El Nino is a massive climate phenomenon that has been known to the world for years. Many scientists have been exploring the phenomenon as it tends to create a significant impact on the Pacific area. El Nino affects the weather on the continents, sea life, the shore lines, the animals living along the coast and feeding on fish, it affects people and food supplies, it even influences the prices for meat in the world.
El Nino makes the winds of the east blow to the west and moves the layers of warm water in the Pacific Ocean. This creates much higher temperatures and deeper waters in some of the territories. Such changes influence the processes that happen underwater and break the normal circle of life. The ecosystems start to malfunction and sea life density changes.
Some of the species of fish and seaweed are unable to survive in warm water, this is why the fish migrate to areas with colder water or move deeper into the sea. Some of them die because the colder areas turn out to be unsuitable for life. This change leaves many species of birds and animals that live along the coast without food. Besides, the increasing level of water washes away and floods the birds’ nests at the coastline. People suffer from El Nino too. For example, In 1970s the anchovy industry in Peru suffered great losses because of the effects of El Nino. The population of anchovies decreased massively.
The scientists work on weather forecasts that would be able to predict the strength and intensity of El Nino each year in order to be prepared for the consequences.
Recently the researchers discovered that the global climate change may influence El Nino. The warming in the tropical areas may result in the occurrence of El Nino at the shores of Eastern Australia much more often. There is also another way of the development of climatic changes. The scientists anticipate the decrease of water exchange between the atmosphere and the oceans after the warming. As a result, the level of the tropical uprising convection will become lower. Since convection is the effect that serves as the source of winds, the decreasing convection will also reduce some of the winds around the area.
According to the opinion of the experts from the Bureau of Meteorology, the winds that will be affected by this phenomenon the most are tropical east-to-west winds.
The phenomenon of El Nino has a big influence on multiple ecosystems and spheres of human life. The strength of the phenomenon varies from year to year, which causes different consequences. When El Nino reaches its higher levels of intensity, many species of fish and animals face serious difficulties and struggle to survive in their areas of habitat. People and industries become influenced too. When fish supplies lessen, the prices for other sources of food such as livestock and poultry start to grow. This is why the phenomenon of El Nino is so important and its patterns are being studied by many scientists all around the world.
The problem of coastal erosion is a natural disaster that has created many issues for the population dwelling at the shore lines in many countries. The laws of physics and natural phenomena have been making destructive influence on the coasts throughout the history. Today this issue is much bigger and the destruction develops rapidly due to the impacts of the technological progress. The natural barriers such as wetlands, systems of marsh and islands have been reduced or destroyed by the human intrusion.
As a result, the coast lines and the population dwelling on them are exposed to dangerous natural phenomena such as hurricanes, strong winds and tropical storms. When the wetlands and vast marsh systems are in place, they act as buffers. They create natural protection of coast lines by means of absorbing the storms so that the remains of the phenomena that reach the land are much weaker and not as dangerous. These days coastal Louisiana is facing a disaster. The groups of people with lower income that dwell along the shores have no protection from the destructive influences of nature. The homes of these citizens are under a threat of being flooded and ruined. The coastal erosion may leave many people homeless. Besides, it may also become the reason of poverty because the natural barriers such as wetlands serve as homes for various fisheries. The reduction of wetlands endangers the sea life and creates a risk of poverty for the people living at the coast lines because the main industry providing them with food and income is fishing.
Coastal Louisiana is now in the critical situation. The residents there need protection and restoration. This issue has been existent for decades, yet the Congress never found the finances to solve this problem. Today the people of coastal Louisiana are running out of time.
Such issues are observed all over the world. The coastal erosion in Pakistan is reaching scary levels under the influence of global climate change and the impacts of human-inflicted consequences. The International Union of Conservation of Nature is taking big efforts in order to help protect the coast lines in Pakistan and create better life conditions for communities living along the shore lines.
The programs designed to find the solution to this problem work by means of the development of practical knowledge about the global changes in climate, they focus on ways of adaptation of population under the occurring circumstances. Besides, the program is also going to be directed at restoring the ecosystems that suffered from the sea level rise and erosion.
In the contemporary world such issues as flooding, sea level rise, climate change and coastal erosion serve as the causes of poverty in the communities living along the shore lines, especially in the developing countries. In order to solve the problem various educational and protective policies need to be developed and employed, the process of restoration will require financing; this is why the attention of the masses needs to be attracted to this issue. The problem of the coastline erosion will be highlighted in a report to the country leaders.
In our globalising world the problems of environment are highly important and often discussed. A clever promotion of the most important issues will be effective and will serve as the starting point for the development of all the measures needed to help the communities that are facing trouble, one of such measures is planting mangroves along the shore lines. The trees hold the ground together and slow down the process of erosion. A proper approach to this problem can help to save thousands of people.
Many study reports have explicitly explored the imaginable impact of oil spills on marine flora and fauna. The nautical milieu may suffer from noxious and somatic smothering effects caused by oil spills. The intensity of aquatic effects is influenced by the nature and extent of the spilt oil.
Besides, the severity might be influenced by the sensitivity and ambient state of the pretentious marine and their surroundings to the lubricant spilt. As depicted by the media fraternity as ecological disasters, the spillage of oil causes direct and indirect outrageous effects on aquatic life. This poses awful consequences and anguish to the existence of aquatic ecological unit (Etkin, 2001, p. 1291).
Statement of Purpose
Studies have hardly explored the consequences of oil spillage on maritime animals. This report incorporates the pollution of habitat, intensified predation and dwindled production as well as internal mutilation and poisoning as caused by oil spillage on water bodies.
Topic definition
This report tries to narrow down the effects of oil spillage as influenced by an assortment of features like climate and other ecological conditions. The report is divided into sections. Under habitat fouling, the report discusses the effects of oceangoing atmospheres including seaside and offshore waters, inshore shallow waters, and shorelines. In addition, plankton, fish, and maritime reptiles and mammals are discussed based on the intensified predation and reduced reproduction. Finally, the report confers the environmental effects on sea grass, corals, and mangroves about internal mutilation and poisoning.
The impacts of oil spills on marine life
The general impacts of oil spill can be determined by a number of features. These include meteorological conditions and ecological settings besides oil conformation and its nearness to the shoreline. Nonetheless, certain ways in which oil spillage might influence the seafaring life encompass habitat polluting, excessive predation and declined reproduction, as well as internal impairment and poisoning (Etkin, 2001, p. 1292).
Fouling of the Habitat
The oceanic habitat such as the shorelines, inshore shallow waters, as well as the seaside and offshore waters are affected in one way or the other by oil spills. The pelagic maritime ecosystem is destructed by the spillage of oil that causes fouling on these water bodies (Casini, Fossi, Leonzio & Renzoni, 2003, p.298).
The malignant effects are directly evident in the life of organisms and sea creatures that depend on such habitats. For a number of decades, oil seepage into the underground surface of water bodies could cause diverse impacts on marine life including birds as illustrated in the diagram below.
Figure 1: Effects of Oil Spill on Birds
Coastal and Offshore Waters
The ocean currents, winds, and waves disperse the spilt oil over a wide expanse on the surface of water. Fouling causes prompt dilution of oil into water given that the excess concentration of oil increases the levels of viscosity column (Etkin, 2001, p. 1292). In fact, the presence of oil on the offshore or coastal waters may not seem threatening.
However, its impact on marine species is worth mentioning. The destruction caused on marine habitat after the oil fires mostly results from tarry deposits, hefty oil stumbles, and recessed wrecks. In effect, the spillage affects sea rocks, nautical algae, and aquatic invertebrates such as burrowing of crabs.
Inshore Shallow Waters
The unsuitable use of dispersants and resilient exploitation of waves near coastline encourages oil to mix with the column of seawater. It is then necessary to maintain oil concentration in the water body inferior to destructive levels through the weakening capacity of tidal flushing.
On the contrary, the death rate of aquatic life increases owing to the dispersal of light crude and refined products of oil into water. High concentration of oil toxin increases in the shallow habitats thus affecting the sea animals like prawns and dugongs that survive in the sediment and bottom of the shallow waters (Carls, Marty & Hose, 2002, p.164).
Shorelines
As opposed to any other aquatic surrounding, the shorelines are the most vulnerable oceanic habitat to the oil spills. In spite of this, the ecosystem of such habitats provides a strong and resistant tolerance against the serious oceanic traumas.
The coastline organisms according to Ben-David, Williams and Ormseth (2000, p.1387) might be capable of recuperating and enduring the impacts of the oil spills. However, seals and whales fodder and swim near the oil spillage but flee to their safety upon detection. Thus, it is clearly illustrated that aquatic animals are merely left with psychological problems though unharmed.
