent on the feeling of sexuality, “sexual potency”, and distinct physical features of the male’s body (Ghaill 1998, p.91). This aspect had a critical impact on the self-esteem of the individual while the topic was crucial for the everyday conversations (Ghaill 1998). The physical features of a male student not only shifted the confidence but also identified him as a heterosexual.
The athletic body shape and the absence extra weight also contributed to the positive perspective as being masculine in the society (Ghaill 1998). Playing sports such as football is one of the sports to ensure one’s manhood. Consequently, the lack of obesity is an outcome of this lifestyle. Based on the embodied experiences mentioned above, it could be revealed that the construction of masculinity and the ability of an individual to comply with its features are also dependent on the physical condition and the appearance of a person.
Reflection of Masculinity in a Real Life
The lively experiences of perceived masculinity in the educational sphere are the critical topics of the selected readings. In this case, the majority of the information is gathered with the assistance of the interpretive studies, which reveal the boys’ perceptions of their identity. In the book by Frosh, Phoenix, and Pattman, the authors emphasize responsibility, strength, and involvement in sports as critical parts of masculinity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). In this instance, both girls and boys define football, as a critical attribute of male’s identity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
In this case, playing football portrays one’s strength and helps the boys gain respect among their classmates. Another example of masculinity is the fact that male students are eager to take responsibility for their pets and tend to tell stories about their cats and dogs with love and respect (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). The examples of this book show that male students, who participated in this study have a clear sense of masculinity and tend to reflect it in their behavioral patterns and values. The conceptualization of masculinity is acquired from the community and by means of social construction of gender theory, as in their prioritizing typical masculine values will define their manhood.
Ghaill also refers to the real life examples in his book The Making of Men: Masculinities, Sexualities and Schooling. At the beginning of the book, the author invokes his real life experience and mentions the fact that one of his students gave him flowers in the middle of the schoolyard (Ghaill 1998). Several days later, the boy was involved in the fights while trying to prove his heterosexuality (Ghaill 1998). In this case, the experience of the boy, which is atypical to masculine behavior, will create misunderstandings in the society leading to the development of the conflict. Thus, he tried to restore his image by showing his power in the fight, as power and supremacy are the definers of the hegemonic masculinity.
Embodiment, Masculinity, and Their Relational Nature
Despite the gravity of psychological component, the masculinity has to be depicted by physical characteristics. The embodiment implies the physical representation of masculinity by using tangible forms (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Regarding physical exemplification, the hegemonic masculinity is identified by distinct males’ physiological attributes and the potential absence of extra weight (Ghaill 1998). It is contrasted to femininity, as the females tend to be different from males by their physical appearance. Subsequently, having some features of the woman’s outlook will reduce the level of masculinity.
The relational nature of masculinity is displayed in the form of ideas, notions, behavioral patterns, and attitudes. It remains apparent that the hegemonic masculinity clearly establishes the features of a typical male. Thus, having deviations in any attributes will cause shaping the particular attitude towards an individual. In this case, the males with the representative hegemonic typology tend to show aggression towards people with the lack of toughness and responsibility (Ghaill 1998).
The compliance with the features of hegemonic masculinity increases the feeling of superiority regarding intellectual skills and economic stability. As for the femininity, the males tend to distinguish feminine and masculine activities. For instance, the manhood implies being involved in sports. Concurrently, the boundaries are transgressing while minimizing a gap between men and women (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Currently, the activities such as football are gaining popularity among women, and men become involved in atypical masculine roles.
Overall Experience of Masculinity
It remains apparent that other concepts of masculinity imply emotional and relational aspects. The principles of masculinity emphasize the replication of the dominant narratives into behavioral patterns. In this case, the typical features of masculinity include that competitiveness, toughness, and responsibility (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Meanwhile, in some cases, it involves aggression, but it is one of the critical approaches to articulate dominance (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
It is often claimed that the males cannot express their emotions clearly (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). It remains apparent that they have a tendency share their feelings during individual conversations while they do not want to demonstrate their weaknesses to the community. This aspect might damage their image of masculinity and create difficulties restoring it in future. The typical muscular lifestyle implies being involved in sports and as a consequence athletic body shape prevails. Thus, the male physical attributes and sexual attributes pertain to the level of self-esteem, masculinity, and heterosexuality (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001).
