Category: Marine Life

Introduction

United Arab Emirates’ natural environment is characterized by animals, which have adapted to harsh climatic conditions like insufficient water in the country. When people think of this environment, it is possible to visualize the life of these animals with regard to their survival techniques in a habitat that is full of natural challenges. Despite the fact that the country is covered with a large desert, its water is home to numerous species of animals, distinct from those found on the mainland (UAE Interact 2012). This report analyses the marine life in the UAE, covering detailed information about the various species of animals found in the region and their adaptation to the unique environment. To achieve this task, the report is divided into segments, including but not limited a summary, detailed analysis and conclusion.

Summary

UAE enjoys rare treasure originating from the Oman Gulf. This attracts diverse, especially in the Musandam region, extending to the Straits of Hormuz. Despite the fact that the country has a rich marine, only a few people who reside along the UAE’s coastline get to experience the value and beauty of sea life naturally. However, the majority of people enjoy seal life through meals prepared from sea animals. It is worth noting that marine life in UAE has continued to suffer and experience a myriad of challenges emanating from human activities (Marine Life of the UAE 1999).

Since most people in the country do not interact with sea animals in their natural habitats, there is poor management and care given to these helpless animals. For instance, pollution of water and careless dumping leave UAE water unfit for marine life. Additionally, overfishing and continuous dependence on these resources have stretched marine ecosystems beyond their ability to support human life (George & John 2005).

It is equally important to mention that divers and environmentalists have played a major role in saving the UAE’s marine life. Having highlighted the danger facing sea life in the country, the government has moved to protect the marine environment from human encroachment, pollution and exploitation (Marine Life of the UAE 1999). In addition, sharks have remained a major threat to sea life in the Gulf and in other parts of the world, posing the greatest fear to man. Besides its adaptive features and beauty, hunting threatens the existence of this species.

Due to the fear and the gap between man and sharks, tones of sharks are shipped to the Far East from Fujairah. It is estimated that a single businessman in Sharjah is able to ship several tones in a year with most of the sharks being obtained from UAE’s water. Apart from sharks, UAE water is home to reptiles, fish and several sea animals. The following segments of the report cover different marine animals found in the UAE (Marine Life of the UAE 1999).

Fish

Pelagic Fish

The distribution of this type of fish is influenced by the Straits of Hormuz’s heavy currents. For example, smaller fish like tuna are common in the Arabian Gulf, whereas larger ones weighing up to 65 kilograms are found towards the eastern side of the UAE. Additionally, coastal water of UAE is home to striped marlin, extending to the Fujairah coastline (George & John 2005).

Demersal Fish

Rays, sharks and cartilaginous fish are found close to the surface and over sand, near offshore structures, which include rocky outcrops and reefs. These structures hold small fishes upon which they feed. They also prey on crustaceans, found deep in water (King 2008, p. 18). On the other hand, sharms and khors attract numerous mud and sand-dwelling species of fish. It is worth noting that coral reefs attract the largest number of bony fish compared to many other species. It is believed that large sawfish were quite common at Sharjah before the dredging became deeper.

The intertidal

In the understanding of the UAE’s fish, it is important to appreciate the existence of low and high watermarks. Different species of fish feed in distinctive regions that have unique water levels. Rays prefer feeding in shallow water where they can easily catch crabs. Additionally, black-tip reef shark only appears close inshore during early and late hours of the day to feed on crustaceans and other small fish (UAE Interact 2012).

Khor Kalba

This is one of the major mangrove swamps found towards southern Fujairah. It hosts fish, which attract predators like barracuda, mangrove snappers and even sharks (UAE Interact 2012). Moreover, turtles are known to frequent the swamp to lay eggs on raised beaches. Due to the presence of crabs, both fish and birds get attracted to the swamp. For instance, the collared kingfisher is only found in a restricted region, with a large population depending on the existence of crabs as a source of food (King 2008, p. 18).