Increased Predation and Reduced Reproduction
Oil spills can predispose thelives of marine animals like planktons, fish, along with maritime reptile and mammals to the predators. Similarly, the oceanic creatures are prone to reduced chances of reproduction under oil spills (Ridoux, Lafontaine, Bustamate, Caurant, Dabin, Delcroix, Hassani, Meynier, Silva, Simonin, Robert, Spitz, & Canneyt, 2004, p. 380).
For instance, the marine reptile and mammals can easily sink and die once the whole or portion of their body parts are buried with oil. The assertion illustrates that the instantaneous or spill aftermaths can have emotional impact on the spawns and eggs of the marine creatures like sea turtle, reptiles, and fish.
Figure 2: Turtle loosing shell due to oil spillage
Planktons
Several zooplankton and phytoplankton comprising of microorganisms and mild planktonic bacteria are sustained by the pelagic ocean and sea regions. Actually, these encompass planktons that settle at the seashore or bottom of the sea like larvae and eggs of invertebrates and fish (Ben-David, Williams & Ormseth, 2000, p. 1383).
High death rates of planktons result from predation. The spills cause environmental changes that force planktonic organisms to migrate to areas where they are more exposed to the predators. The reproduction processes and adult populace diminish due to loss of larvae and eggs caused by oil spills.
Fish
Adult fish prove to be more resistant to the oil influences though young fish tend to remain as the most vulnerable species to the low concentration of oil spillage. In fact, more death rates transpire in water columns having localized and extremely high concentration of the spread oils. The reduced reproduction rate and increased predation during oil spillage on the cultured maritime organisms and fish stock are paramount. The contamination of fish gears up the loss in fish sales.
Marine Reptiles and Mammals
According to Ridoux, Lafontaine, Bustamate, Caurant, Dabin, Delcroix, Hassani, Meynier, Silva, Simonin, Robert, Spitz and Canneyt (2004, p.386), lack of proper aeration forces cetaceans, dolphins, and whales to risk death due to floating. The sea mammals like otters and seals suffer from oil spillage since they spend most of their spare time in the coastline.
Besides, the animals such as seal pup that control their body fevers using fur perishfrom hypothermia during conditions caused by oil spills. Reptiles like sea snakes, iguanas, and turtles suffer from floating oils. As a result, the lives of sea mammals and reptiles are in danger of extinction through human activities and exposure due to oil spills. See the figure below.
Figure 3: Bird dying due to oil spill
Poisoning and Internal Mutilation
Oil spill can lead animals to the swallowing of poisonous substances that could cause internal mutilation. The consequences may consist of the harm of impervious structure, livers, heart, kidney, and body chambers that might lead to sores. Likewise, oil fumes cause damage to the lungs and eyes while oil spills continue to come to the surface of water columns as they evaporate. Incase such oil fumes become plenty, aquatic animals could probably fall asleep hence drowned (Alonso-Alvarez, Perez & Velando, 2007, p. 103).
Sea Grass
The humid and temperate water bodies house diverse species of sea grass. The sea grass provides several organisms with vastly dynamic and varied ecological units like sheltering. The dire impacts on the sea grass and allied organisms come when the poisonous constituents of spilt oil mix with the inshore narrow water columns at unexpected concentration.
Internal mutilation and poisoning might results during the cleanup process due to sea-grass being pulled up by explosive anchors and vessel propellers. The effect knocks off the balance of marine ecosystem (Casini, Fossi, Leonzio & Renzoni, 2003, p.300).
Corals
The unprotected coastlines revel in the assorted and opulent ecosystem-safetythat forms the coral reefs. It takes a long time for the coral reefs to recuperate from the effect of oil spills. The greatest danger that the coral reefs face from the oil spills comes from the dispersed oil.
The animals that depend on the coral reefs suffer from the toxicity that in turn causes interruption in the hatching behaviors and propagation systems (Velando, Perez & Alonso-Alvarez, 2007, p. 107). The intoxication causes diminished shell thickness, egg fertilization, ability to reproduce, and reduced number of produced eggs.
Mangroves
These are vegetations and foliage that breeds at the sidelines of the sheltered sub-tropical and humid water bodies besides being tolerant to salty conditions. The mangrove habitat is ideal for shrimps and fish eggs bedside providing homes for invertebrates, oysters, and crabs.
The mangrove becomes particularly vulnerable to such fuel spillages. Accordingly, oil spillage causes death to the mangroves following the blockade ofaeration in the root system. The damage on mangrove habitation as well as the straight oil effect tends to impact the organisms living in the ecosystem (Carls, Marty & Hose, 2002, p.173).
Conclusion
The aquatic milieu faces noxiousness and suffocation as main mechanisms from the impactsof oil spills. However, the intensity of the effects depends on the nature of oil and the extent of dispersion about the environment and its sensitivity to the pollution of oil. The coastline proves to be the most subtle habitat to the oil spills posing much danger to the existing sea creatures.
The long-term impacts of oil spillage are infrequent while the short-term effects are coming out to be severe. For that reason, the spilt oil should be removed from the water bodies immediately in order to boost the marine ecosystem. In order to allay the damages, an operative execution and design for the elimination of the spilt oil is imperative.
Recommendations
In order to implement and strategize for an effective rejoinder to the oil smeared marine environment, it is significant to evaluate the likely impact and scale of damage tomaritime life. Further, it is recommended that the employment of natural actions might work well with marine environs. These comprise of emulsification, biodegradation, and oxidation. Indeed, these help in speeding up the retrieval of the impacted milieu while reducing the intensity of oil spilt into the water bodies (Long & Holdway, 2002, p.4).
Emulsification
The progression is a practice that forms creams of small water and drops oil. Such suspensions greatly impede response as well as the conditioning actions after being created via stroking waves. The kinds of well-known suspensions include lubricant within water and water within lubricants (russet styling gel).
In fact, the russet-styling gel suspensions hang on the milieu for a while or sometimes take longer periods. Conversely, the oil-in-water cream tends to enable the spilt oil to disappear through sinking into the surface after which it provides the optical illusion that oil has disappeared.
Biodegradation
It transpires during the consumption of oil hydrocarbons by the bacterial microorganisms. In fact, the microorganisms help indecreasing the extent of the spilt oil to endure biodegradation. Hence, bio-degradation can function properly under temperate stream surroundings.
Oxidation
This process arises after soluble wet composites become formed from mixing lubricated hydrocarbons with gas (co2) and stream (h2o). The course oxidizes the thick spills to form tar balls that in sequence linger into the environs towash-upthe seashores after oil emission.
References
Alonso-Alvarez, C., Perez, C. & Velando, A. (2007). Effects of acute exposure to heavy fuel oil from the Prestige spill on a seabird. Aquatic Toxicology,84(2), 103-110.
Ben-David, M., Williams, T. & Ormseth.A. (2000). Effects of oiling on exercise physiology and diving behavior of river otters: A captive study. Canadian Journal of Zoology,78(1), 1380-1390.
Carls, M., Marty, G., & Hose, J. (2002). Synthesis of the toxicological impacts of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) in Prince William Sound, Alaska, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Fish and Aquatic Science, 59(1), 153–172.
Casini, S., Fossi, M., Leonzio, C. & Renzoni, A. (2003). Review: Porphyrins as biomarkers for hazard assessment of bird populations: Destructive and non-destructive use. Ecotoxicology, 12(3), 297-305.
Etkin, D. (2001). Analysis of oil spill trends in the United States and worldwide. 2001 International Oil Spill Conference, 1291-1300.
Long, S. & Holdway, D. (2002). Acute toxicity of crude and dispersed oil to octopus pallidus hatchlings. Water Research, 36(3), 2769-2776.
Ridoux, V., Lafontaine, L., Bustamate, P., Caurant, F., Dabin, W., Delcroix, C., Hassani, S., Meynier, L., Silva, V., Simonin, S., Robert, M., Spitz, J., & Canneyt, O. (2004). The impact of the “Erika” oil spill on pelagic and coastal marine mammals: Combining demographic, ecological, trace metals and biomarker evidences. Aquatic Living Resources, 17(3), 379-387.
The aspects of ecotoxicology are associated with the spread of pollutants in the hydrosphere as well as the development of the environmental protection measures that are taken to minimize the crucial effect of toxic wastes emission. The paper aims to analyze the level of toxic wastes in the Marmara Sea and define whether the toxic levels exceed the requirements of the European Community of seafood intended for human consumption.
The research data that is provided is rather detailed and sufficient, however, the paper is overloaded with numbers and indices, which makes it difficult to read. The author should have included all the numbers and data in tables and graphs, while the paper itself should be focused on interpretations and explanations mainly. Hence, the size of the paper is unreasonably extended, while the actual size needed is essentially smaller.