Impersonating Masculinity: Homosexuality and Feminism
The analysis depicted above highlights that masculinity was formed by the sequence of the historical and social events. Thus, the history contributed to the development of the particular male rituals such as shaving. From the early childhood, the little boys “are fascinated by the ritual their fathers enact before the bathroom mirror every morning” (Simpson 1994, p. 110). It seems that this ritual is a necessity and implies only removing facial hair. However, it is not the only notion and idea of this action. The overall shaving process is very personal and is highly referred to the embodiment of the masculinity. This ritual reflects man’s sexuality by demonstrating manhood and high levels of testosterone (Simpson 1994).
There are many associations, which tend to impersonate the masculinity. In his book Male Impersonators: Men Performing Masculinity, Simpson refers to bodybuilding, heterogeneous sexual orientation, tattoos, and sports (Simpson 1994). Nevertheless, simultaneously, the author does not underestimate the significance of gays and feminists on the development of definers of masculinity (Simpson 1994). For instance, the development of gay movement is the opposite to the concepts of hegemonic masculinity, which supports heterosexuality.
Feminism also damages a clear understanding of man’s position in the society. Currently, the females try to expand their possibilities by claiming complete equality. The development of these movements is one of the drivers for the desire of men to comply with the concepts of hegemonic masculinity. It helps them regain their image and improve their position in the society. The modern businesses consider it as an opportunity and provide a male customer with a plethora of choices.
Marketing and Hegemonic Masculinity
The advertisers and marketers take advantage of the commonly accepted attributes of masculinity. For instance, not being a fan of football does not guarantee that one would not buy a raiser. This item is often related to the dominance of hegemonic masculinity and creates the associated emotions by proposing its design. The hegemonic masculinity implies constructing the concepts opposite to femininity (Frosh, Phoenix & Pattman 2001). Thus, the razor makers take advantage of this theory and prioritize typical masculine attributes in the design. It shifts the demand and increases the popularity of razors among men.
As for the specific examples, it is Gillette with its Gillette Sensor marketing campaign. Its design reminds a personal about the aerospace, which often associated with a “man-made technology” solely (Simpson 1994, p. 112). The product coverage uses the images of football, as a sport is one of the critical definers of masculinity (Simpson 1994). It remains evident that using these concepts is ample to attract a typical male purchaser. To ensure the effectiveness of its marketing campaign, Gillette employs “narcissism and homoeroticism” (Simpson 1994, p. 119).
The advertisement uses the reflection of ‘successful’ man in the mirror and creates a perception that every male consumer can acquire a similar image. Simultaneously, Gillette uses slogan “the best shave the man can get” (Simpson 1994, p. 112). Using this technique underlines that every man is a winner. A blend of these approaches implies that man is a dominant participant of the social interactions, and Gillette gives him a possibility to be competitive. It remains evident that these concepts are the critical definers of hegemony masculinity and taking advantage of them shifts the demands and revenues.
Conclusion
In the end, it remains apparent that gender, masculinity, and identity are defined by the historical events, cultural dogmas, and interpersonal communications. In this case, the hegemonic masculinity is gaining its popularity, as it is one of the tools to restore the image of the male’s dominance. As for the learning environment in schools, it was revealed that educational entities have a substantial impact on the formation of masculinity among young children. The instructors strictly rely on the principles of hegemonic masculinity.
It is beneficial in terms of developing male social identity and distinction between feminine and masculine gender roles. Synchronously, this definition establishes a gap by increasing homophobia among children. Hegemonic masculinity emphasizes the importance of heterosexual orientation and does not accept homosexuality. Simultaneously, this concept has an adverse impact on the recognition of rights of different races and ethnicities since the children have a well-established image of behavior, which might be dissimilar in various cultures. A combination of these factors pertains to the fact that the modern educational system requires modifications, as it does not support the essential principles of tolerance, freedom of sexual orientation, and equality.