Marine mammals

According to wildlife statistics, marine mammals are fairly common in UAE’s water, including a wide range of species. The two classes of mammals discussed in this section are Cetacea, which includes whales and dolphins and the dugong. Sea lions and seals do not have living representatives in the UAE (UAE Interact, 2012). It is further believed that UAE’s water was once the home of the Indian Ocean seal that got extinct. Dolphins, whales and dugongs are found in large numbers and contribute to the global population of these mammals.

Whales and dolphins of the UAE

UAE is widely known to have almost a third of all cetaceans worldwide. Whereas some of the species are common on the shores, the presence of rare and shy species like the beaked whales is yet to be confirmed. However, their existence in neighbouring Oman justifies their presence in the UAE. Most of these species, like the sperm whale and the Risso’s dolphin, are found under deepwater canyons and cliffs on the eastern side of UAE’s coastline (Nahyan 2005). The Arabian Gulf is warm and shallow, attracting adaptive species like the finless porpoise. Dolphins and whales can easily be viewed in UAE, especially between the month of March and July, during which the sea is calm and clear. They can also be viewed during other months except for the period between December and February, due to the presence of winter winds, which create difficulties in viewing (UAE Interact 2012). Unlike other marine mammals, the presence of a whale can be recognized several kilometres away. This is because of a thunderous sound produced during movement.

Marine Reptile

Sea turtles

It is important to note that UAE is a recognized home of four out of seven known turtles in the world today. These are the green turtle, hawksbill turtle, the loggerhead turtle and the huge leatherback turtle. Additionally, the olive ridley turtle, which is meant to be the fifth species in the country, has been sighted in neighbouring Oman. All these five species are faced with the risk of getting extinct. It has been found that the hawksbill and the green turtles feed and nest in UAE’s water and beaches (UAE Interact 2012).

On the other hand, very little information is known about the other three species since they are rarely seen, and their weight makes it difficult to frequent open sites for human viewing. The occurrence of the loggerhead turtle in UAE was recently confirmed even though nothing is recorded regarding its countrywide distribution. Similarly, records reveal that the olive ridley turtle has appeared twice in UAE, but the species is common in India and Oman, where massive nesting takes place (UAE Interact 2012).

Sea Snakes

The occurrence of snakes is highly distributed across UAE, with seven species having been identified. These snakes belong to a common family, the Hydrophiidae. They are highly adaptive to sea life and are considered as excellent swimmers. Most snakes are common in warm regions of the Arabian Gulf, where they enjoy basking on sand (UAE Interact 2012). UAE snakes have several similarities, a fact that makes it difficult to differentiate most of the species. Some snakes such as the yellow sea snake are known to be huge and long, exceeding two meters.

Although most sea snakes appear dull and harmless, they are the most poisonous of the world’s species. According to research, a drop of venom can kill up to five men. This is considered as one the adaptive features of sea snakes and comes into play when they are handling their prey (UAE Interact 2012).

Conclusion

From the above report, it is doubtless that UAE’s water is home to several marine animals like fish, mammals and reptiles. These animals have a great significance to UAE’s economy, especially for tourist attraction and food. It is, however, important to mention that some of the species face extinction if they are not protected from human attack.

References

George, D & John, D 2005, The Marine Environment. Web.

King, D 2008, United Arab Emirates, Marshall Cavendish, Singapore.

Marine Life of the UAE. 2012. Web.

Nahyan, H 2005, Marine Fish. Web.

UAE Interact 2012. Web.

Introduction

Radiocarbon c14 dating can be regarded as a dating method for establishing age estimates of organic materials (Bowman, 1990). The radiocarbon technique can say to be one of the most important inventions of the 20th century, especially in the field of human science. This method has led to the entire re-writing of evolution stories and re-thinking of the cultural emergence of human science.

This method has been used in many years to date samples as old as 60,000 years. Willard F. Lebby of the University of Chicago and his colleagues invented this technique immediately after the Second World War (Aitken, 1961). In the current world, this method has offered age determinations in several fields including archeology, geology, and geophysics among others.