The importance and actuality of the paper can not be exaggerated, as the problem of toxic wastes is one of the most burning in Europe. Hence, the European community is aiming to avoid and mitigate possible ecologic crises associated with toxic wastes into the hydrosphere. This paper provides the required monitoring tools for controlling the ecological situation in Europe and the basis for performing additional researches and measurements required for assessing the ecotoxical situation. (Boon, Davies, et.al., 2007)
Style and Format
The organization level of the paper is rather high, and the structure is perfect. All the sources are properly formatted and the factual information is properly referenced. However, the source list required essential improvements as most of the resources are outdated and represent outdated concepts. Surely, they may be relied upon, nevertheless, the research of such a scale should be based on newer sources. As for the post-2000 books and articles, they do not give reliable research results, as they are also based on outdated sources. (Lauenstein, Daskalakis, 1998)
The research of persistent organic pollutants should be based on the clear notification of these components in the biosphere. If this component is a key one in the aspects of ecotoxical contamination, the explanation should be given from the chemical and biological perspectives. (Gomez-Gutierrez, Garnacho, 2007) Though the analytical method part involves all the required indices and indicators, the explanation which is given in the discussion part does not cover the enlisted parameters.
In general, the ecotoxicology approach is aimed at researching the anthropogenic toxicants, and the ecological effects of biotic and abiotic stresses (Lettieri, 2006). Nevertheless, the paper does not place a focus on explaining the secondary effects of anthropogenic activities. Hence, acidification should be studied as the secondary effect of dioxin-related contamination.
The water surface is generally subjected to serious anthropogenic ecotoxical influence, and the paper gives the clear explanation of all the negative sides of anthropogenic influence. As it is stated by Roots, Henkelmann, Schramm (2004, p. 339):
It has been proposed that this broadening of focus from purely toxicological effects to the consideration of more general stressors moves beyond the definition of “ecotoxicology”. It is also argued that the field had diversified to become Stress Ecology and that, as the effects of anthropogenic toxicants compound existing, natural stressors, an exclusive study of their effects in an ecological context was nonsensical.
In the light of this statement, the paper is based on the traditional ecotoxicology concepts and defines the key role of anthropogenic influence in the geographic region of the Marmara Sea. Nevertheless, the study may not be regarded full, as only mussels are subjected to analysis, moreover, mussels are from only part of the sea and coastline.
Anyway, independently of the statements of traditional approaches of contemporary ecotoxicology, the paper is written with sufficient capacity for further researches, as the toxic wastes are observed not only in the Marmara Sea, and not only in mussels. (Van den Berg, Birnbaum, et.al. 2006) Though, to be accepted for publishing in a journal, the paper should be restructured. This restructuring should relate to the manner of data arrangement, as the paper is extremely overloaded with indices and numbers, while they should be arranged in accurate tables and graphs.
Finally, it should be emphasized that the importance of the paper is not doubted, however, the author did not pay sufficient attention to the aspects of toxic wastes spread and sources. Considering the fact that the results of the study revealed that the contamination level is not high at the moment, there is a necessity to control the sources but not the contamination level. (Piersanti, Scrucca, et.al. 2006) Anyway, the actual importance of the study methods should not be underestimated, and the values of the chemical analysis reveal the sincere interest of the author to the problem of hydrosphere contamination by toxic wastes.
Comments
The author needs to consider newer researches in the sphere of ecotoxicology, as most of the used sources are too outdated. Regardless of the fact that the information is sources and cited properly, the author needs to address the environmental protection and ecological legislation of the European Union.
Checklist
Scientific Questions
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Of broad international interest? [] Yes [x] No
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Is the quality assurance/quality control documented? [] Yes [x] No
Quantity of data presented [x] Too much [] Adequate [] Too little
Quality of interpretation and conclusions [] 1 [x] 2 [] 3
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Technical Questions
Is the abstract informative? [x] Yes [] No
Is the title adequate and are the keywords appropriate? [x] Yes [] No
Is this paper
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Are the references cited relevant and up to date? [] Yes [x] No
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Reference List
Boon, P. J., Davies, B. R., & Petts, G. E. (Eds.). (2007). Global Perspectives on River Conservation: Science, Policy, and Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Web.
Gomez-Gutierrez, A., Garnacho, E., Bayona, J. M., Albaiges, J., (2007). Assessment of the Mediterranean sediments contamination by persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Pollut. 148, 396-408.
Lauenstein ,G. G., Daskalakis, K. D., (1998) U.S. Long-term coastal contaminant temporal trends determined from mollusk monitoring programs, 1965-1993. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 37, 6-13.
Lettieri, T. (2006). Recent Applications of DNA Microarray Technology to Toxicology and Ecotoxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), 4.
Piersanti, A., Scrucca, L., Galarini, R., Tavolini, T., (2006) Polychlorobiphenyls (18 congeners) in mussels from middle Adriatic Sea. Organohalogen Compd. 68, 1951-1954.
Roots, O., Henkelmann, B., Schramm, K.W., (2004). Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in soil in the vicinity of a landfill. Chemosphere 57, 337-342.
Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L.S., Denison, M., De Vito, M., Farland, W., Feeley, M., Fiedler, H., Hakansson, H., Hanberg, A., Haws, L., Rose, M., Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tohyama, C., Tritscher, A., Tuomisto, J., Tysklind, M., Walker, N., Peterson, R.E., (2006) The 2005 World Health Organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Tox. Sci. 93, 223-241.
One of the contemporary global challenges is the depletion of aquatic animals due to natural causes and uncontrolled fishing. For example, some aquatic animals such as dolphins and sharks are on the verge of extinction. At present, there is a consensus among conservationists, politicians, and animal rights activists that drastic measures should be taken to protect marine life. However, the proposed strategies for protecting them have remained contentious among various stakeholders.
In some countries, marine parks have been created to protect endangered sea life. However, some individuals have opposed this approach. The creation of marine parks is a fundamental issue that is worth debating because ethical, economic, and environmental factors must be taken into account in the conservation of animals (Daly, 1997). This essay supports the creation of marine parks because they protect endangered sea animals.
Importance of Aquatic Parks
The underlying reason for the creation of marine parks is to protect vulnerable sea life from unnecessary harm and to facilitate research activities on the same. Therefore, by bringing animals closer to researchers, the cost of conducting studies will reduce considerably. Moreover, research on animals can be conducted easily if they are quarantined (Daly, 1997). Therefore, marine parks are ideal laboratories for marine researchers because they can regularly examine animals.
Nonetheless, research activities in marine parks have been criticized for providing myopic solutions because they are conducted in controlled environments. However, most research activities in the wild environment are often not consistent; hence, they cannot be used to make substantive conclusions.
Conversely, animals in marine parks can be subjected to various stimuli over a long duration; hence, they offer the best research solutions. Moreover, research activities conducted in marine parks are often corroborated with those carried out in the natural environment; hence, they are reliable (Daly, 1997).
The second important aspect of marine parks is its monetary value. In terms of marine tourism, aquatic parks offer the best solution for tourists because they are cheaper than watching animals in the sea. Many tourists can visit one aquatic park and watch various sea creatures. Thus, marine parks can save tourists the burden of traveling overseas to watch rare sea creatures. Tourists can save a lot of time by simply watching many animals in one marine park.
Time saved can be used for productive activities and the conservation of the environment. Moreover, it is safe to visit marine parks because they have safety standards. On the other hand, people watch animals in the wild environment at their own risk. Annually, wild animals kill or maim several tourists in the natural environment. Such unnecessary injuries and deaths can be avoided by visiting marine parks.
Some individuals have criticized the monetary aspect of marine parks. However, it should be noted that funds raised by marine parks are not meant to benefit individuals. These funds are often used in protecting aquatic animals and facilitating research activities on the same.
Conclusion
In conclusion, marine parks should be supported because they facilitate the conservation of rare species of marine life. Moreover, they enable thousands of people to enjoy the beauty of sea creatures. Last, marine parks and wildlife parks should be seen as the beginning and not the end of protecting wild animals. Therefore, drastic measures should be taken to save animals from further destruction because they are important in the ecosystem.
The business report under analysis is issued by National Marine Fishery Service for the purpose of exploring the existing business projects and legislatures aimed at reducing overfishing and by-catch mortality as well as expanding and developing an eco-friendly aquaculture. The report provides a basic overview of fishery management, measure taken for habitats conservation, analysis of protected resources, advances in science and technology, international concerns, law enforcement, and organizational future perspectives. Finally, the report discusses the main plans and programs that will ensure safety of citizens, as well as ecological food production within a newly created aquaculture.
Defining the Main Critical Points of the Report Outcomes
Within a fishery management context, the report primarily focuses on the provisions of the Magnuson-Steven Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act issues in 2006. According to the act, it is necessary to end overfishing by promoting novelty approaches to fishery management, improving data collection, addressing illegal issues of fishing, and enhancing international cooperation. In this respect, setting up an annual catch limit (ACL) creates a solid platform and a starting point for reducing overfishing, which is of paramount importance for NOAA Fisheries Service (NOAA Fisheries Service 3). Adhering to major principles of the Act can ensure “a sustainable supply of wild seafood, socially and economically vibrant fishing communities, and healthy marine ecosystems” (NOAA Fisheries Service 3).