Despite an adverse impact of hegemonic masculinity on the tolerance and equality of rights, the marketers take advantage of its key characteristics. In this case, they tend to attract men by using associations with sports, strength, and power. The example of Gillette shows that referring to competitiveness, male dominance, and narcissism shifts the demand and generates additional revenues. Currently, buying and using these products assists male consumers in regaining their masculine image while contrasting their distinct features to homosexuality and feminism.
Reference List
Frosh, S, Phoenix, A & Pattman R 2001, Young masculinities: understanding boys in contemporary society, New York, Palgrave.
Ghaill, T 1998, The making of men: masculinities, sexualities and schooling, Open University Press, Buckingham.
Simpson, M 1994, Male impersonators: men performing masculinity, Routledge, New York.
During the recent decades, it is possible to observe the signs of the masculinity crisis in the rural Wolof communities, which are associated with changes in the women’s social status. This masculinity crisis is noticed with references to the male frustration and even aggression revealed in men’s attempts to preserve the domination positions and to control women in relation to such aspects as domestic labor, social activities, participation in the trade relations, open sexuality, and financial independence.
Trying to prevent the development of the crisis in the form of decreasing the male authority in the society, the male representatives of the Wolof communities continue to condemn women, ignore women’s complaints and the female rights for expressing individualism. Declaring the principles of the male authority in the society, men intend to prevent the further corruption of the previously patriarchal society.
To understand the observed tendencies, it is necessary to refer to the factors which affected the development of the masculinity crisis within the communities. Thus, the implementation of the post-colonial period’s policies and social principles led to liberalization of the society in relation to expanding the possibilities for active trade and performance within the rural markets.
The society was transformed regarding the changes in the economic relations because women received the right to participate in the social and economic life of the community with references to the petty trade when men started to lose their positions not only as the authorities in the society’s activities but also as the authorities responsible for the agricultural and trade sectors in the rural Wolof communities.
Following the political and social changes in the Senegalese society which are associated with the end of the colonial era, it is possible to refer to the changes in the women’s status basing on the examples provided in such films as Faat Kine, Tableau Ferraille and Moolaade.
The possible developmental schema related to the women’s status in the Senegalese society can be based on the opposition between the principles of the patriarchal society and the modern principles typical for the liberalized society. Thus, the Senegalese were responsible only for the domestic labor and were dominated by men decades ago, and today the female population in the country tries to receive the social privileges traditionally typical only for men.
From this point, although only patriarchal principles worked within the society several decades ago, today two paradigms are followed in the society because patriarchal principles are followed, but women also referred to the aspects of liberalization and freedom in the society.
This idea is reflected in Tableau Ferraille with references to the opposite behavioral patterns followed by the female characters of Gagnesiri and Kine, who have the opposite visions in relation to the role of a woman in the society. Furthermore, the reflections on this idea are also observed in Faat Kine because Faat Kine who is oriented to freedom in actions and thoughts and to economic independence is depicted in opposition to many Senegalese women who have to follow the traditional patriarchal norms and roles.
The problem of controversial opposition is also presented in Moolaade because in spite of Colle’s attempts to protect young women with the help of the moolaade ritual, many women brought up in the patriarchal society are inclined to reject Colle’s vision of the issue because men condemn the idea of moolaade as the protective ritual to avoid genital cutting.
The change in time and events from a conventional world to one that is sophisticated and modern has been accompanied by changes in representation of masculinity and femininity. This is with regard to how the contemporary media represents both man and woman and its position on this.
Contrary to the conventional style of representation where the woman was overshadowed by the man, she is now gaining representation in a powerful and autonomic manner that reveals her self-confidence. This paper will bring into light the changing, as well as the adamant phenomenon of representation of masculinity and femininity by the contemporary media.