The approach utilizes materials sourced from wood, charcoal, marine, and freshwater shells as well as organic bearing sediments. Moreover, carbonate deposits such as coli ache and tufa and dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonates in Oceans, Lakes, and underground water can also offer materials radiocarbon dating age determinations (Stuiver, M.et al, 1998). To this date, radiocarbon dating has found profound applications in archaeological studies and specifically in pre-historic research and studies. More importantly, the radiocarbon dating technique has made significant contributions to hydrology and oceanography. Radiocarbon dating can also be utilized as a geochemical tracer.

Radioactive carbon is generated when nitrogen 14 is bombarded by cosmic rays in the atmosphere (Currie, 2004). After this bombardment, radioactive carbon produced drifts down to the earth where it is absorbed from the air by plants through photosynthesis and food chains (Currie, 2004). It gets into animal bodies when they eat plants and consequently into human bodies when they eat plants and animals.

When a living organism dies, the absorption of C14 stops thereafter radiocarbon C14 that is already in the dead organism starts to disintegrate. Researchers use this fact to determine how much of C14 has disintegrated as well as how much is left in the dead object or item (de Vries, 1958). This is because C14 decays slowly and at a steady rate back to nitrogen 14 (Bowman, 1990). The rate at which C14 decay is known as half-life and carbon 14 has a half-life of 5730 years. This implies that half of the carbon 14 original quantity in the organic matter will have disintegrated within 5730 years. Further, half of the remaining carbon will disintegrate in the next 5730 years and the trend continues like that (Mook et al, 1999).

This means that the determination of the amount of carbon 14 in an object can allow for the discovery of how long the organism has been dead. This is done by establishing the number of beta radiations given out per minute per gram (r/m/g) of a particular object (Mook et al, 1999).

A current C14 unit is approximately that of beta radiations per minute per gram of the object concerned (Stuiver, M.et al, 1998). For carbon 14 which is 5730 years old, it will be only half of that quantity per minute. So, for example, a sample emitting 7.5 radiations per minute in a gram of the object, the organism where the sample material was obtained must be 5730 years old.

The accuracy of the radiocarbon dating method has been tested by the use of an object with an already known date of its death. This has been made possible by the use of historical records, such as some wood taken from Egyptian tombs (Jensen, 2001). Based on the information found on these experiments, it was established that the results were close to those of historical information.

Use of radiocarbon technique in marine geology

Geological features exist within, under, and at the boundaries of oceans, seas, mountains, valleys plains, and so forth in the marine realm in the similar form in which they exist inland (Jensen, 2001). For instance, the earth’s largest continuous mountain chain is the mid-ocean ridge that stretches over 40,000 miles, which rises above the water surfaces in several places such as ice land among others (Jensen, 2001). Further, the Mariana trench which is located in the central Pacific Ocean is deeper than the highest point of the world’s highest mountain that is Mount Everest.

Marine geologists employ sonar and caustic techniques to locate underwater volcanoes. Remote sensing techniques are also used by marine geologists to reap the ridges and valleys. Research and other studies indicate that ocean bottoms are the most active place on earth (Currie, 2004). These findings suggest that in the sea base various activities such as vulcanicity take place almost every day of the calendar and are responsible for the turbulence which is seen daily in oceans and sea as well as other vast water masses.

The formations, composition, and structure as well as the history of the seafloor are the main concern for marine geologists. In this area, geologists examine sediments whereby they tackle the issues of physical features such as size, shape, color, chemical structures as well as weight (de Vries, 1958). They also examine and assess other parameters such as composition and how sediments interact with the environment and other factors including sediment age, origin, distribution, and displacement. Marine geologist combines the knowledge of chemistry and physical oceanography to put together data about how the earth was formed and how the displacement of plates and continents can result to experiences situations such as earthquakes and volcanoes (Jensen, 2001).

Marine geologists use radiocarbon dating to determine historical climate records and animal and plant life by studying sediments and rock core for fossils (Willis, 1996). This is carried out by analyzing and assessing sediment composition among other procedures. Radiocarbon dating is the most significant scientific method marine geologists use to date items. To date a sample from a given material, the amount of radiocarbon present is determined (Willis, 1996). This can be done by measuring the activity of the sample that is the number of beta particles emitted per second. The number of beta particles emitted by the object is directly proportional to the number of radiocarbon atoms (Jensen, 2001). This can be established using several methods. The second method is accelerator mass spectrometry, whereby the device counts the proportion of the number of carbon 14 and carbon 12 atoms in a given sample (Crowe, 1958).