Furthermore, the report focuses on the mission to progress fishery management in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). In addition, MSRA has guided the NOAA Community-based Restoration program aimed at implementing safety habitat restoration programs. As per minimizing by-catch, a new rule was issued to take control of fishing gear and increase the survival of the spices being under the threat of extinction. There was also a Governmental Performance Results Act that demonstrated and controlled the tax payment spent on achieving the above-established objectives. To monitor the programs fulfillment regular data collection and statistics was carried out.
Regarding the program on preserving the endangered species, the report reveals that the Open Rivers Initiative under NOAA accomplished three projects to have restored 30 miles of rearing and spawning habitat for migratory fish, including Calapooia River (NOAA Fisheries Service 12). The programs also foresaw protection of coral reefs. Specifically, the report highlighted the necessity of introducing a fishing ban on territorial waters and presented plan on developing on a network of protected areas, particularly reef ecosystems. In addition, coral reef protection implied the establishment of climate change program aimed at preventing the negative consequences of global change.
The report further discusses the situation with invasive species and everything connected to understanding and controlling this problem. In this respect, NOAA Fisheries Services was collaborating with Aquatic Invasive Species program that had models and plans on dispersing European green crab for the purpose of reducing bivalve fishery. Another partnership was established with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Green Diamond Resource Company which led to the creation of a new conservation plan covering 416.000 acres and supporting the recovery of such species as steelhead trout, coho salmon, and Chinook salmon inhabiting the northern part of California (NOAA Fisheries Service 15).
To sustain and protect the existing resource in the region, the Recovery Plan for Endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal and Puget Sound Chinook was adopted. In 2007, the Fishery Services also introduced a greater protection measures for Elkhorn and staghorn coral that were under the threat of extinction. According to scientists, over 90 % of corals were vanished due to coral bleaching, high temperatures, and storm damage. Whale conservation was also a top priority for the Service because only about 300 species were left in the region (NOAA Fisheries Service 17). In this respect, the U.S. government presented a proposal for modifying the Traffic Separation Scheme in the Boston area to cut off the danger of vessel collisions.
To strengthen the programs on mammals’ survival, Marine Mammal Rescue Assistant Program by John Prescott awarded about $ 3.7 million to progress the recovery of marina mammal and contribute to data collection and scientific research (NOAA Fisheries Service 20). Aside from scientific exploration, the report has also presented technological discoveries contributing to sustaining an ecological health marine life. Particularly, a noise-quieted vessel called the Oscar Dyson was introduced. Other than that, the Service regularly introduced a team of researchers and environmentalist for exploring the marine life to define the main problems and provided immediate solutions to those. Because of the exploration, it has been found that 100 species of fish were controlled under the West Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (NOAA Fisheries Service 24). Each year, California spent over $ 200 million for the recreational fishery activities.
Analysis of international relations within fishery practices has also been reviewed to define which kind of species should be banned for the international trade. In this respect, such species as sawfish and shark-like fish were under protection of NOAA Fishery Service. Additionally, report informs about global tuna summit, an important meeting during which such problems as bluefin tuna and swordfish management and protection were being solved.
Report attains much importance to legal and regulatory issues to prevent overfishing. At this point, more than $ 15.5 million were received by Commonwealth and Territories (NOAA Fisheries Service 30). These financial resources will be spent on advancing scientific research and enhancing the protection of extinct species. It planned to be spent on prohibiting illegal harvest. The report also presents a number of legal cases revealing illegal fishing and infringement of the established laws.
While presenting organization’s activity outside the country, specific attention should be placed to a forum on Gulf of Mexico Grouper (NOAA Fisheries Service, 2007, p. 34). The forum has been aimed at discussing the opportunities for cooperating and working together with other services and enhancing managing and controlling techniques. Fishery managers, thus, noticed significantly increased interest on the part of the public that is concerned with environmental issues as well. The forum has also highlighted a one-day marketing workshop presented by NOAA Fisheries Service. The workshop was oriented on supplying the participants with pertinent information about existing legal provision for exporting products. The workshop was also aimed at preserving the steelhead species in Southern Carolina and increasing awareness among people.
Conclusion
Overall, the report presents potential figures and outcomes of productive fishery management for sustaining health aquaculture and for improving marine life. The business report also covers the basic components of different programs implemented to advance the scientific research and technological advances, as well as introduce penalties for reducing overfishing and establishing by-catch limits. Specific financial resources were spent on implementing research projects to prevent the ecological disaster and preserve the life of endangered species.
Works Cited
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Marine Fisheries Service 2008, NOAA Fisheries Service: 2007 Business Report. Web.
Six nations and sixty million people were put at risk by the death of once the fourth largest lake on earth. Today the Aral Sea is the epitome of human-environmental malpractice and one of the earth’s worst environmental catastrophes. Soviet-era mismanagement, transboundary water conflict issues, and rapidly worsening climate change have made the Aral Sea a thing of the past. Even UNESCO added the lake’s documents in the “Memory of the World Register.” The Aral Sea is one of the most ideal models of the connection between the wellbeing of an ecosystem and that of communities and economies dependent on it. Humans do not always manage to preserve the beauty of nature, and some of its phenomena deteriorate or become destroyed altogether. To prevent this, citizens of all countries must make every effort to save the wonders of the Earth and take responsibility for the destruction of forests, deserts, water, and other resources. The Aral Sea has many severe problems, and people have to try to solve them soon to save at least a part of its region.
The primary cause of the Aral Sea’s decline is human activities, most importantly the careless handling of the irrigation project that drained it, and it can only be preserved and restored through the funneling of water back into it.
To identify and analyze the problems of the lake, its basin, and the entire region
To discuss the causes and consequences of the lake’s destruction
To evaluate the solutions proposed for ameliorating the consequences
Study Area
The Aral Sea was a sinking lake between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Due to an irrigation program that drained water from it, it started drying up in the 1960s. Before the 1960s, the lake used to be the fourth-largest in the world and had an area of 26,300 sq ml. By 1997, it has split into four distinct lakes: the South Aral Sea, split into two parts, a small lake in the middle, and the North Aral Sea. In 2014, the eastern basin of the lake desiccated completely, and now it is called the Aralkum Desert.
Literature Survey
A lot of literature exists covering the damage of the lake, the consequences, and possible solutions to the problem. Dilbar et al. (2019) examine the issue of the Aral Sea and the possibilities of eliminating it. Micklin (2016) tries to predict the likelihood of saving the Aral Sea region through restoration. Many scholars have studied issues surrounding the Aral Sea including Aladin et al. (2019), Guo et al. (2016), Izhitskiy et al. (2016), and Kalimbetova et al. (2020). People living in the lake basin struggle with a variety of problems, such as the death of the fishing trade and the lack of water with which to water crops (Izhitskiy et al., 2016, Micklin. 2016, Shukla, 2015). The extent of the damage was classified until the collapse of the Soviet Union, at which point the decay was already in an advanced state. Though complex, the roots of the disaster are now well understood and restoration efforts have been going on in the last few decades.
Causes of Aral Sea Shrinking
Historical geography suggests that the drying of the Aral Sea must have taken place previously. Millions of years ago, northern parts of Uzbekistan and southern parts of Kazakhstan were covered by a vast endorheic lake. The water receded gradually and highly saline soil plains were exposed leaving a few intermittent water bodies that became the Aral Sea. Evidence suggests that the lake has been completely or partially flooded more than eight times for the past ten thousand years. The role of rainfall variations in this flooding is unclear (Shukla, 2015). Recent shrinking which started in the 1960s is the focus of this paper. In the 1960s, the Aral Sea covered an area of 26,300 sq ml but by 2008, it covered only 1,270 sq mi (Dilbar et al., 2019). The water volume decreased by more than 90% and the concentration of salt contents increased five-fold (Dilbar et al., 2019). Over the last six decades, the lake has been gradually separating into smaller water bodies. The dried-up floor came to be known as Aralkum Desert.
There is a significant number of serious issues that destroy the lake and make the region poor. It has experienced rapid shrinking and desiccation since Soviet projects diverted its inlets (Dilbar et al., 2019). Though this project made agricultural activities successful in the area, it also divided the sea into several parts and made it much smaller. When the lake desiccated, fisheries and other economic activities the communities depended on collapsed. The water became saltier and polluted with pesticides and fertilizer, which is decimated fish and other aquatic life (Ogli & Qizi, 2019). The dust that was blowing from the exposed lakebed was poisoned and contaminated with agricultural chemicals (Micklin et al., 2016). It became a public health hazard, substantially affecting the health of the residents. The shrinking of the sea even influenced changed microclimates as winters became colder and summers drier and hotter.