How Contemporary Media represents Masculinity and Femininity
The great shift to contemporary visual media has been accompanied by a change in the representation of women. According to the contemporary media, the woman is faced with a lot of responsibilities which she must see to it that they are all handled accordingly. As a result the media has brought out the woman as one who is faced with a lot of challenges, making it difficult for her to live up to other people’s expectations.
However, it has been shown that, amidst their dilemmas, women resort to traditional intervention with regard to femininity for a solution. Different articles will explain the different ways which women act in relation to femininity. Men on the other hand have always taken up the authoritarian role that depicts power and strength (Leavy, Gnong and Andrea 261-292).
Typical images of the modern woman, for instance pop stars like Britney Spears and Jennifer Lopez represent a unique kind of femininity. In this kind of representation, the woman is independent and entitled to her own life. This shows the liberation of women while compared to what was previously the perception of femininity where the woman stayed at home to look after her children and husband. Now, the woman has become more educated and liberated, but the main theme of femininity that has not changed a single bit is beauty.
Contemporary media has given the picture of a woman as one who is adventurous, and in so doing has continued to encourage this kind of behavior. This woman is able to capture the best man who is sexually desirable. She then retains this man as long as he is interesting. This kind of woman will also be seen pursuing a great career at the same time.
This is a demonstration of the change in representation of femininity in contemporary media which in other words can be considered to be cosmopolitan. It is very different from the traditional method of representation of women as wives and mothers. It is therefore clear that great changes have occurred and transformed the perception of women by the media (Leavy, Gnong and Andrea 261-292).
The representations of masculinity and femininity by the media are constantly changing and so are the perceptions. The change in representation is what leads to the change in perception as the media is very powerful in influencing people’s attitudes. Previously, the woman was represented as a submissive and obedient wife and mother.
Currently, this is not the case as women strive to gain equality with regard to gender. Men on the other hand were represented as having power and authority over the woman. This representation has however changed as men have turned out to become violent so as to acquire hegemony, which is linked to masculinity (Andersen and Gray 446-450).
Contemporary media may have a negative impact on the representation of the woman and associated femininity. For example, the implications of the media on pornography tend to have a negative impact on the women as opposed to men whose hegemony is very evident. The contemporary media fosters growth and availability of pornographic materials.
However, as pornography grows, so does its violent nature that is entailed in its content. The video, which is the latest kind of contemporary media, shows very sad sexual fantasies. The perception brought out by this kind of representation is cruelty and unfriendliness to the femininity of women but on the other hand, encourages dominance by the man. This dominance has been portrayed through activities of sexual molestation (Andersen and Gray 446-450).
Femininity and masculinity are two different kinds of images which are seen to vary considerably. The femininity of a woman in contemporary media is shown through pictures that bring out the beauty and attractiveness of the woman. The appearance of a woman in enhancing her femininity in certain jobs especially in the tourism industry is very important.
The femininity of a woman is portrayed by her feminine appearance. A feminine appearance requires the woman to make her hair, wear make-up and suitable uniform that enhance her femininity. This is opposed to men whose attractiveness or masculinity with regard to the physical body is not required for the application or maintenance of a job.
Irrespective of the empowerment that women have obtained, the media still maintains a position of hegemony with regard to gender. An example of this is where, irrespective of the masculine women like Cristina Yang in Grey’s Anatomy and feminine males like George O’Malley, conventional gender expectations are very evident, representing either femininity or masculinity.
This can be argued from the point that women continue to be attractive even if they tend to drift towards masculinity. On the other hand, the masculinity aspect among men who try to act in a feminine way is dominant thus will persist (Leavy, Gnong and Andrea 261-292).
Contemporary media has used the mind-body dichotomy to bring out differences between men and women and associated masculinity and femininity respectively. This aspect of body and mind is seen to create disparity between masculinity and femininity. Masculinity places a lot of emphasis on the mind while femininity is all about the body.
A quote from Bartky Sandra “Woman’s space is not a field in which her bodily intentionality can be freely realized but an enclosure in which she feels herself positioned and by which she is confined” depicts this (cited in Leavy, Gnong and Andrea 261-292).
