Category: Mars

Aerogels are a type of porous solids that are mostly known for their extreme low densities. This means that because they are open-porous, they are impermeable to gas. Aerogel was created by Dr. Samuel Stephens who discovered it between 1929 and 1930 (A, 2000). Aerogels are the lowest density solids; like the silica aerogel that was three times heavier than air, and, when extracting the air from its pores, can be lighter than it. Aerogels are also transparent because of the presence of silica particles smaller than the wavelength of visible light. Aerogels are open porous and can be made out of a wide array of substances such as silica, carbon, carbon nanotubes, metals, and much more (Aerogel.org, NA).

Aerogels are made by first obtaining a gel and purifying it before processing. Due to the chemical reactions within, it leaves behind impurities all through the liquid interior of the gel and obtrude with the drying process. Purification is produced by immersing the gel in a solvent, allowing the impurities to diffuse and the solvent to penetrate. After that, the gel is laid in a pressure vessel below the same liquid held within its pores. The liquids vapor pressure is then raised as the pressure vessel is heats up to the liquid’s critical temperature. This causes the pressure in the vessel to reach the critical temperature of the liquid which is soon. The critical point is then exceeded, changing it into supercritical fluid (Aerogel.org, 2019). With the supercritical fluid spread throughout the entire vessel, the gel’s fluid is be removed. Next, the vessel is gradually depressurised and cooled to room temperature. Meanwhile, the fluid changes into a gas phase, rather than a liquid because most of the liquid has already been removed, and, an aerogel is left behind (Aerogel.org, 2019). Another way to create silica aerogel is to mix tetraethoxysilane – Si(OC2H5)4 with ethanol and water to make it polymerize creating a water based silica gel.

A solvent, such as methanol, is used to extract and replace water. Silica aerogel is the most common type of aerogel. Silica aerogel is made by separating the liquid from the structure of the silica gel in a way that preserves at least 50% of the gels’ framework’s original volume (Aerogel.org, NA). They have a wide array of uses but are mainly used in high-tech science and engineering.

Terraforming Mars has been a dream that a lot of scientists have thought about. However, in 2018, scientists at the University of Colorado considered the question and have concluded that it is not possible with our current technology.

“Our results suggest that there is not enough CO2 remaining on Mars to provide significant greenhouse warming were the gas to be put into the atmosphere; in addition, most of the CO2 gas is not accessible and could not be readily mobilized. As a result, terraforming Mars is not possible using present-day technology,” said Bruce Jakosky, professor at the Laboratory of Atmosphere and Space Physics at University of Colorado, Boulder. (G, 2019)

A study in Nature Astronomy, suggested that Mars could be habitable if we use new technology and only inhabit small parts of the planet, instead of all of it (G, 2019). This regional approach into making Mars habitable is more achievable than making the entire planet habitable.

Researchers have explained how a thin layer of aerogel could make extensive regions of Mars more habitable. In the latest study, researchers have designed an experiment to replicate how UV light passing through an aerogel dome could change the environment below. They have discovered that using a layer of silica aerogel 2 to 3 centimetres thick, transmitted enough UV to pass through for plants to use for photosynthesis whilst also blocking harmful radiation. This would allow the temperature to increase underneath the dome and allow water to flow and plants to bloom. Many researchers have created ‘strong’ silica aerogels by combining silica precursors with polymers, but the it also resulted in a decrease in transparency and has the addition of polymer meaning there is limited use for these aerogels (Vinayak P, 2017). Although this new aerogel has been created, it is still unknown how people will travel through the dome to get in or out.

Aerogels possess characteristics such as low thermal conductivity, modulus, refractive index, dielectric constant, sound speed, high specific surface area and broad adjustable ranges of the density and the refractive index (especially for silica aerogel); low relative density and high porosity (Ai D, 2013). These characteristics displayed, makes it a perfect material to use when on Mars. The extent of these characteristics can be changed my modifying the process that it is made. For example, to change the pore diameter in the aerogel, the reactant concentrations could be changed.

The construction of using aerogel to make Mars habitable was complex and took many hours of research and discussion between all parties involved. The three main researchers, Robin Wordsworth, Laura Kerber and Charles Cockell all had a major impact in the research of using aerogel. The planning of using aerogel consisted of 4 parties; the researchers, the client, the engineer and the space companies. These parties have to be conscious of the amount of money it will take to create this project and if it can be accomplished with today’s technology. Collaboration with Harvard University, U.S., China, Japan and other countries, in addition to a cluster of proposed private company launches to Mars will be vital as well so that it can be transported to Mars.

In conclusion, aerogels are a type of porous solid that can be used to create life on Mars. This substance can be used to create a ‘dome- like’ structure that will keep the CO2 gases in and therefore raising the temperature inside. This theory was researched by Harvard University and researchers from NASA that gave results saying that it is possible but only when inhabiting small areas. The communication and collaboration between different countries meant that the research was possible and was sped up.

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and is an extremely cold desert world. It is covered in rusty red, iron-rich dust which is why it’s called the “Red Planet”. Mars travels around the Sun in an oval-shaped orbit which means the planet completes one revolution in 687 Earth days (Couper et al 2016). Dry riverbeds on the surface imply the past presence of water but Mars lacks the gravity to hold onto an atmosphere and it is almost devoid of oxygen (Couper et al 2016).

It is possible for water to seep up in places from ice beneath the surface but it would soon be vaporised. This suggest that Mars could have been more Earth-like with a denser atmosphere allowing large bodies of water to be found on the surface. This shows that there is a lot more on Mars that has been undiscovered and waiting for humans to study and research, currently scientists have no direct information about Mars’ interior so who knows what could be down there (‘Mars’ Britannica.com n.d.).

Astronomical research is the study of other planets and celestial objects in the universe, like Mars and the Sun (‘Astronomy’ ScienceDaily.com n.d.). If Mars is the sole focus of astronomical research for the next five to ten years it will help us to learn more about the surface of the planet and what could lie beneath (Malcolm 2017).

Around 4 billion years ago the “Red Planet” wasn’t just red, it had lakes, hot springs, volcanoes, some scientists even believe it had an ocean. If we study Mars we could learn more about its history and how close its features were to that of Earth’s (Malcolm 2017).

Methane has been discovered in the planet’s atmosphere which hints to the existence of life. But if there ever was microscopic life on Mars it would have to be found underground where it would be shielded from the Sun’s cosmic radiation. If we do find the presence of independent life it will help scientists to predict confidently that there will be life throughout the universe (Malcolm 2017).

Seeing as Mars was very close to our own planet’s surface we can see what went wrong and if the same thing could possibly happen to Earth. Scientist’s investigation of what could happen to Earth cannot just be based on one point of data, our Earth. If we are able to study Mars more we can understand the evolution of other planets, ones closely related to Earth, and can take better care of our planet (Carberry & Webster 2017).

There is an argument that Mars shouldn’t be the sole focus for astronomical research. NASA shouldn’t be pouring over USD $2.5 billion into studying a planet that isn’t relevant to us. NASA should be spending more money on our planet and its problems (Yahia 2012). Like the rising problem of climate change, rather than sending space shuttles up into the atmosphere, burning 1.8 million litres of fuel, they could help research the major issues and help society battle them (Layton n.d.). Instead of dreaming about cities on Mars and other planets we should tackle the mistakes we make here on Earth.

We can use the technologies that NASA used to hunt for water on Mars and can adapt it to help fix the serious water problems on Earth (Yahia 2012). I believe that Mars should be the sole focus of astronomical research for the next five to ten years. This is crucial because we can learn more about the “Red Planets” history and how its features were similar to that of Earth’s.