Massive water withdrawals and technological advances are the main cause of basin-wide desiccation and shrinking. This is a terminal lake that depends on groundwater and river inflow to maintain surface levels. It is fed mainly by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers but in the 1950s and 1960s, both rivers were used to channel water for irrigation purposes and as a result, the supply of water to the lake was greatly impeded (Shukla, 2015). This led to excess evaporation resulting in major imbalance and drastic shrinking in surface and volume of water. The Soviet Union regime embarked on a massive expansion irrigation scheme with an aim to
Multiply the production of cotton
Increase the production of fruits and vegetables
Supply the Central Asian states with rice and export too
Employ local people
To meet these objectives, massive amounts of water were diverted from the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigation schemes. In the 1960s, there were more than five million hectares of land in the lake’s basin under irrigation (Aladin et al., 2019). That figure would jump to 8.5 million hectares in 1990.
By 1990, Uzbekistan was the biggest producer of cotton globally. Cotton is still the main cash crop in that country accounting for approximately 17% of its exports. Many of the canals for purposes of irrigation during the Soviet era were poorly built allowing evaporation and leakage. It is estimated that 30 to 70% of water meant for irrigation went to waste (Shukla, 2015). This diversion and wastage of water from the river discharge led to drastic drops in the water feeding the Aral Sea. In some years, the lake received virtually no water inflows from the rivers. While agricultural production did increase, it was at a huge environmental cost. Sadly, the Soviets were well aware that the lake would disappear. They considered the existence of the lake an error in nature and knew it would eventually evaporate and shrink due to the irrigation scheme. The complete extinction of the Aral Sea has various disastrous outcomes for those residing in the Aral Sea Basin.
The Aral Sea shrinking is a textbook case of ecosystem collapse and the epitome of environmental malpractice. The flora and fauna of the Aral Sea Basin have suffered greatly as the water disappeared. Inhabitants were reliant on the Aral Sea for water supply and economic activities such as fishing (Kalimbetova et al., 2020). The dry surface is covered with salt and toxic chemicals and worsening soil and water quality.
There is massive environmental degradation as salt from irrigation drainage water is partially returned to rivers to pass to downstream areas. This has increased land and water salinization. Increasing salinization threatens the livelihoods of millions of residents physically and economically. Erosion and sedimentation threaten freshwater regulation and allocation in the basin (Shukla, 2015). There is serious soil contamination from the overuse of chemical fertilizers. Biodiversity and wetlands have diminished and surrounding mountains have suffered from deforestation.
The drying of the lake has caused serious socio-economic and environmental consequences. There is a vast area that has now been turned into a desert as rivers flow through deltas and spring floods are virtually eliminated. The construction of storage reservoirs upstream has led to falling water surface levels in the Aral Sea and the intensification of the desertification process. The now largely barren land covering an area of more than fifty thousand square kilometers is characterized by dust and salt winds that are harmful to domestic animals by reducing their food supply (Aladin et al., 2019). The area’s climate has also experienced a shift from maritime conditions to desert conditions.
The shrinking of the Aral has had dangerous effects on the health of the population around it. Environmental and health experts call the Aral Sea Basin an ecological disaster zone. The airborne dust and salt contribute to the high prevalence of eye problems, respiratory ailments, and certain types of cancer. Contamination of drinking water from the massive irrigation project is to blame for typhoid, dysentery, tuberculosis, anemia, and hepatitis. Due to salt concentration in drinking water, kidney and liver diseases are widespread in the area. Other effects of the disappearance of the lake include the shortage of drinking water and an increase in unemployment in the fishing sector. Former fishing towns are today marveled at as ship graveyards. The main fishing port known as Aral lies several miles from the sea and its population has gone down dramatically as the main economic activity dies.
Solution
There has been multi-government and multiagency collaborations and effort to restore the Aral Sea with some results albeit slow ones. The recovery of the 1960s water levels requires cooperation from all countries whose rivers feed the lake. Attempts to revive the lake started in the late 1990s and there has been some success especially in Kazakhstan. A rudimentary dam built to save the North Aral Sea and sacrifice the South Aral Sea broke a few years later. In 2004, the World Bank financed the building of a new dam, and since then the North Aral Sea has been steadily improving its water coverage and volume. It has also recovered some of its aquatic fauna and evaporation has slowed. Water is now 15 km away from the city of Aralsk and it was one 50 km away (Plotnikov et al., 2016). Fishing is slowly resuming in the North Aral Sea and healthiness is slowly being restored.
With the current situation, the full recovery of the lake is not probable as the factors that led to the disaster are still existent. The area is still in a disaster state and the natural ecosystems have been destroyed to an extent that it is not suitable for human habitation. International efforts to restore the lake are expected to replenish Aral’s water, restore a stable ecosystem, decrease salt and dust by blowing, and improve the climate around the lake and its basin. Various solutions have been identified and some are carried out to an extent (Izhitskiy et al., 2016). These include improving the quality of irrigation canals, promoting economic activities that are non-agricultural upstream, improving cotton farming by using fewer chemicals during cultivation, and using the plant’s alternative species that utilize less water. Technology such as irrigation optimization and laser leveling has also been employed in varying degrees. Five nations have implemented the Aral Sea Basin Program since 1994 in different phases.
The Aral Sea basin countries, the international community, and multiple agencies have made various attempts to solve the issue of the drying lake and eliminate the consequences of the problem. For example, Aral Sea Basin Programs are aimed at stabilizing the basin’s environment and rehabilitating the disaster area around the sea (Kalimbetova et al., 2020). Moreover, possible reactions include using fewer agricultural chemicals on the cotton and improving the irrigation canals’ quality (Bekchanov et al., 2016). These actions are of great importance and may help save the Aral Sea region. Large-scale restoration efforts have seen the resurgence of aquatic life in the North Aral Sea. The Syr Darya repair is ongoing to improve the quality of water and increase its flow. The future of the South Aral Sea has largely been abandoned but environmentalists are still campaigning for more effort to be put in. Uzbekistan, which relies heavily on cotton exports, is still using the Amu Darya river for irrigation. Plans are also underway for oil exploration in the South Aral seabed.
Fishermen catching fish in the North Aral Sea after its restoration. Web.
Conclusion
The Aral Sea disappearance disaster has fortunately led to the collaboration of nations and international bodies in the last few decades. Intergovernmental meetings and international conferences have been held to try and restore the lake. Countries in Central Asia can only realize unified development if they coordinate conflict of interests by regional and global collaboration. The Aral Sea and its basin is a highly complex ecological system that has been destroyed by the massive and reckless withdrawal of water from its two main sources. This has led to the making of one of the earth’s worst environmental catastrophes as the world watches. The consequences have been dire and far-reaching as the environment takes vengeance on the humans as well as the innocent flora and fauna. The consequences of this destruction can be corrected through the restoration of the lake through a concerted effort from all stakeholders.
References
Aladin, N. V., Gontar, V. I., Zhakova, L. V., Plotnikov, I. S., Smurov, A. O., Rzymski, P., & Klimaszyk, P. (2019). The zoocenosis of the Aral Sea: six decades of fast-paced change.Environmental science and pollution research international, 26(3), 2228–2237. Web.
Bekchanov, M., Ringler, C., Bhaduri, A., & Jeuland, M. (2016). Optimizing irrigation efficiency improvements in the Aral Sea Basin. Water Resources and Economics, 13, 30-45.
Dilbar, Q., Polvonnazarovna, A. N., & Ugli, A. B. B. (2019). The problem of the Aral Sea and the Aral Sea Basin, its consequences and solutions. International Journal of Academic Pedagogical Research, 3(4), 46-47.
Kalimbetova, R., Mambetullaeva, S., & Allambergenova, F. (2020). Environmental problems of water supply of the population of the South Aral Sea region and protection of water resources. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(8), 1784-1787.
Krupa, E. & Grishaeva, O. (2019). Impact of water salinity on long-term dynamics and spatial distribution of benthic invertebrates in the Small Aral Sea. Oceanological and Hydrobiological, 48(4). Web.
Micklin, P. (2016). The future Aral Sea: Hope and despair. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(9), 844.
Micklin, P., Aladin, N. V., & Plotnikov, I. (Eds.). (2016). The Aral Sea: The devastation and partial rehabilitation of a Great Lake. Springer.
Ogli, Z. O. T., & Qizi, A. F. A. (2019). Aral Sea problems and financial mechanisms to overcome it. Science and Education Issues, 1(42).
Plotnikov, I. S., Ermakhanov, Z. K., Aladin, N. V., & Micklin, P. (2016). Modern state of the Small (Northern) Aral Sea fauna. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, 21(4), pp. 315–328. Web.
Shukla, A. (2015). The shrinking of Aral Sea (a worst environmental disaster). International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 11(3), pp. 633-643.