The concept of women’s space is taken to bring out a common idea of enclosed space. It could mean power or lack of power. This space could also be a symbolic representation of the woman’s body as it is perceived to be associated with gender performance. On the other hand, the masculinity of men is not confined to their bodies.
It entails attitudes, ability to think and perception. The dichotomy used reveals that as opposed to women, the masculinity of men is more realized by their ability to hold power and think wisely as opposed to a woman whose femininity is in her beauty (Andersen and Gray 446-450).
Conclusion
The media is actively involved in representation of both men and women in the content of masculinity and femininity respectively. The perception of masculinity and femininity will continue changing for as long the media keeps on changing the representations of both men and women. Despite the changing representations, one thing is for sure, femininity of a woman with regard to beauty can never change. On the other side, masculinity and power are inseparable.
Annotated Bibliography
O’ Barr, William. Representations of Masculinity and Femininity in Advertisements. Advertising Educational Foundation, 2006.
The article by O’Barr on representations of masculinity and femininity, asserts that advertisements that are represented by the media form a strong ground for emulation and reaction by the concerned parties.
The relevance of this article with regard to the topic at hand is brought about in its explanation of what is entailed in masculinity and femininity. Masculinity is associated with power, virility, competitiveness, strength and athleticism. Femininity on the other hand is related to nurturance, beauty, cooperation and submissiveness.
The article argues that both men and women indulge in different activities that reveal their femininity or masculinity. The woman will bring out her femininity through her beauty and provocative postures that lay much emphasis on her sexuality. The femininity of a woman is used to show beauty, attractiveness, passiveness and cooperation.
Masculinity on the other hand is associated with aggression, power and strength. Among other aspects of masculinity and femininity that will change, the ones mentioned above are inherent as they are used to define the difference between a man and a woman.
It is very clear that both men and women have different roles to play in order to show their masculinity and femininity respectively as represented by different kinds of media. It is worth noting the masculinity and femininity begins at birth after determining the sex of a child. The media has been used to enhance this difference by demonstrating the different ways through which a woman can show her femininity. In addition, it has been applied to represent and show how masculinity is manifested in men (O’ Barr 213-221).
Millington, Bradley. Learning Masculinities: Youth, the Media, and Physical Education. Queen’s University, 2004.
According to the article by Millington, the media is filled with stereotypes about men and masculinity. This is especially true with reference to violent videos and movies. Since time in memorial, man has always been regarded as the greater sex. Contemporary media represents masculinity in terms of violence.
Men have been seen to engage in violent and brutal acts in an attempt to bring out their masculinity. This may not work well for the young males as they will adopt this kind of behavior too. In a bid to reveal and show their masculinity, cases of violence against women will continue to prevail for as long the media will place masculinity in close link with violence.
This research article is relevant to the topic as it shows how masculinity is represented by the media in the form of violence. This raises a lot of concern on how the young males and females will perceive the different representations by the media. The contemporary media is involved in presenting stereotypes on what is entailed in masculinity and femininity.
The media presents the woman as one who is submissive and in so doing, embraces culture in the view of femininity. On the other hand the highly upheld and believed concept of hegemony with regard to masculinity is represented. However, the current position of both masculinity and femininity is not that which alienates femininity from masculinity as the search of equality continues to be contentious.
This article raises concerns with reference to the perception of representation of masculinity versus femininity by the media. This is because the young people will be greatly influenced by the media to the extent that they will tend to follow what is represented in the media.
The media has always been considered to have a very great impact on the people. This comes about due to misunderstanding that revolves around the issue of representation of masculinity and femininity by the media. This is explained by the fact that people are easily carried away by the media and will tend to follow what the media shows regardless of whether it is favorable or not (Millington, 23-45).
Works Cited
Andersen, Robin & Gray, Jonathan (Eds). Battleground: The Media. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2008.