The invention of radiocarbon dating perhaps had a profound influence on modern marine geology than any other technological discoveries. This is particularly true in the prehistoric age whereby without written records, geologists could only speculate on the age of objects (Crowe, 1958). This is to means that before the discovery of the radiocarbon dating technique objects were dated mostly on guesswork and assuming a relationship with other objects. Further, it was impossible to establish dates of many objects before the discovery of the radiocarbon dating technique.

To this date, the radiocarbon dating technique has transformed the nature of marine geology as a field. In the past, marine geologists spent a great deal of time arguing on the age of objects, attempting to formulate chronologies and showing which discoveries predated others (Willis, 1996). They were simply concerned with collecting objects, identifying them, and then dating them. This in effect wasted much of their time thereby limiting the time required for research which as a result led the to development of shallow and unfounded theories. This is because the methods they were using were too inaccurate to warrant any substantive evidence about the age of a particular organism.

The radiocarbon dating technique allowed chronologies to be determined easily. This as a result as improved the accuracy of age determination. As a result of the radiocarbon dating technique, marine geologists can accurately determine the age of various objects (Stuiver, M.et al, 1998). This in effect as enabled marine geologists to work effectively and efficiently. By use of radiocarbon dating technique, marine can determine with confident age of sediments sandwiched in rocks underwater. These findings are of significant use to the marine geology field in revealing the historical state of a particular phenomenon. The discovery of the radiocarbon dating technique in essence has enabled researchers to spend their time formulating theories about the culture and society of early humans.

Radiocarbon dating techniques are very important to the marine geologist. A marine geologist uses this technique to date organic matter in marines such as rock and sediments deposited by glaciers (Mook et al, 1999). Moreover, this technique provides an invaluable tool to many researchers in determining the age of plant or animal matter. For instance, the recent application of this technique on tusks found frozen in the arctic ice on a remote island were discovered to be 4000 years old (Jensen, 2001). This is a good example to illustrate how the radiocarbon dating technique is insightful.

The radiocarbon dating technique is widely used by earth science researchers in hydrology, oceanography, climatology, and environmental science. In marine geology, deep-sea sediments can be dated from calcite shells as well groundwater from dissolved carbonate (Stuiver, M.et al, 1998). Further, carbon dioxide trapped in ice cores can be dated offering atmosphere samples for various ages.

This technique also has other obvious utilizations. Studies are being carried out to establish if there are any clues for past intense cosmic ray activity in radiocarbon levels (Currie, 2004). This in effect can offer humanity a record of the past supernova as well as astronomical phenomena. Radiocarbon dating technique can also be employed as a biomedical tracer since many biochemical contains carbon (Currie, 2004). This in essence can be of significant value to humanity and particularly in human medicine development.

This technique offers a reliable approach for dating objects in the range of 300 – 30,000 years old (Willis, 1996). The technique is not 100% accurate as samples can be contaminated by calcium carbonate from groundwater as well as humic acids from organic matter in the soil. Research and other studies point out that the marine sample indicates a lower level of radiocarbon (Jensen, 2001). This is because some of the radiocarbons normally disintegrate by the time it dissolves in the sea.

The level of radiocarbon in the biosphere is not constant and therefore it very essential to calibrate radiocarbon data to generate accurate results (Currie, 2004). This is accomplished by comparing the dendrochronology commonly known as tree ring and radiocarbon dates of wood samples obtained from the bristlecone price tree which is known to live for nearly more than 4000 years (Currie, 2004). Because there is no carbon transfer between the rings, the radiocarbon content of the center of the tree is less than the younger wood on the outside. This in effect allows the technique to act as a corrective for different content.