Likewise scientists currently don’t know what lies below the surface but they predict it could lead to the discovery of life on Mars. If we do find microbial life on Mars it will be a huge step forward for humans and finally answer the question are we alone in the universe.

We should also study Mars because it could help us to take better care of our planet, by understanding how other planets evolve. Studying Mars is key for the growth of our society so we should use our technology and resources to expand our knowledge and take us forward into the future of astronomy.

References

1. ‘Astronomy’ n.d., ScienceDaily, viewed 26 October 2019, .
2. Brown, E 2012, ‘Is exploring Mars worth the investment?’ Los Angeles Times, viewed 26 October 2019, .
3. Carberry, C & Webster, J 2017, ‘Six essential reasons why we need to send humans to Mars’, Fox News, viewed 26 October 2019, .
4. Couper, H et al 2016, The Planets: The Definite Visual Guide, S. Larter, London, pp. 110-111.
5. ‘Curiosity Says Farewell to Mars’ Vera Rubin Ridge’ 2019, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, online picture, NASA, viewed 26 October 2019, .
6. Layton, J n.d., ‘Top 5 Ways NASA Helps the Environment’, Howstuffworks, viewed 26 October 2019, .
7. Malcolm, W 2017, ‘The new space race: why we need a human mission to Mars’, The Conversation, Australian Research Council, viewed 24 October 2019, .
8. ‘Mars Once Abundant With Water’ 2015, Voice of America, online picture, viewed 25 October 2019, .
9. ‘Mars’ n.d., Britannica School, Encyclopedia Britannica, viewed 23 October 2019, .
10. ‘Solar System Template’ n.d., edraw, online picture, viewed 25 October 2019, .
11. Yahia, M 2012, ‘Why waste money on the Mars landing?’ houseofwisdom, blog entry, 16:08, 6 August, viewed 25 October 2019, .

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and is easily visible from Earth. In the evening it can be spotted high in the sky and appears to look reddish in colour due to oxidation of iron in the rocks on its surface. Mars has a radius of 3390 kilometres and is about half the size of Earth (Mars Britannica School, 2019; NASA Science, 2019). It shares many similarities with Earth including its rotation of the sun (23.9 hours in duration), year length (687 Earth days) and its axis of rotation (25 degrees) (Mars Britannica School, 2019; NASA Science, 2019). Due to the above factors, it has been a source of great interest to astronomers and the general public.

Since 1960, Mars has been observed during space explorations. The surface, interior, geology and atmosphere on Mars is currently being investigated by a team of NASA’s spacecrafts, (Mars Britannica School, 2019; NASA Science, 2019). Research has indicated that Mars has a central core, rocky mantle and a solid crust and is regularly hit by dust storms, which have changed its landscape over billions of years. Mars has the largest volcano in the solar system and a massive Martian canyon system (Mars Britannica School, 2019; NASA Science, 2019). Recent astronomical research has also discovered that Mars once had liquid water and experienced a huge flood billions of years ago (NASA Science, 2019). The atmosphere on Mars, composed of mostly carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon gases, is thin and unprotected from the sun’s radiation, which also leads to temperatures falling to -153 degrees Celsius (Mars Britannica School, 2019; NASA Science, 2019). Scientists are currently looking for signs of life which may have existed many years ago.

There are more arguments for than against that Mars should be the sole focus of astronomical research for the next 5-10 years. Over many decades, there have been more than 40 space craft attempts made to observe Mars (Phys.org, 2012). The main points are that Mars is close to Earth, it shares many similarities with Earth, it may have had life and be possible for future colonisation by humans.

Mars is close to and similar to Earth

Mars is often called Earth’s twin planet, due to its proximity and many similarities. It is important to discover as much as possible about Mars, as Earth is currently experiencing great variations due to climate change and Mars may provide answers from its history of water sources evaporating (Nature, 2018). Now that traces of water and dry river beds have been observed by the Rover, this important information may be used by scientists to search for new water sources on Earth (Atmosphere, 2017; NASA, 2019; Nature, 2018).

Mars may have life and may be able to be colonised by humans in the future

Recent explorations of Mars have indicated that it once had liquid water, which is required for life billions of years ago. NASA continues to search for signs of life that may have existed. If the Earth continues to be damaged by climate change, humans may one day have to find another planet to colonise. At the moment Mars is inhabitable to humans, due to its atmosphere, high levels of radiation from the sun, lack of liquid water and average temperature. If Mars became the sole focus for astronomical research for the next 5 to 10 years, scientists may well discover safe ways for humans to visit through the development of specialised spacecraft, robotics and environmental recycling technology. With concentrated research, scientist may identify a way for humans to visit and live on Mars, in artificial habitats, which could continue the survival of the human race, if a disaster was to happen to Earth (Grady, M., 2015; Walter, M, 2019; Carberry, C & Webster, J, 2017).

Reasons against Mars being the sole astronomical focus for the next 5 to 10 years

Mars is only one planets and part of a much wider solar system. If all of the funding is directed at one planet, a decade may not be long enough to provide the answers humans are seeking about life beyond Earth and whether humans are the only living creatures in our solar systems. Apart from this, is it necessary to spend billions of dollars on space exploration at all, when there are many people on Earth already struggling with poverty, health care, lack of education and lack of basic human rights? (Orwig, J, 2015)

The claim that Mars should be the sole focus of astronomical research for the next 5-10 years has been supported by the above evidence in its favour. Research papers clearly show that due to the proximity to Earth, similarities shared with Earth and the problem of climate change on Earth, it would be of great benefit to focus on Mars for humans now and in the future (Grady, M., 2015; Walter, M, 2019; Carberry, C & Webster, J, 2017). If humans are one day able to reach Mars safely, overcome the current uninhabitable conditions and begin colonisation, humans will not only have achieved successful life on Earth but also on another planet, leading to the expansion of humanity (Grady, M., 2015; Walter, M, 2019; Carberry, C & Webster, J, 2017). With the expansion of humanity, would come further discoveries and technological advancements. A small direction of money away from some of the problems humans are facing now, could bring great benefit to future generations and this is a risk worth taking according to the recent research available.

Reference list

1. Is exploring Mars worth the investment? (2012, July 31) retrieved 28 October 2019 from http://phys.org/news/2012-07-exploring-mars-worth-investment.html
2. “Mars.” Britannica School, Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 Jun. 2019. School.eb.com.au/levels/middle/article/Mars/345010. Accessed 29 Oct. 2019.
3. NASA Science, Solar System Exploration, 6 Jun. 2019.
4. Of course space exploration is worth the money. Author, Monica Grady Professor of Planetary and Space Sciences, The Open University, 8 Jun. 2015 https://theconversation.com./pf-course-space-exploration-is-worth-the-money-42926
5. The new space race: why we need a human mission to Mars. Author, Malcolm Walter, Professor of Astrobiology, UNSW, 29 Oct. 2019.
6. Six essential reasons why we need to send humans to Mars, Chris Carberry, Joe Webster, Atmosphere, 17 Jan. 2017.
7. Why waste money on the Mars landing? House of wisdom, Nature.com
8. Blogs.nature.com/houseofwisdom/2012/08/why-waste-money-on-the-mars-landing.html
9. 5 undeniable reasons humans need to colonize Mars- even though it’s going to cost billions, Jessica Orwig, 22 Apr. 2015, Business Insider.com https://www.businessinsider.com.au/5-undeniable-reasons-why-humans-should-go-to mars-2015-4?r=US&IR=T

Introduction

The concept of Mars as the next most habitable planet has sparked an urge to investigate that has led to the discussion of sending a crew to Mars very shortly. As fantastical as it may seem, the idea has been thoroughly analysed to the extent where successful execution is possible but not without major setbacks and limitations. These risks that the crew will face begs the questions among many as to why we should endanger their lives when we can send robots to perform their job. This essay will explore the challenges of reaching Mars whilst discussing whether robots or humans are more adept for such a mission.