In a historical document taken from the archives of the State of Virginia, one can find Captain John Smith’s journal entry. Captain Smith described an event wherein his men were able to haul an abundant harvest of fish (Roberts, 2012, p.10). Scientific evidence supports Smith’s claim (Roberts, 2012). Thus, there was a time when the Earth’s marine ecosystems were teeming with marine life. Captain Smith’s journal was written in the year 1624. It is good to read about Smith’s account. His account of America’s rich natural resources encourages the creation of initiatives to save the marine ecosystems of the present time.
Cutting-edge technology is supposed to guarantee a bountiful harvest. However, scientists all over the world are making the following sad refrain: “For all their technological brilliance, modern fishing fleets operate at the margins of profitability” (Roberts,2012). Fishermen are having a hard time hitting their quotas. The main culprit is the destruction of marine ecosystems due to the tremendous increase in human populations. The growth of communities dependent on fishing is proportional to the destruction of marine ecosystems. Scientists are lamenting the fact that many fish species are in precipitous decline (Abel & McConnell, 2010). Nevertheless, responsible citizens must never give up. The destruction of the aquatic environment is an inevitable outcome of human development. Responsible citizens must take concrete steps in order to reverse the negative impact of the exploitation of marine life. The survival of the human race, and the survival of millions of species of wildlife is dependent on a healthy marine ecosystem.
Marine ecosystems are important because these are major sources of food for the human population. Seafood is an important source of protein. The inability to harvest fish will exacerbate the nutrition problem in areas where hunger is already a major issue. Marine ecosystems also play an important role in the livelihood of hundreds of millions of people around the world. A significant number of workers are dependent on a health ecosystem in order to create jobs related to tourism. Millions of employees are dependent on jobs related to aqua sports, scuba diving, and recreational fishing. Marine ecosystems are also critical sources of medicines.
The Effects of a Growing Human Population
Overfishing is the number one concern with regards to the growing human population in coastal areas. Growing cities have an indirect impact on the destruction of marine ecosystems. Globalization has created greater demand for exotic food and exotic sea creatures. People harvest corals for aesthetic purposes without considering the fact that aquatic animals rely on corals to survive.
Mangroves are needed to protect coastal communities from storm surges. At the same time, the mangrove ecosystem interacts with the marine ecosystem in the area in order to produce healthy marine life. The interaction of different groups of organisms ensures the survival of the human population. However, the need to produce more food necessitates the destruction of mangroves in order to give way to man-made structures.
Petroleum products are major sources of pollutants that destroy aquatic life in marine ecosystems. The growth of the human population directly increases the demand for petroleum products. Therefore, there is significant increase in the amount of petroleum products transported across the seven seas. As a result, the incidence of oil spills are also on the rise. Oil spills degrade aquatic life and destroy sensitive marine habitats (Abel & McConnell, 2010). It is important to develop tankers that are not prone to accidents. It is also important to develop effective strategies for oil spill clean up. The clean up method must be efficient enough to minimize damage to the marine ecosystem in the said area.
Conclusion
People dependent on marine ecosystems must use resources at their disposal to reverse the negative consequences of uncontrolled exploitation of marine life. One of the practical strategies to repair the damage is to create marine protected zones that are designed to handle diverse species of marine life. Another important strategy is to impose penalties on factories and other man-made endeavors that are responsible for dumping toxic waste into ocean floor. It is important to develop protected zones that are free from human interference.
References
Abel, D. & McConnell, R. (2010). Environmental oceanography. MA: Jones and Bartlett.
Roberts, C. (2012). The ocean of life. New York: Penguin Books.
Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are considered to be an effective tool in addressing ecological challenges. However, the real extent of their effects on the marine ecosystem and biodiversity have not yet been thoroughly studied. The proposed research aims to analyze the MPA effectiveness for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction based on digital images collected by Automated Underwater Vehicles (AUV). The primary source of data for the study is the Squidle+ database of AUV images. The research intends to prove the hypothesis that MPAs are effective for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction and compare the data from different MPAs along the Australian coast to analyze the differences.
Background
Kelp forests are the biological engine of temperate shallow reef ecosystems in Eastern Australia that provide habitat for hundreds of species. They are currently threatened by sea urchin overgrazing, which leads to the replacement of kelp forests with much simpler barren reefs. Urchin overgrazing is largely caused by overfishing of sea urchin predators that maintain the balance in the ecosystem by keeping urchin population under control (Hamilton & Caselle). The fluctuations of sea urchin growth disturb the balance of marine ecosystems, and the reduction of kelp forests causes the loss of biodiversity (Provost et al., 2016). Marine Protected Areas (MPA), which are the areas of the ocean set aside for long-term conservation aims, are a primary management tool for mitigating threats to marine biodiversity (Sala et al., 2018). The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction. It is intended to prove that MPAs help to protect important habitats, avoid degradation, and restore the productivity of the ocean.
The proposed study aims to contribute to the current research on the subject. The existing literature includes scholarly articles that analyze geographic variations in distribution and abundance of kelp forests (Marzinelli et al., 2015) and study marine biodiversity using Automated Underwater Vehicles (Ferrari et al., 2018). The research of MPA primarily studies the factors of success and/or failure of MPA effectiveness and their effects on people and the marine environment (France et al., 2016). The effectiveness of protected areas for kept forest recovery and urchin reduction has not yet been properly addressed in the literature.
Aims
Statement
The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction.
Question
The project proposes to use visual and quantitative data to answer two questions:
Are MPAs effective in restoring kelp populations and reducing sea urchins?
What differences exist between different protected areas?
Hypothesis
The research suggests using data from Australian coastal MPAs to investigate the following hypotheses:
MPAs are effective in kelp forest recovery.
MPAs are effective in urchin reduction.
MPAs’ effects vary in different areas.
Approach & Method
The suggested source of data for the research is the Squidle+ database (Web), a digital collection of Automated Underwater Vehicle images designed by Dr. Ariell Friedman. It allows users to select between different types of locations: Sanctuary Zones and General Use zones, and choose between various types of AUV deployments based on a range of filters. Each location provides a set of images that can be analyzed based on different parameters.
For the purpose of the research, 10 MDAs (Sanctuary Zones) located along the Australian coast should be selected. From each area, ten images should be taken randomly, constituting a total of 100 images saved as a separate collection. On each image, 20 random points will be generated and analyzed with the purpose of evaluating the presence and number of sea urchins and the state and presence of a kelp forest. The data will be presented in percentages in an Excel table together with the name, latitude, longitude, and depth of each location.
Significance & Innovation
The proposed research is intended to provide new data on the marine environments and the effectiveness of MDA for addressing global climate change. The results are anticipated to prove that MPAs help to protect important habitats, prevent degradation, and restore the productivity of the ocean. The data can be used for further research, including the setup of an extensive database covering MDAs in different regions of the world.
The project innovation lies in using digital materials and online resources for studying MDAs and the marine environment. It goes in line with the recent technological developments that provide the researchers with tools and methods that help to study underwater ecosystems more profoundly. The study based on interactive data offers multiple opportunities for further research, development, and verification. The research is intended to facilitate the use of new technologies in environmental studies and provide new instruments for handling and analyzing digital data.
Logistics & Personnel
The research will be conducted by a team of four members, each responsible for a separate stage of the project and participating in collaborative decision making. Effective allocation of responsibilities between team members allows each of them to focus on a particular task and facilitate the development of common goals. In order to achieve the desired results, each team member has to possess the skills and experience relevant to the project and the task they are assigned to. Prior to the research, guidelines for research and result evaluation should be developed collaboratively by team members and approved by the research supervisor.
The most experienced member of the team should be appointed as the head of the project, coordinating and managing other members’ activities. He/she should be responsible for time management, task allocation, adherence to guidelines, and research outcomes. He/she should have sufficient technical and academic expertise to solve potential issues. The image collection and analysis work should be distributed between the three other members of the team, with each of them also focusing on a specific field of work. One of the members should be responsible for evaluating kept forest data, the other should interpret urchin data, and the third member should compare the data obtained from different locations. This way, the collection of images will be put together by all members of the team, and each member will have a specific question to focus on during the research. The results of each field of study should be initially analyzed by one researcher, followed by group discussion, verification, and evaluation. Each member of the team is encouraged to contribute their ideas to the research process, which are discussed and approved or rejected by other team members.
The exact timeline for the project should be established at the initial stage of project development. The preliminary dates are estimated to be two weeks for the preparation stage, two months for the actual research, and two months for data interpretation and final paper preparation. The exact dates of project commencement and conclusion should be discussed at a team meeting and approved by the research supervisor.
Acknowledgments & Permits
No special permits are required to start the research.