Leavy, Patricia, Gnong, Andrea & Ross, Lauren. “Femininity, Masculinity, and Body Image Issues and College-Age Women: An In-depth and Written Interview Study of the Mind-Body Dichotomy”. Qualitative Report, 2009 (14), 261-292.
Masculinity refers to the possession of characteristics or qualities that are typical of a man. The concept of masculinity has been given focus by various scholars. Being a man and possessing characteristics considered masculine may not be the same.
There are specific ways in which men are expected to behave for them to be considered masculine. Although O’Brien (36) argues that boys are naturally masculine and have no desire to be something different, there are incidents where some male individuals have admitted that they would be happier if they were born otherwise. This necessitates the question,
Is masculinity a natural phenomenon that comes automatically the moment an individual is born a male?
It is true that when one is born a male, he will most certainly exhibit masculine characteristics. However, this is not always guaranteed. Some characteristics are considered more masculine than feminine. Courage is one such characteristic. The society expects men to be more courageous than women. Courage is therefore considered masculine. However, not all men are courageous enough. Does this make them lesser men?
To answer this question, we may view it from the other side of the coin, should we consider courageous women as more masculine? What are the levels of courage that one would consider enough to make an individual a man? O’Brien answers these questions in parts in this book. As a child grows, the father is the figure of courage and a symbol of protection. As a boy child grows, he is expected to be a winner in the activities he undertakes. That is when he will be considered more masculine.
Femininity as a characteristic is more submissive, less aggressive and the society has not put as much pressure on women as it has on men. Bowker feels the pressure of failing to save his friend Kiowa from death in the shift field (O’Brien 178).He feels that as a man, wining should be an embraced habit in the least, or just a natural phenomenon at best.
Some men who lack courage would find mechanisms to counter this weakness. Azar strikes off as a very cruel man. He is able to perform many acts of courage. As the story continues, we realize that he is emotionally weak and uses cruelty as a defense mechanism to hide that weakness.
Courage and masculinity are concepts that are deeply intertwined in our culture. Courage is almost taken as the other definition for a man. A man without courage is taken to be non-consequential when it comes to handling matters that require men. On pages 20 and 21, the author uses two sentences that give the other side of courage, which is cowardice.
He uses the statements, “cowardice barely contained” and “too frightened to be cowards” to show that even those we expect to be the most courageous in society (men in the armed forces), cowardice cannot be totally ruled out. There are instances where cowardice will overrule courage.
This is a normal phenomenon, especially when someone is faced with a challenging situation that threatens life. Though courageous as soldiers in the battlefield, O’Brien admits that death of Kiowa was really shaking. When Ted Lavender dies of a gunshot in the battlefield, other platoon members were shaken, not knowing when and where the next attack would come from.
Mary Anne Bell is a show of courage. This woman went to the war, courtesy of invitation by her boyfriend, Mark Fossie. She is drawn into the battlefield and forgets all dangers that lurk in every step the Green Berets take in their expeditions.
From the book “Friends” and “Enemies”, acts of courage, associated with masculinity are also demonstrated. This story brings us back to the battlefield.
Dave Jensen shows a great level of bravery in the battlefield. By joining forces with Lee Strunk and other members of the platoon, they show a great sense of courage, always ready to embrace death at any moment. When Dave and Lee get themselves into a fight over a stolen knife, the urge to emerge winner is very evident. Although the knife was the cause of disagreement, the whole issue was a show of strength, with none of the two willing to come out as loser.
The battle seemed not to have ended according to both parties. They therefore signed a very strange and daring pact. They agree that anyone between the two, who will be incapacitated physically during the war, will be murdered. There is a sense of determination in both parties and each was waiting to see the other suffer any little blow in the field.
This would make one of them wheel chaired. When at last Lee broke his leg, we see him filled with fear. All courage and his masculine demeanor are gone. He feels weak and fears for his life. He is very different from the soldier who was so assertive when the pact was signed. In society therefore, courage is closely related to masculinity.
Works Cited
O’Brien, Tim. The Things They Carried: A Work of Fiction. New York: Broadway Books, 1990. Print.