Challenges in a Mars expedition

The mission to Mars is no easy feat and is not without its challenges. The considerations and their execution along with potential drawbacks are discussed below.

Building technology to get astronauts to space

Currently, many space agencies rely upon spacecraft and rockets to get astronauts into space. However, with the thought of revolutionizing space travel combined with the lucrative rewards that it would accrue, if successful and implemented, encouraged many private spaceflight companies to invest in building a system that would launch humans and cargo efficiently with fewer risks. An example is Rocket Lab’s recent invention, “Rosie the Robot”. The machine relies on processing the carbon composite components of a launch vehicle making the vehicle launch-ready. This way one launch vehicle is produced every 12 hours as opposed to hundreds of hours with the traditional process. More so, Rocket Lab applies 3D printing to create components for launch vehicle engines that take 24 hours as opposed to weeks when using traditional methods.

Although this technological advancement accelerates the progress of sending a crewed mission to Mars, the costs associated with it make it very near impossible. NASA recently has been experiencing budget cuts that are having an impact on designing spacecraft for long-distance flights. The Mars One Mission alone is estimating that the cost of taking four people to Mars is around US$6 billion and subsequent missions at US$4 billion. These costs include the technological hardware that will be implemented plus operational costs. NASA’s annual budget of approximately US$20 billion budget must include the Mars mission preparation, launching research satellites and running the International Space Station.

More so, the funding required to develop systems and technology on the surface of Mars is estimated to cost anywhere from $100 billion to $1 trillion. One potential strategy to overcome this appears to be creating a global campaign and international partnerships.

Building a bigger spacecraft or splitting it into smaller compartments

A voyage to Mars will undoubtedly require a spacecraft that can carry multiple people with supplies to last a three-year round trip and cargo items that have to be deposited on Mars.

An alternative to creating a giant spacecraft is to potentially develop multiple small compartments that can be assembled after being launched separately into orbit.

Although space travel is physically dangerous, the mental stress endured in an eight-month journey is of equivalent if not more dangerous. The claustrophobic environment, especially if travelling in small compartments that is a sealed-up container floating through space with others, means that there is very little room to move. This lack of individuality and “personal space” can add to the mental stress and create unnecessary conflict. This leads to the next point where astronauts cannot afford to get angry and hold a grudge with one another since they must communicate with each other, react quickly and work as a team to ensure a safe and successful mission. Astronauts must also endure the weakening and wasting muscles due to no gravity in space and even weaker gravity on Mars combined with the fluid bulging up in the skull into the back of the eyeball causing vision changes. Additionally, they must have the training to deal with any major medical emergencies.

Ensuring a safe landing

After reaching Mars’ orbit, the crew needs to land safely. Although prior missions used the thermal effects like friction and parachutes to decelerate, this mission cannot rely on those effects to decelerate due to the heaviness of the craft. One progress towards that concept is by implementing supersonic retro-propulsion which consists of firing engines while landing to slow the speed down significantly.

The Mars mission is estimating a total cost of $US220 billion through 2037. But what is not included in this figure is the lunar landing costs. An independent report stated that NASA is planning to use the three-stage lunar lander approach. Alongside the ascent and descent modules, this approach will have the addition of a transfer stage which would relocate the lander stages from the Lunar Gateway (Figure 1) to a lower orbit hence reducing the fuel they need to carry which makes the spacecraft lighter thus easier to land. The Lunar Gateway has yet to be fully developed but will be a small spaceship orbiting the moon that will provide a laboratory for research, a residence for astronauts and more.

But the development of these landers and refueling systems come at a cost which is approximately US$8 billion and an additional cost of $US12 billion for propellants, cargo and the launches required to transport the landers to Mars.

Avoiding Cosmic Radiation

There are two types of radiation that astronauts will be exposed to. These are solar flares, that we have protection for, and galactic cosmic radiation that is not protected for yet. This radiation is prevalent in free space than anywhere else. One suggestion to avoid this is to minimize the time spent in free space since technology has measured that radiation is much lower on Mars than in free space.

Unfortunately, galactic cosmic radiation is something that is immensely difficult to shield against. The energy in these radiations are capable of ripping through material made of metal, plastics and water. What is worse is that the specific materials can create a higher radiation environment for the crew than other materials.

Habitat on Mars

NASA, with the help of architects from AI SpaceFactory, has developed a model that will use dirt from Mars’ surface to create houses i.e. “Marshas” (Figure 2). Water, power and oxygen will be available after extraction from ice underground, sun and the atmosphere respectively. But, they will have to recycle waste and use the planets rock and dust to craft tools to establish housing, launchpads and roads. Mars’ surface contains metals such as magnesium, iron and aluminum that they can sinter (the process of heating and compressing material with sand) to create paving tiles. For greater rigidity, they can employ slip casting. This is a pottery-making technique that involves transferring a liquid mixture of water and clay into a plaster mould to set. Then after dumping any extra material, they remove the object for firing in a kiln.

Although the cost of building these houses are relatively low compared to other ideas and plans, issues that need to be overcome will always be present. Contaminates from space could affect air quality leading to adverse outcomes if not detected, potential microbes from space carry the risk mutating, spreading then infecting astronauts and any help from Earth is unfeasible. More significantly, the potentially uncomfortable environment combined with performing repetitive and tedious tasks for a long time can lead to high levels of stress hence compromising optimal performance. This can have a chain effect on all members leading to devastating outcomes.

Robots or Humans for Mars?

The debate between any scientists, astronauts, entrepreneurs and physicists regarding whether humans or robots should be sent to Mars has been a controversial yet undecided one. Robots and humans offer qualities that their counterpart lacks leading to the suggestion that perhaps both must be implemented cohesively for future astronomical endeavours.

Humans

What robots lack that humans don’t is fine dexterity. The necessity of installing and maintaining complex machinery and instruments in space to perform required explorations and tests demands flexibility and judgement. Unfortunately, robots are not yet capable, or likely to make more mistakes than their human counterparts, when addressing these issues. More so, very sensitive instruments and machines are not able to handle robotic deployments thus increasing the chance of introducing errors or damage (Bartels, 2018; Slakey & Spudis, 2008).

The necessity of humans becomes more obvious when complex machines and equipment break down. This allows any data that was produced to be retained. Take for example Skylab had its thermal heat shield decimated and a solar panel was lost. The other panel was restrained by ties that would not release until astronauts removed the ties to install a new thermal shield and panel that saved the mission but more importantly the entire Skylab program (Slakey & Spudis, 2008).

[bookmark: _Hlk30502867]This brings us to the next point of reconnaissance. Orbiters are capable of providing general information regarding topography, atmosphere and magnetic fields of a planet and rovers can roam the planet to test the physical and chemical properties of dirt and rocks and even collect samples to return to Earth for further analyses. Yet, what happens when the rovers discover something extraordinary? Unfortunately, once designed and on the planet, they cannot be redesigned to assess the new phenomena. This would require scientists i.e. humans who would adopt new methods to observe and explore the phenomena (Bartels, 2018; Slakey & Spudis, 2008).

But even if humans could design a robot that was capable of further assessment, latency is an issue. A signal from Earth to the robot to execute a command can take as long as fourty-minutes forcing the operator to focus on physical manipulation rather than exploration (Mann, 2012).