Oceans cover extensive portion of the planet. Moreover, numerous human activities take place in the oceans. Hence, they are prone to pollution. Harmful waste matters from industries are channeled into the oceans. Besides, people dump plastic wastes into the oceans. The wastes have severe impacts on marine community and human health. Plastic wastes, particularly microplastics alter eating habits of marine animals and lead to starvation. Besides, they expose human to breast and prostate cancers. Plastics are made from polycarbonates that contain a harmful compound known as bisphenol. Therefore, dumping of plastic materials in oceans contaminates water with bisphenol. Bisphenol alters the reproduction pattern of marine community and exposes human to disease like obesity. Besides, bisphenol has severe economic impacts on countries. It affects the fishing industry, and countries spend a lot of money to treat diseases that are related to bisphenol.
Introduction
Oceans cover the biggest part of the planet. However, many people do not appreciate the importance of oceans to human and marine life. Moreover, a majority of people do not understand the relationship between the earth’s system and oceans. Costanza (1999) alleges that oceans and coastal environment have fiscal value. Costanza (1999) argues that ocean and coastline biomes cater for the biggest share of the ecosystem’s services. Marine biomes such as coral reefs, coastal systems, and open oceans help to protract economic and human activities. Nevertheless, many people do not understand this reality.
Costanza (1999) argues that both the government and public do not appreciate the economic value of coastal and Ocean environments. One reason ocean and coastline biomes are prone to pollution is because they transcend national borders. Marine pollution includes agricultural runoff, industrial effluence, wind-blown rubbles and dirt, nutrient effluence and plastic wastes. Today, it is estimated that hundreds of metric tons of plastic wastes are channeled to the oceans on a daily basis. Indeed, at least 40% of the global ocean surfaces are covered with plastic wastes. This paper will discuss the effects of plastic wastes on marine and human life.
Overview of Plastic
Many people regard plastic bags as items designed to make their life comfortable. They use plastic bags to carry items as well as to preserve perishable foodstuffs. If not well discarded, the bags pose a significant threat to marine life. Ahn, Hong, Neelamani, Philip and Shanmugam (2006) argue that plastic has become a daily component of human life. They assert that plastic is not a bad thing if used well. According to Ahn et al. (2006), plastic facilitates treatment of patients suffering from diabetics and arthritis.
Besides, motorbike riders and construction workers use plastic to cover their heads. Nevertheless, when plastic waste is released into the oceans, it becomes a threat to both human and marine life. Sea turtles confuse plastic bags with jellyfish. In most cases, plastic waste is swept into the ocean by rain water. In addition, fishermen dispose of plastic waste into the oceans as they do fishing. According to the National Academy of Sciences, 85% of plastic wastes come from merchant ships. Ahn et al. (2006) posit that it is hard to enforce laws due to the nature of oceans.
Composition of Plastic and Microplastic
Daoji and Dag (2004) allege that there are different types of plastics based on method of polymerization. They claim that three kinds of plastics contribute to marine pollution. They include mega-plastics, microplastics, and macro-plastics (Daoji & Dag, 2004). According to Daoji and Dag (2004), mega- and microplastics are mainly found in the northern hemisphere. They are rare to find in remote islands. Microplastics and mega-plastics are found in shoes, packaging bags, and other household items that are either dumped in landfills or dropped from ships. Fishing nets also add to the composition of plastic wastes found in oceans. Microplastics refer to small fragments of plastic that are 5mm or less.
They arise from the disintegration of big plastic materials due to collision and other mechanical forces (Sheavly & Register, 2007). Examples of microplastics include grinding wastes and scours obtained from cosmetics products. In addition, the powder and pellets used to make plastic items constitute microplastics.
Primary and Secondary Effects of Microplastic on Marine Life
Microplastics have both physical and biological impacts on marine life. Many marine animals die because of consuming microplastics. Derraik (2002) argues that microplastics cover equal portion as planktonic organisms and residues. Thus, marine animals consume high amount of microplastics that make them suffer from internal blockages and abrasions. Moreover, microplastics expose marine community to numerous health dangers. Some microplastics contain chemicals that expose marine community to cancer threats and endocrine disturbances. As marine animals such as sea cucumbers continue to ingest microplastics, the plastics get fixed in their tissues (Derraik, 2002).
Eventually, animals that feed on sea cucumbers end up swallowing the microplastics. In addition, microplastics affect the feeding habits of small marine animals. Once the animals ingest microplastics, they feel satisfied, and this affects their rate of food intake. Thompson, Moore, Vom Saal and Swan (2009) argue that microplastics contain enormous persistent organic pollutants that are passed on to marine animals. Hence, microplastics affect not only marine animals that ingest them, but also the entire marine community that feed on aquatic organisms. Another effect of microplastics on the marine community is that they lead to uneven distribution of organisms. They lead to some marine organisms shifting to regions, which are less organically diverse, therefore affecting their survival.
Effects of Microplastics on Human Health and Economy
Apart from affecting marine life and marine community, microplastics have adverse effects on human health and economy. Microplastics contain antioxidants and plasticizers that are detrimental to human health. According to Hammer, Kraak and Parsons (2012), bisphenol; a chemical found in microplastics affects body functionalities. It stalls brain development and affects cognitive ability. Even though nutritionists argue that eating marine organisms like fish helps in brain development, they do not recognize that it may also prevent brain development, particularly if a person ingests microplastics that are embedded in fish.
In addition, some chemicals found in microplastics cause body and limbs deformity and compromise sexual development. Microplastics contain carcinogenic chemicals (Wright, Thompson & Galloway, 2013). Consequently, if ingested, they expose human to cancer. According to Wright et al. (2013), there are numerous cases of prostate and breast cancers that arise as a result of consumption of microplastics.
Microplastics affect the distribution of marine life, which acts as a major tourist attraction. Accumulation of microplastics in an area leads to death and migration of marine animals. Besides, tourists avoid eating shellfish and other marine animals once they suspect that they are harvested from polluted oceans. Eventually, tourists stop visiting a country, therefore affecting a country’s economy. The United Kingdom spends at least £1.5 million every year to clean its marine environment as a way to attract tourists (Cole, 2011). The country loses up to £499 million, which is collected from tourism industry. Apart from loss of tourism revenues, countries incur enormous costs in beach cleanups. For instance, the United Kingdom and France spend a lot of money to clean their coastlines every year.
Moreover, microplastics damage fishing gears and motors. Hence, fishing companies incur an enormous cost to repair or procure new fishing gears. Ivar do Sul and Costa (2014) argue that the nature of coastline and level of marine pollution affect housing prices. Houses that are situated in clean and plain coastlines are more expensive than those located in polluted and rugged coastlines. Consequently, microplastics and other plastic wastes affect the housing prices in many countries. In addition, countries incur health costs due to microplastics. As aforementioned, ingestion of microplastics exposes people to cancer. Hence, countries like the United States spend a lot of money to treat people suffering from breast and prostate cancers.
Challenges of Microplastics
The nature of microplastics makes it hard for countries to get rid of them. Some microplastics are too small in size such that they are hard to detect. In addition, microplastics come from numerous sources making them hard to eradicate. While it is possible to eliminate microplastics that emanate from degradation of secondary plastics, it is hard to get rid of primary microplastics (Cole, 2011). Primary microplastics are mainly found in personal care products and facial cleansers. They are small in size and hard to detect. The fact that we cannot prevent people from using cosmetics proves that it is hard to get rid of primary microplastics. Recently, it was discovered that wear and tear of synthetic materials also lead to formation of microplastics that are hard to eradicate. For instance, it is hard to control mechanical wear and tear in ships. Consequently, oceans will never be free from microplastics.
Overview and Levels of Bisphenol in the Ocean
Bisphenol refers to a carbon-based artificial compound used to manufacture plastics. The compound is not soluble in water. Hence, it remains suspended in water when released into oceans. There is a strong link between plastics and bisphenol. Plastics are made from polycarbonates. Rogers, Metz and Yong (2013) allege that polycarbonates are obtained from bisphenol A. Hence, a majority of synthetic materials contain bisphenol.
According to Japanese scientists, oceans are highly contaminated with bisphenol A, which is mainly used in the manufacture of plastic bags. The scientists alleged that the use of anti-rusting paints in ships leads to the increase in the level of bisphenol A in ocean water. Currently, the shorelines of at least 200 countries are contaminated with bisphenol A (Flint, Markle, Thompson & Wallace, 2012). Besides, most industrial effluent that is channeled into the oceans contains a high level of bisphenol A. The current level of bisphenol A in ocean water is distressing due to its adverse effects on marine life and human health.
Effects of Bisphenol
Bisphenol has adverse effects on marine community, human health, and economy. It leads to impaired reproduction among the marine community. Besides, bisphenol causes infertility among the marine animals, thus lowering their population. In other words, bisphenol affects the distribution of the marine community as it decreases their rate of reproduction. On the other hand, bisphenol has adverse effects on human health (Flint et al., 2012).