Robots

The human body, unfortunately, has too many intricacies that inhibit its survival in space for an extended period of time. In only two months, astronauts develop vision problems the point where the eye damage can be permanent. Additionally, human bodies require constant oxygen, food and water meaning an additional cost to exploration is incurred in the form of extra engineering. Although all crew members must be medically trained prior to the trip, which adds to the cost, they are limited to resources available to provide appropriate medical attention (Phillips, 2018; Colwell & Britt, 2014).

Certain advancements in robotics suggest that robots can and are being designed in a manner such that they can react to the changing space environment by updating and installing the latest robot software (Sandberg, 2019).

Take for example, the Mars 2020 rover that will be launched between July 17 – August 5, 2020 and land February 18, 2021 (Figure 2). Its mission will be to drill down into the core to collect samples of rocks and soils with the potential possibility of returning these samples to Earth. On top of gathering information, the rover can test technologies that would address the limitations, as discussed above, of human expeditions to Mars. These tests include producing oxygen from Mars’ atmosphere, improving techniques for landing and relaying information about weather and any other environmental hazards for future astronauts on Mars (Mars 2020 Rover, 2020).

The significant distance Mars is from Earth and the time it takes to travel there puts astronauts at a significant risk of exposure to radiation. This is alongside bone loss and muscle atrophy which reduces the chance of completing the mission successfully but more importantly puts their lives at significant risk.

So, which is better?

Comparing whether robots or humans are more suited for Mars exploration is analogous to comparing apples and oranges. Both parties are mutually independent but require one another for optimal performance. Robotic exploration is necessary to scout the land to deliver critical information to minimise harm and risk to humans. Without them, exploration of the moon would be virtually impossible since astronauts would not know where to land or have hardware to land. Humans then finish off the exploration by performing necessary tests and relaying information to Earth. But more importantly, the need for a human touch in space as opposed to viewing through a screen from the eyes of a robot is fundamental for further astronomy exploration and must never be replaced (Colwell & Britt, 2014).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the expedition to Mars will be a significant advancement, not only for astronomy, but for the human race entirely. Whilst achieving such a feat will undoubtedly endanger the lives of the crew since one cannot predict space and its many capabilities, NASA and the many companies behind them importantly stated that such a mission will only carry on should they deem complete safety for the crew. Once achieved, the next question will simply be “what planet after Mars?”

References

1. Bartels, M. (2018). Why We Can’t Depend on Robots to Find Life on Mars. Retrieved from https://www.space.com/41551-finding-mars-life-robots-versus-humans.html
2. Beard, R. (2017). The Challenges for Astronauts on the Journey to Mars. NASA. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/nasa-edge/1111-journey-to-mars
3. Colwell, J., & Britt, D. (2014). Are robots or astronauts the future of space exploration? The University of Central Florida. Retrieved from https://www.ucf.edu/pegasus/opinion/
4. Etherington, D. (2019). Rocket Lab’s new ‘Rosie the Robot’ speeds up launch vehicle production — by a lot – TechCrunch. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com/2019/11/13/rocket-labs-new-rosie-the-robot-speeds-up-launch-vehicle-production-by-a-lot/?guccounter=1
5. Foust, J. (2018). NASA studying three-stage approach to human-class lunar landers. Space News. Retrieved from https://spacenews.com/nasa-studying-three-stage-approach-to-human-class-lunar-landers/
6. Foust, J. (2019). Independent report concludes 2033 human Mars mission is not feasible. Space News. Retrieved from https://spacenews.com/independent-report-concludes-2033-human-mars-mission-is-not-feasible/
7. Gannon, M. (2019). Inside NASA’s plan to use Martian dirt to build houses on Mars. Popular Science. Retrieved from https://www.popsci.com/making-houses-on-mars/
8. Ghose, T. (2016). Sending Humans to Mars: 8 Steps to Red Planet Colonization. Live Science. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/56462-how-to-travel-to-mars.html
9. Herath, A. K. (2011). Why Is It So Hard to Travel to Mars? Space.com. Retrieved from https://www.space.com/11417-mars-missions-space-travel-challenges.html
10. Imster, E. (2017). Traveling to Mars? Top 6 health challenges. Earth Sky. Retrieved from https://earthsky.org/space/human-health-dangers-mars-travel
11. Levesque, D. (2015). Five Problems with Sending Humans to Mars. Death by Cosmos. Retrieved from https://deathbycosmos.com/problems-sending-humans-to-mars/#2
12. Mann, A. (2012). Humans vs. Robots: Who Should Dominate Space Exploration? Wired. Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/2012/04/space-humans-vs-robots/
13. Mars 2020 Mission. (2020). NASA. Retrieved from https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/
14. Mission Budget – Finance and Feasibility. (2020). Mars One. Retrieved from https://www.mars-one.com/faq/finance-and-feasibility/what-is-mars-ones-mission-budget
15. Phillips, G. (2018). Send robots not people to Mars. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/national/send-robots-not-people-to-mars-20181123-p50i0n.html
16. Sandberg, A. (2019). Don’t send people to the moon send robots instead. Quartz. Retrieved from https://qz.com/1666726/we-should-stop-sending-humans-into-space/
17. Slakey, F & Spudis, P.D. (2008). Robots vs. Humans: Who Should Explore Space? Scientific American. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/robots-vs-humans-who-should-explore/
18. Smith, R. (2017). NASA Doesn’t Have the Money to Land on Mars by the 2030s. The Motley Fool. Retrieved from https://www.fool.com/investing/2017/07/30/nasa-doesnt-have-the-money-to-land-on-mars-by-2030.aspx
19. Wall, M. (2019). NASA’s Grand Plan for a Lunar Gateway Is to Start Small. Space.com. Retrieved from https://www.space.com/nasa-lunar-gateway-start-small.html

Buzz Aldrin once said, “By refocusing our space program on Mars for America’s future, we can restore the sense of wonder and adventure in space exploration that we knew in the summer of 1969. We won the moon race; now it’s time for us to live and work on Mars, first on its moons and then on its surface.” The possibilities and questions about if life on Mars, the red planet in the solar system, have been around for years. With new research, this possibility is becoming a more of a reality every day.

Before understanding the possibilities of living on Mars, it must be understood why humans cannot live on Mars now. The first main reason that humans cannot live on Mars is due to the climate. Mar experiences extreme colds that include temperatures down to-100o C (the freezing point of water is 0oC). Without technology, humans would never be able to live in these extreme temperatures. The air can get so cold on Mars that the carbon dioxide will sometimes freeze into dry ice (Walker). Another main reason humans cannot live on Mars is due to the extremely thin atmosphere. There is so little of an atmosphere on Mars that there might as well not be one at all. Per Robert Walker, “The pressure is so low, your saliva and the moisture coating the interior of your lungs would boil. The average Mars surface pressure is well below the 6% Armstrong limit which absolutely is the limit for human survival.” the average surface temperature, which is anything but hospitable. While temperatures around the equator at midday can reach a balmy 20 °C, at the Curiosity site – the Gale Crater, which is close to the equator – typical nighttime temperatures are as low as -70 °C.

The gravity on Mars is also only about 40% of what we experience on Earth’s, which would make adjusting to it quite difficult. According to a NASA report, the effects of zero-gravity on the human body are quite profound, with a loss of up to 5% muscle mass a week and 1% of bone density a month. And then there’s the atmosphere, which is unbreathable. About 95% of the planet’s atmosphere is carbon dioxide, which means that in addition to producing breathable air for their habitats, settlers would also not be able to go outside without a pressure suit and bottled oxygen.Mars also has no global magnetic field comparable to Earth’s geomagnetic field. Combined with a thin atmosphere, this means that a significant amount of ionizing radiation can reach the Martian surface.

Another reason humans cannot live on Mars is due to the extreme dust storms. NASA explains that Mars can produce dust storms so intense that the dust can be seen from telescopes on Earth. A planetary scientist at NASA also says, “Every year there are some moderately big dust storms that pop up on Mars and they cover continent-sized areas and last for weeks at a time.” Besides these common dust storms, global dust storms occur every 3 years (around 5 1/3 Earth years). These global dust storms cover the whole planet and are much more intense than the moderately big dust storms that appear more often (See Figure 1B). The intensity of the wind isn’t necessarily what makes these storms, but rather the lack of visibility that is produced from these. The particles that are blown during a dust storm are also slightly electrostatic, which means they stick to almost any surface they touch making it almost impossible to see if one were to encounter a dust storm (Mersmann).

The closest place in the universe where extraterrestrial life might exist is Mars, and human beings are poised to attempt to colonize this planetary neighbor within the next decade. Before that happens, we need to recognize that a very real possibility exists that the first human steps on the Martian surface will lead to a collision between terrestrial life and biota native to Mars.

If the red planet is sterile, a human presence there would create no moral or ethical dilemmas on this front. But if life does exist on Mars, human explorers could easily lead to the extinction of Martian life. Once humans start living on Mars, they will contaminate it with some of the 100 trillion micro-organisms in 10,000 different species that humans are host to. There is no way to avoid this. The rovers that are on Mars are sterilized to prevent contamination. when astronauts are sent to Mars, they’ll travel with life support and energy supply systems, habitats, 3D printers, food and tools. None of these materials can be sterilized in the same ways systems associated with robotic spacecraft can. Human colonists will produce waste, try to grow food and use machines to extract water from the ground and atmosphere. Simply by living on Mars, human colonists will contaminate Mars. (Walker).

Life in a Martian colony would be miserable, with people forced to live in artificially lit underground bases, or in thickly protected surface stations with severely minimized access to the outdoors. Life in this closed environment, with limited access to the surface, could result in other health issues related to exclusive indoor living, such as depression, boredom from lack of stimulus, an inability to concentrate, poor eyesight, and high blood pressure—not to mention a complete disconnect from nature. And like the International Space Station, Martian habitats will likely be a microbial desert, hosting only a tiny sample of the bacteria needed to maintain a healthy human microbiome.

Another issue has to do with motivation. As Friedman pointed out earlier, we don’t see colonists living in Antarctica or under the sea, so why should we expect troves of people to want to live in a place that’s considerably more unpleasant? It seems a poor alternative to living on Earth, and certainly a major step down in terms of quality of life. A strong case could even be made that, for prospective families hoping to spawn future generations of Martian colonists, it’s borderline cruelty.

And that’s assuming humans could even reproduce on Mars, which is an open question. Casting aside the deleterious effects of radiation on the developing fetus, there’s the issue of conception to consider in the context of living in a minimal gravity environment. We don’t know how sperm and egg will act on Mars, or how the first critical stages of conception will occur. And most of all, we don’t know how low gravity will affect the mother and fetus.

Seidler, an expert in human physiology and kinesiology, said the issue of human gestation on Mars is a troublesome unknown. The developing fetus, she said, is likely to sit higher up in the womb owing to the lower gravity, which will press upon the mother’s diaphragm, making it hard for the mother to breathe. The low gravity may also “confuse” the gestational process, delaying or interfering with critical phases of the fetus’ development, such as the fetus dropping by week 39. On Earth, bones, muscles, the circulatory system, and other aspects of human physiology develop by working against gravity. It’s possible that the human body might adapt to the low-gravity situation on Mars, but we simply don’t know. An artificial womb might be a possible solution, but again, that’s not something we’ll have access to anytime soon, nor does it solve the low-gravity issue as it pertains to fetal development (unless the artificial womb is placed in a centrifuge to simulate gravity).

A strong case can be made that any attempt to procreate on Mars should be forbidden until more is known. Enforcing such a policy on a planet that’s 34 million miles away at its closest is another question entirely, though one would hope that Martian societies won’t regress to lawlessness and a complete disregard of public safety and established ethical standards.

For other colonists, the minimal gravity on Mars could result in serious health problems over the long term. Studies of astronauts who have participated in long-duration missions lasting about a year exhibit troubling symptoms, including bone and muscle loss, cardiovascular problems, immune and metabolic disorders, visual disorders, balance and sensorimotor problems, among many other health issues. These problems may not be as acute as those experienced on Mars, but again, we simply don’t know. Perhaps after five or 10 or 20 years of constant exposure to low gravity, similar gravity-related disorders will set in.

Seidler’s research into the effects of microgravity suggests it’s a distinct possibility. “Yes, there would be physiological and neural changes that would occur on Mars due to its partial-gravity environment,” she told Gizmodo. “It’s not clear whether these changes would plateau at some point. My work has shown an upward shift of the brain within the skull in microgravity, some regions of gray matter increases and others that decrease, structural changes within the brain’s white matter, and fluid shifts towards the top of the head.”

Seidler said some of these changes scale with the duration of microgravity exposure, from two weeks up to six months, but she hasn’t looked beyond that. “Some of these effects would have to eventually plateau—there is a structural limit on the fluid volume that the skull can contain, for example,” she said. “And, the nervous system is very adaptable. It can ‘learn’ how to control movements in microgravity despite the altered sensory inputs. But again, it’s unclear what the upper limits are.”

The effects of living in partial gravity compared to microgravity may not be as severe, she said, but in either case, different sensory inputs are going into the brain, as they’re not loaded by weight in the way they’re used to. This can result in a poor sense of balance and compromised motor functions.

Introduction

Since I was a child, I was always fascinated by the solar system, space, astronauts and whether or not there is another life that we have not yet encountered. In high school we had a very special guest visit us to tell me and fellow students that anything in life is possible, Buzz Aldrin, who on July 21st, 1969 took his first step on the moon along with Neil Armstrong. That to me, being in the same room as he was incredible.

In this short study, I will be giving a brief explanation on whether or not mars is inhabitable and if so, what do we do once we land there. How will we survive on such a planet that, as we know so far, doesn’t have water which is a vital resource for all walks of life, as well as food and how are we going to build a colony on a planet that has no resources to construct anything?.

Mars One’s original concept included launching a robotic Mars lander and a Mars orbiter in the year 2020, as well as sending a human crew of 4 in 2024. They also planned to send a crew that would NOT return to earth, which was heavily criticized by scientists, engineers, and the aerospace industry.

In 2013, Mars One started its recruitment phase of astronaut candidates which received over 200,000 candidates, but only 2,761 completed the application process in the first round. The second round, a year later, brought to a total of 2,761 candidates down to 705, then down to 100, eventually Mars one settled for 40 final astronauts whom we going to start the process of building a settlement for training purposes.

Landing ideas

When Earth and Mars are at their closest to each other, it would take around 261 days to get from to Mars. At this day and age, leaving the Earth’s atmosphere is no longer a problem, it’s how are we going to land on Mar’s surface that is the problem. Back in 2007, the scientist came up with four possible solutions. One idea was to build a legged landing system that could make it possible to land and take off from the red planet. Secondly, an SLS System, in other words, a Sky-crane Landing System, would use systems to lower rovers and other equipment onto the surface. The third idea that was discussed was an airbag landing system that would rely on a rocket to cut of its engines near the surface on Mars and drop all the equipment onto a large airbag for the equipment to land on. Last, of all, scientists considered Touchdown Sensing, the equipment would sense the surface and the landing site, then compensates accordingly.