It affects neural circuits that control eating habit and expose human to the risk of contracting obesity. Besides, it affects brain development of young children. Flint et al. (2012) allege that bisphenol affects the dopaminergic system and make people hyperactive. Moreover, it impairs cognitive ability. Research has shown that prolonged exposure to bisphenol leads to sexual dysfunction among men. Because bisphenol has severe effects on human health, it makes people and countries to incur enormous costs as they try to treat and mitigate its effects. Hence, one of the economic effects of bisphenol is related to health costs. Moreover, it affects the fishing industry. The population of fish goes down, and many people avoid buying fish due to fear of ingesting bisphenol compounds. The level of income of families and businesses that rely on the fishing industry goes down.
Conclusion
Marine pollution occurs when harmful substances or chemicals are released into the ocean. Today, plastic wastes contribute to the greatest part of marine pollution. Floods sweep plastic materials from estates into the oceans. The plastic materials are harmful to the marine community when ingested. Besides, they have severe effects on human health. A majority of plastic wastes contain bisphenol, which is a toxic compound. Bisphenol lowers the fertility of marine community thereby affecting its population. In addition, bisphenol exposes people to a myriad of health hazards. Consumption of high amount of bisphenol impairs a person’s cognitive ability and exposes him/her to the risk of contacting obesity. Currently, it is not clear if bisphenol is carcinogenic. Therefore, the future research should focus on determining if consumption of bisphenol can cause cancer.
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The degradation of marine resources in the Pacific region is an acute issue that should be addressed. There are various reasons for this problem; this report aims to discuss four of them in detail. The paper reflects on the effects of degradation, analyses its causes, and provides possible solutions for presented issues. In addition, the report features illustrations as a graphic representation of the problem and its background.
Degradation of Marine Resources
The first way in which marine resources of the Pacific region have degraded is that their diversity has decreased. According to Thaman (2002), many ecosystems of the area have reduced in size; marine plants and animal are becoming endangered, rare or depleted. Chape (2006) reports that although the region has the healthiest reefs, global trends have a significant impact on its marine resources. There are several reasons for it; first, all Pacific islands have limited land resources, which results in some countries reclaiming shorelines (Chape 2006). It affects reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves significantly. Second, geographical isolation of the area leads to a decreased biodiversity too. It results in the evolution of endemic species, flora, and fauna, which makes them vulnerable to degradation (Chape 2006).
Finally, various abiotic and biotic factors lead to a decreased diversity of marine resources. For example, as illustrated in Figure 1, small island size, high population density, and nutrient-rich soils are among the reasons for the problem.
Figure 1. Abiotic and biotic factors that cause and delay the extinction of marine resources (Chape 2006).
The second issue related to the degradation of marine resources in the Pacific region is the unsustainable use of marine resources, including destructive fishing, which leads to changes in the number and health of species. Thaman (2002) notes that humans started to use more efficient fishing technologies, such as improved spear guns and nets, motorised boats, methods of night and scuba fishing, as well as enhanced preservation and refrigeration methods.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate several types of destructive fishing. It is necessary to mention that marine resources that were formerly used only by local populations are now utilised for export. This problem leads to a significant threat for both some of the species and the environments in which they live (Thaman 2002). For example, the decline in the number of predators due to fishing may have an adverse impact on marine food chains and, as a result, affect other species and can lead to their extinction.
Figure 2. Cyanide fishing (Destructive fishing 2019).Figure 3. A net damages the reefs (Destructive fishing 2019).
The third issue that should be addressed in relation to the degradation of marine sources is pollution. According to the report by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2012), marine debris has a significant negative impact on biodiversity in the region and the health of the oceans in general. Figure 4 presents how various species are impacted by entanglement in plastic ropes and packaging, as well as ingestion of their parts. The acuteness of the problem can be illustrated by the example that 34 of 34 green turtles and 14 of 35 seabirds have digested marine debris (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2012).
Among other negative factors, plastic has a reportedly adverse effect on aquatic species’ reproduction and impairs their development. In addition, marine debris is associated with the release of additive chemicals and is toxic (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2012). It means that pollution causes significant degradation of marine resources and makes oceans an unsafe environment for many species.
Figure 4. A) A turtle is entangled in a plastic rope. B) Entangled seal. C) Plastic packaging swallowed by an albatross. D) Plastic bags found in a whale’s stomach (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2012).
The final way in which marine resources of the Pacific region have been degraded is through transport and tourism. Govan (2017) reports that, in the past two decades, global shipping has increased significantly. Figure 5 illustrates maritime traffic in the Pacific Ocean in 2015. Enhanced transportation results in the degradation of marine habitat because of oil spills and other related hazards. Tourism has a negative impact on marine resources too because it results in a decreased environmental quality due to activities individuals typically perform, including swimming in the oceans. In addition, visitors of the Pacific region may be unaware of endangered species and cause harm by collecting or buying marine resources, such as corals, as souvenirs.
Figure 5. Traffic in the Pacific Ocean in 2015 (Govan 2017).
Possible Solutions
Several strategies can be used to address each of the presented issues and minimize the degradation of marine resources. The four primary methods that can be suggested are enhanced public education, governmental policies, the implementation of local initiatives, and changes in individuals’ lifestyle. All of these strategies can be applied to address each of the discussed issues. To prevent a decrease in biodiversity of species, it is necessary for governments to consider marine habitat while reclaiming territories. Countries should be aware that once they acquire a new area, they are responsible for the preservation of their marine resources.
In addition, it is vital to develop national and regional protocols that address the problem of isolation of species (Thaman 2002). International agencies and local communities should cooperate in developing action plans aimed to control the issue. A comprehensive public education program can be established as well to increase the public awareness of the threats posed by a decreased diversity; individuals should educate themselves on the issues related to marine habitat too.
To prevent the unsustainable use of marine sources, it is vital to develop regional, national, and community-based programs and initiatives. For example, local governments can establish bans on the exploration of some species, commercial fishing, and limits on the total catch or size restrictions (Thaman 2002).
Local organisations and communities can develop programs designed to manage and monitor fisheries. Individuals can take action by enhancing their knowledge about extensive and destructive fishing and participating in campaigns that aim to improve public awareness of the issue. It is necessary to add that local authorities should avoid selling fish for export because it is one of the causes of the problem. It is vital to prevent uncontrolled trade and promote the sustainable harvest of marine products.
Pollution can be considered one of the most significant problems that should be addressed to minimize the degradation of marine resources. Changes and policies for improvement should be implemented on all levels. First, governments should develop legislation that would prevent enterprises and ships from polluting waters. Second, it is vital to implement policies aimed to encourage the population to recycle waste and enforce fees for inappropriate disposal of rubbish. Third, local communities should enhance public awareness of the problem by providing evidence of the effect of pollution on both marine resources and people.
In addition, they can encourage individuals to collect marine litter and gather volunteers for this purpose. Finally, individuals should adjust their lifestyle to avoid contributing to the problem. For example, they can eliminate the use of plastic and utilise the materials that are not harmful to the environment.
To minimize the effects of tourism and transportation on marine resources, it is necessary for governments of all states to encourage their citizens to discover local attractions along with traveling to new destinations. Individuals should be aware of the fact that each country has underexplored areas that are worth visiting; such an approach to traveling is more cost-effective and less harmful for the environment.
To minimise their contribution to the degradation of marine resources, people should not participate in activities that can potentially pose threats to endangered species. In addition, local communities should warn tourists about marine resources of the Pacific region that should be preserved. It is vital to increase visitors’ awareness about the potential adverse effects of tourism. In addition, governments should develop policies and fees aimed to control inappropriate transportation methods associated with high levels of pollution.
Conclusion
There are many issues associated with the degradation of marine resources; they include a decrease in the diversity of species, destructive fishing, pollution, transport, and tourism. To eliminate the problem and minimize the impact of these factors, communities, governments, and individuals should implement changes in policies and their personal lives. The main solutions to the degradation of marine resources are the enhancement of public awareness of the problem, the enforcement of policies aimed to prevent harm for the environment, the establishment of local initiatives, and changes in individuals’ lifestyle and perceptions.
Bibliography
Chape, S 2006, ‘Review of environmental issues in the pacific region and the role of the pacific regional environment programme’, in Workshop and symposium on collaboration for sustainable development of the Pacific Islands: towards effective e-learning systems on environment, Okinawa, Japan, pp. 1-30.
Govan, H 2017, ‘Ocean governance – our sea of islands’, in R Katafono (ed), A sustainable future for small states: Pacific 2050 (forthcoming), Commonwealth Secretariat, London, England, pp. 1-60.
Thaman, R 2002, ‘Threats to Pacific Island biodiversity and biodiversity conservation in the Pacific Islands’, Development Bulletin, vol. 58, pp. 23-27.