Building on Mars

The Swiss Martian Garden

Swiss researchers are constructing a ‘Martian Garden’ near Basil in which to test a CLUP (Close-Up Imager) camera that will be sent to Mars during the ExoMars mission that will take place in 2020.

The University of Basil professor Nicolaus J. Kuhn told Swiss public broadcaster SRF: “We are testing, for example, how the Mars Rover should drive over a stone that we want to investigate, what position our camera has to be in and what sun conditions are best for capturing images”.

The idea is to use the camera to see if they can find life on Mars and to check to condition to ensure that it is inhabitable for humans.

Martian Bricks

Scientists at the University of California, San Diego, found that is it incredibly easy to make ‘Martian Bricks’ that are apparently stronger than steel-reinforced concrete. Lead researcher Yu Qiao and his team worked with a NASA-formulated simulation of Martian soil and found that it contained extremely low iron oxide compounds that could bind the soil together when putting under pressure to form a simple brick.

The Mars Ice House

Another possibility is the use of 3d printing to create structures primarily out of Martian ice. The Mars ice house project has already seen the team experiment with one-to-one ice printing on earth, and they say they have developed a process that can turn subsurface Martian ice into vapor. This is then converted into liquid water and used to print solid structures in an environment that’s cold enough to instantly turn in to solid ice.

Water and Food

Water

Water can be extracted from the soil and the Mars rover will select the location of the settlement primarily based on the water content in the soil.

The rover will deposit soil into a water extractor in the life support unit then the unit will heat up the soil enough to evaporate. Once the water is evaporated it will be condensed and stored.

Food

Research suggests that Mars soil has some of the nutrients for the plant to grow and survive. Because of planets extremely cold conditions, such as potatoes, would need to be grown in a controlled environment. The team who will be living on Mars will have to come up with ingenious ways for making the soil more suitable for plant growth.

Bibliography

1. Anon., 2019. [Online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_One
2. Megan Ray Nichols., 2019. [Online] Available at: http://www.astronomy.com/news/2017/05/could-we-live-on-mars
3. Sarah Lorek., 2019. [Online] Available at: https://constructible.trimble.com/construction-industry/spacex-to-mars-city-how-to-build-on-mars
4. Roberto Molar Candanosa., 2019. [Online] Available at: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/past-issues/2016-2017/april-2017/growing-green-on-the-red-planet.html

Studying the Martian surface composition is essential to understand its past and current condition and pave the way to unveiling the nature of occurrences of detected minerals – be it weathering, precipitation, or of volcanic origin (Bandfield, Hamilton, & Christensen, 2000). Multiple instruments have been employed to carry out Martian surface studies. These include the Thermal Emission Spectrometer – TES (Christensen et al., 2001), Observatoire pour la Mineralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces et l’Activite – OMEGA (Bibring et al., 2004) and the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars – CRISM (Murchie et al., 2007).

On a global scale, multiple studies have been carried out using OMEGA data to investigate mineral occurrences (Carter, Poulet, Bibring, Mangold, & Murchie, 2013 ; Riu, Poulet, Bibring, & Gondet, 2019) One such example is the study to identify the distribution of anhydrous minerals on the Martian surface by Ody et al., (2012) using calculated spectral parameters developed by Poulet et al., (2007). This resulted in global distribution maps for Pyroxene, Olivine, and Ferric oxides, that provide a useful reference when studying surface composition variation.

The Thermal Emission Spectrometer has also been a key instrument for global scale Martian surface studies. The study by Bandfield et al., (2000) utilised the TES data and primarily identified two distinct global surface types – Surface type 1 being basaltic in nature and concentrated in the Southern Highlands whereas Surface type 2 being andesitic and concentrated in the Northern Lowlands, with the boundary between these two types occurring roughly at the planetary dichotomy.

The CRISM instrument on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has also been utilised to study the Martian surface but on a localised scaled (Glotch, Bandfield, Tornabene, Jensen, & Seelos, 2010; Ehlmann et al., 2009) and for the first time on a global scale by Kamps, Hewson, Van Ruitenbeek, & Van Der Meer, (2019).

The ongoing PhD project at ITC, namely the ‘Global Mapping of Mars with CRISM Summary Products’ by Kamps et al., (2019) aims towards a comprehensive mineralogical characterisation of the surface of Mars using summary products on CRISM multispectral mapping mode data. These summary products are essentially generated by focussing on a specific spectral feature extracted using a parameter value through an algorithm (Pelkey et al., 2007).

The CRISM summary products are of two versions. The 2007 version included 44 summary products to characterise different types of minerals, atmosphere constituents and aerosols. This set of summary products contains a few caveats, namely the abundance of false positives that occur even after reflectance corrections mainly due to instrument noise (Pelkey et al., 2007). However, these could be considerably minimised with the utilisation of minimum thresholds. Additionally, non-uniqueness of summary products was also observed mainly with the D2400 parameter which is engineered to detect hydrated sulphates but also detects water ice, and BDI1000 that was designed to pick up mafic minerals and isolate ferric oxide features but also ends up detecting glass and dust (Pelkey et al., 2007). This set of summary products was then updated by Viviano-Beck et al., (2014) using corrected spectral reflectance at certain wavelength positions of the CRISM in its target observation mode, to adequately map the heterogeneous nature of the Martian surface. This list also includes certain new summary products that have been derived to focus on recently acquired spectral information on new areas. These summary products have been vital in identifying various mineral occurrences over the surface of Mars, and these identified minerals along with their type locality (on Mars) have been compiled into a spectral library, that could be utilised for spectral studies as a reference, called the ‘Minerals Identified through CRISM Analysis’ (Seelos, Viviano, Ackiss, Kremer, & Murchie, 2019). Both the versions of the summary products have been employed by Kamps et al., (2019) to generate a global map as shown in Figure 1.

This research will stem from the previously mentioned ongoing study of Kamps et al., (2019) to investigate an apparent compositional variation in the Northern Lowlands of Mars, that has been spotted in the analysis of Kamps et al., (2019) (see Fig 1- Northern Transition Unit).

Why is earth the only planet that is suitable for living? After several researches and operations that has been sent to other planets to see whether if it’s possible for us human beings to live on them, but result are still vague. Since, other planets have scarcity in the essentials that humans need. Investigators are concerned that there aren’t any alternatives planets to earth and that human’s life is connected to it. And if anything was to happen to planet earth human beings could be extent. So, what is it that makes planet earth the exquisite for human beings? Scientists discovered that earth is the only plant that is the right distance from the sun and it is protected from harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field, and is kept warm by an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical ingredients for life, including water and carbon. The processes that shapes planet Earth and its environment constantly cycle elements through the planet. This cycling sustains life and leads to the formation of the mineral and energy resources that are the foundation of modern technological society.

To begin with, there are some factors and criteria’s that makes a planet appropriate for living. So basically, the factors are the “Habitable zones”; for instance, the planet has to have stable stars around it, low mass, rotates and spins on its axis, molten core is required and has to hold the atmosphere. In addition, as mentioned in an article named, “What makes a world Habitable”, atmosphere has to have traps heat, shields on the surface to protect from harmful radiation and provides the elements needed for life; for example, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide; However, only solid planets and moons have a significant atmosphere which means, Earth, Venus and Titan are the only planets with substantial atmosphere. Moreover, be at a good space from the star that results in it reaching a proper heat so its shallow water is liquid and not frozen. Conclusively, Energy source is excessively important which means that, our planet has to provide energy to run lifespan development.

Furthermore, Water is the prime requirement for the definition of habitable as “What Would make an exoplanet capable of supporting life?” stated. It turns out that numerous organic properties of water make it crucial for living organisms. Not only that, but water can dissolve nearly everything. Also, one of the scarce resources that occur as the three: solid, liquid and gas inside a reasonably limited variety of temperatures. Additionally, water is fundamental because it is Earth-like temperatures. Since it floods, water requires a capable way to move substances from a cell to the cell’s environment. This is why Earth is so special, it is unusual because it’s an oceanic planet and water basically covers seventy percent of its surface. Additionally, after Earth, Mars is the most suitable planet for living due to many reasons; its soil contains water, has moderate temperature, enough sunlight for the use of solar panels, gravity is 38% which is adequate for the human body and it has an atmosphere. On the contrary, all the water on Masr today exists as ice , which makes it hard for living and scientists are still in the mission of figuring it out.

In conclusion, after several researches and data collected till now, Titan and Europa might have a slight probability in the future that they could be habitable; nevertheless, their oceans are buried under hundreds of kilometers of ice, so scientists said “It’s a challenging task” and they are not very sure whether there will be any changes in solar system or not.Conclusively, Earth is the only planet that is suitable for living. Likewise, the atmosphere of the Earth is made mainly of nitrogen and has plenty of H2O which helps us to breath easily. The atmosphere surface also protects us from meteoroids, which are the “Space rocks” in the universe.

Refrences

1. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/our_place/hab_ref_table.pdf
2. https://seec.gsfc.nasa.gov/what_makes_a_planet_habitable.html https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch6~ohp-enhealth-manual-atsi-cnt-l-ch6.1
3. https://www.mars-one.com/faq/mission-to-mars/why-mars-and-not-another-planet

The hydrogeology of Mars has continued to be an exciting and ground-breaking area of research since early telescopic observations made by astronomers such as Giovanni Schiaparelli, Christiaan Huygens, and Percival Lowell which propelled the curiosity about water on Mars deeper into the scientific community. The understanding of water and its history on this planet continues to improve through the compounding research made possible by NASA rovers, satellites, and numerous researchers but still leaves the scientific community with important questions. Although presently, water on Mars exists mainly as ice at the polar caps, there is evidence that it had a much more dynamic history. Planetary scientists analyze rock and mineralogical distributions as well as geomorphic features to reconstruct past hydrological cycles on Mars.

This paper considers water’s existence on Mars throughout different time periods, it’s resulting geomorphology, and the current state of water on Mars. The ongoing debate regarding a global ocean versus wide-spread ice sheets is taken into consideration as well as a look into recent hot topics such as recurring slope lineae and subglacial lakes.

The geologic history of Mars has been divided into three time periods. The Noachian (4.6-3.8 Ga), Hesperian (3.8-3.0), and the Amazonian (3.0-present). Because of current atmospheric conditions, the presence of surface water on Mars in unlikely able to form. In its early history though, Martian obliquity and atmosphere provided stable enough conditions for liquid surface water, ice, vapor, and ground water flow. During the early Noachian, Mars was hit with a bombardment of meteors. This is believed to coincided with a thicker and warmer atmosphere, as well as the first appearance of liquid water. Hydrological models reported in Andrews-Hanna et al. (2010) suggest that during this time period, the hydrological cycle was much more active than in the Heperian and Amazonian due to the Noachian’s higher total water inventory with a saturated near-surface zone and high rates of precipitation. The presence of abundant liquid water in the Amazonian is supported by the presence of phyllosilicates as well as river valley networks dated as middle to late Noachian in age (Andrews-Hanna et. al, 2011). The large deposits of these hydrated minerals associated with Noachian terrains are primary geologic evidence for long-term water weathering of Mars’ basaltic crust (Chevrier et. al, 2017). Although there are still many questions about early Mars environment, it is certain that liquid water played a role in shaping its geology.

There is one well-known feature on Mars that is not only an extremely recognizable feature, but also a cause of much debate in Martian paleoclimate and hydrogeology research. The Martian dichotomy is a feature of elevation difference set between the north and south hemispheres. It is accepted that the dichotomy most likely evolved during the early Noachian (Roberts et. al, 2006) but it’s genesis is still unclear and a number of formation mechanisms are still openly debated. These proposals include tectonic mantle convection (Roberts et. al, 2006) and giant impact origins in the northern hemisphere (Andrews-Hanna et. al, 2008). Nonetheless, this is a huge area of elevation contrast that has been the center of focus when it comes to global water on Mars.

Geologic features around the dichotomy have been used in a “global ocean” versus “global ice sheet” debate when considering the ancient climate and presence of water on Mars. The significantly lower elevation in the northern hemisphere, geomorphology resembling paleo-shorelines, deltas, and river valley networks have been proposed as evidence for a global ocean during the time when Mars had a much denser atmosphere. An analysis of the deltaic deposits along the margins of the northern lowlands may represent the past contact of a northern hemisphere ocean around 3.5 Ga (Di Achille et. al, 2010). A global ocean hypothesis would also support the idea of an active global hydrosphere and may explain river valley networks that have been considered either formed by groundwater or precipitation. This ancient ocean has been estimated to have covered at least 36% of the planet. The ‘Arabia shoreline’ is one of the proposed paleo-shorelines located along the dichotomy and has been dated to 3.8 Ga but has been rejected by some due to elevational inconsistencies. This interpretation of a global ocean has been mainly challenged by the uncertainty of global temperatures at this time. Past models of Mars’ CO2-HO2 atmosphere and a weak solar influence, suggest that a “wet and warm” climate might not have been sustained long enough to see a mass ocean with a groundwater system but a recent publication this year by has tied together these two main hypotheses by modeling a Noachian groundwater-fed ocean that eventually reach became a sub-freezing Martian climate (Palumbo et. al, 2019).

Although some researchers such as Baker et. al (1991) suggest that the formation of valley networks during Mars’ early history is evidence of a long-term hydrological cycle associated with the existence of an ocean, others give evidence that the valley networks are erosional features formed by subglacial channelized meltwater and represent drainage pathways of a Late Noachian Icy Highlands ice sheet (Galofre et. al, 2019). The 3.0 Ga “thumbprint terrain” feature has been argued to support basin-wide ice sheet coverage in Isidis Planitia crater by means of basal ice melt (Soucek et. al, 2015). Because of the difficulty modeling long term warm and wet climates on Mars, these deltas, and river valley networks have been attributed to widespread ice deposits, suggesting snow would have precipitated at low latitudes during periods of high obliquity (Carr et. al, 2003). Melting of the ice sheets could generate meltwater which, if large enough, could flow up to thousands of kilometers and create these branching valley networks (Carr et. al, 2003).

The results on a global ocean or global ice sheets is admittedly still unclear but geomorphology such as these river valley networks are huge indicators of Mars’ past hydrological cycle. Data has also been suggested to support precipitation and surface runoff mechanisms for the formation of the river valleys rather than groundwater processes (Hynek et. al, 2010). Liquid precipitation has also been supported by high resolution images and topographic data showing that drainage densities across Mars had been significantly high (Andrews-Hanna et. al, 2011).

The most recent models include both a global ocean and global ice sheet view (Palumbo and Head, 2019) and account for unanswered questions on both sides of the debate. In 2018, Seybold et. al published a comparison of terrestrial analogue river valley systems with those found on Mars. It was found that the branching angles of groundwater flow were much wider that surface runoff. The branching angles of the river valley networks on Mars support an active hydrologic cycle on Mars which produced overland flow erosion with only a minor role played by groundwater seepage (Seybold et. al, 2018).

The initial wet and warm environments on Mars that formed the deltas and river valleys still preserved today did not last but instead transitioned into drier and colder conditions seen in the Hesperian period. During the Hesperian, there were increases in tectonic and volcanic activity. Liquid water became acidic from interactions with volcanically released SO2 in the atmosphere. The strongly acidic weathering led to sulfate deposits in ancient lakebeds (Chervier et. al, 2017). Many craters, such as Jezero Crater (a proposed landing site for Mars 2020) became ideal spots for these lakes to pool up. Many are identifiable by areas of rich clay deposits in places and sulfate deposits.

Mars has a relatively unstable obliquity compared to Earth which has been stabilized by its large moon. Earth’s stability has given the planet a chance to sustain liquid water for a long period of time which in turn has helped life to evolve. Water on Mars is known to have been present but not in large, stable liquid quantities. Solar winds and a thinner atmosphere limit the chances of liquid surface water. A recent discovery of RSL’s (recurring slope lineae) by Lujendra Ojha, were thought to have been a new discovery of downhill flowing liquid brines in fine grained regolith near southern hemisphere crater rims which lengthened during Mars’ warm seasons (McEwen et. al, 2013). This was later rejected in 2017 when data by Mars Odyssey showed no signs of any hydronated sediment.

The lack of even liquid brines has left Mars with little to no evidence of liquid surface water. Currently, the state of water on Mars is found mostly frozen at the polar caps. Surface ice water is seen at the northern polar cap but is only under carbon dioxide ice at the southern cap. Radar evidence of Mars’ southern ice cap has also suggested possible liquid subglacial lakes which has been kept at a liquid state due to a combination of high salinity and increased pressure from ice above (Orosei et. al, 2018).

There are major implications to developing a better understanding of water on Mars throughout its history and today. Planetary geologists, biologists, and physicists, are just some of the researchers working in this interdisciplinary study of Mars. Terrestrial analogues are important and useful in the research and thanks to radar and rovers, better observations can be made. Although this can be an interesting and challenging area of research, it is worth the time, effort, and money for many reasons including the opportunity of revealing possible signs of life in this now arid and seemingly void planet.

Citations

1. Andrews-Hanna, J.C., Lewis. K.W., (2011) Early Mars hydrology: 2. Hydrological evolution in the Noachian and Hesperian epochs. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 116, E02007, doi: 10.1029/2010JE003709
2. Andrews-Hanna, J., Zuber, M. & Banerdt, W. (2008) The Borealis basin and the origin of the martian crustal dichotomy. Nature 453, 1212–1215 doi:10.1038/nature07011
3. Baker, V.R., Strom, R.G., Gulick, V.C., Kargel, Komatsu, J.S., Kale, V.S. (1991) Ancient oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars. Nature 352, 589–594 doi:10.1038/352589a0
4. Carr, M. H., and Head, J. W. (2003) Basal melting of snow on early Mars: A possible origin of some valley networks, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2245, doi:10.1029/2003GL018575, 24.
5. Chevrier, V., Poulet, F. & Bibring, J. (2007) Early geochemical environment of Mars as determined from thermodynamics of phyllosilicates. Nature 448, 60–63 doi:10.1038/nature05961
6. Di Achille, G., Hynek, B. (2010) Ancient ocean on Mars supported by global distribution of deltas and valleys. Nature Geosci 3, 459–463 doi:10.1038/ngeo891
7. Galofre, A.G., Jellinek, M. A., Osinski, G. R. (2019) Did Martian Valley Networks Form Under Ancient Ice Sheets Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2019. LPI Contrib. No. 2132
8. Hynek, B.M., Beach, M., Hoke, M.R.T. (2010) Updated global map of Martian valley networks and implications for climate and hydrologic processes. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 115, E09008, doi:10.1029/2009JE003548
9. McEwen, A.S., Dundas, et. al (2013) Recurring slope lineae in equatorial regions of Mars. Nature Geoscience. DOI:10.1038/NGEO2014
10. Orosei R.S., Lauro, E., Pettinelli E., et. al (2018) Rada evidence of subglacial water on Mars. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Vol. 361. No. 6401 490-493 doi:10.1126/7268
11. Palumbo, A.M., Head, J.W. (2019) Oceans on Amrs: The possibility of a Noachian ground-water fed ocean in a sub-freezing martian climate. Elsevier, Icarus, doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2019.04.022
12. Tanaka, K.L., Skinner, J.A., et. al (2014), Geologic map of Mars: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3292, scale 1:20,000,000, pamphlet, pg. 43. doi.org/10.3133/sim3292.
13. Roberts J.H. and Zhong S.J. (2006) Degree-1 convection in the Martian mantle and the origin of the hemispheric dichotomy. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 111, E06013, doi:10.1029/2005JE002668, 2006
14. Seybold, H. J., Kite, E., & Kirchner, J. W. (2018). Branching geometry of valley networks on Mars and Earth and its implications for early Martian climate. Science advances, 4(6), eaar6692.
15. Soucek, O., Bourgeois, O., Pochat, S., Guidat T.A., (2015) 3 Ga old polythermal ice sheet in Isidis Planitia, Mars: Dynamics and thermal regime inferred from numerical modeling. ELSEVIER, Eartha and Planetary Science Letters. Vol. 426. pg 176-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.06.038

Mars, the fourth planet, smallest, from the Sun. Mars is named following after the Roman god Aris, god of war. Mars has a reddish color so it is commonly called the “ Red Planet” Mars is made out of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon, oxygen, water vapor, and other gases. The travel time to Mars and Earth is about 150 days through 300 days. Well depending on the launch speed, and fuel, more fuel less travel time.

I don’t we should explore Mars because we already lot of issues on Earth, a lot of money, radiation, chronic boredom. Exploring Mars is dangerous because it has radiation. An article states “ It could affect how well people perform on missions, including how quickly and how well they make decisions” This means that radiation can change the way people act. This shows that exploring Mars is dangerous due to radiation. This shows that radiation is dangerous.

The second reason why is money, it cost a lot of money. An article states “ An outside estimate of the cost of a manned mission to Mars is roughly $500 billion” This means that just a manned mission to Mars is expensive. This shows that a mission to Mars a lot of money. So if we do spend this much it will affect the people because we could get less money for jobs. So we won’t get the natural needs we need to live.

The third reason is issues on Earth, why we should explore Mars if we got problems on Earth we are just gonna ruin other planets. An article states “ ‘If we do that on Mars, will we then just create another planet that is no longer hospitable for us? Are we going to then go down through the solar system destroying planets or are we going to learn from our mistakes?’ This means that we already have problems on Earth. This shows that living on Earth is not safe. So before we go colonize other planets lets focus on the problems on Earth.

The final reason is chronic boredom. An article states “ In fact, a number of scientists say that of all things boredom is one of the biggest threats to a manned Mars mission, despite the thrill inherent in visiting another planet” Another article states “ What if, millions of miles from home, a chronically bored astronaut forgets a certain safety procedure? What if he gets befuddled while reading an oxygen gauge? More important, Danckert and Kring say, bored people are also prone to taking risks, subconsciously seeking out stimulation when their environment bores them” This means that if we are exploring we just will get bored and lose control. This shows that chronic boredom is a threat to a mission to Mars.

So now you agree with me that exploring Mars or colonizing Mars is not worth it? Well if you still don’t, why don’t you write an article about why we should. I have 4 big reasons why we shouldn’t explore Mars, first a lot of money, issues on Earth, radiation, chronic. Still disagree well keep thinking about and let’s see what you think now. Their hundreds of reasons why going Mars dangerous. Also, hundreds of articles about why Mars is dangerous.