Conclusion

To this date, the major developments in the radiocarbon technique are concerned with the improvement in measurement techniques. Currently, studies and research are being carried out to develop effective and efficient measurement techniques. This is an effort to develop more versatile measurement techniques capable of dating various materials. This because the initial radiocarbon method is limited in the material of which it can measure accurately. The initial radiocarbon technique developed by Willard F. and a team of scholars from the University of Chicago was the primary centered solid carbon technique.

Although currently there are procedures that can be used to date solids, there is a need to developed more advanced techniques capable of dating a variety of objects including solids and liquid among others. This in essence can help marine geologists in their work which involves dealing with things underwater. Further, marine geologists should look for ways of combining the radiocarbon technique with other techniques. This in effect increases their accuracy when dating objects sourced underwater. The radiocarbon dating technique is a very important tool in marine geology as it facilitates the determination of the age at which a particular organism existed.

References

Aitken, M. J (1961) Physics and Archaeology, New York, Interscience Publishers.

Arnold, J. R. and Libby, W. F. (1949) Age Determinations by Radiocarbon Content: Checks with Samples of Known Age, Science, 678–680.

Bowman, S. (1990) Interpreting the Past: Radiocarbon Dating, University of California Press pp 67-8.

Crowe, C (1958) Carbon-14 activity during the past 5000 years, Nature, Volume 182,pp 34-7.

Currie, L. (2004) The Remarkable Metrological History of Radiocarbon Dating II, J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., 109, 185–217.

Friedrich, M., Remmele, S., Kromer, B., Hofmann, J., Spurk, M., Kaiser, K. F., Orcel, C. and Gove, H. E. (1999) From Hiroshima to the Iceman. The Development and Applications of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. P 12.

de Vries, H. (1958) Kon. Ned. Acad. Wetensch. Proc. Ser. B Phys. Sci. 61, 94; and in Researches in Geochemistry, P. H. Abelson (Ed.) (1959) Wiley, New York, p. 180.

Jensen, M. N. (2001) Peering deep into the past, The University of Arizona, Department of Physics pp 19-23.

Kolchin, B. A., and Y. A. Shez (1972). Absolute Archaeological Dating and their Problems, pp 67-9.

Kovar, A. J. (1966) Problems in Radiocarbon Dating at Teotihuacán, American Antiquity 31, 427–430.

Küppers, M. (2004) The 12,460-Year Hohenheim Oak and Pine Tree-Ring Chronology from Central Europe—a Unique Annual Record for Radiocarbon Calibration and Paleoenvironment Reconstructions, Radiocarbon 46, 1111–1122

Libby, W.F (1955). Radiocarbon dating, 2nd Edition, Chicago, University Of Chicago Press.

Lerman, J. C., Mook, W. G., Vogel, J. C., and de Waard, H. (1969) Carbon-14 in Patagonian Tree Rings. Science, 165: 1123-1125.

Libby, W.F (1962). Radiocarbon; an Atomic Clock, Annual Science and Humanity journal, Vol 1 pp 45-6.

Lerman, J. C., Mook, W. G., and Vogel, J. C. (1970) Proc. 12th Nobel Symp pp12-17.

Lorenz, R. D., Jull, A. J. T., Lunine, J. I. and Swindle, T. (2002) Radiocarbon on Titan, Meteoritic and Planetary Science 37, 867–874.

Moscow, Nauka, Aitken, M. J. (1961) Physics and Archaeology, New York, Interscience Publishers, pp 45-7.

Mook, W. G. and van der Plicht, J. (1999) Reporting 14C activities and concentrations, Radiocarbon 41, 227–239.

Plastino, W., Keyholes, L., Bartolomei, P., Bella, F. (2001) Cosmic Background Reduction in the Radiocarborn Measurement by Scintillation Spectrometry at Underground laboratory of Gran Sasso, Radiocarbon 43 -157- 161.

Pennicott, K. (2001), Carbon clock could show the wrong time, Physics Web, 10 pp 23-5.

Stuiver, M., Reimer, P. J. and Braziunas, T. F. (1998) High-Precision Radiocarbon Age Calibration for Terrestrial and Marine Samples. Radiocarbon 40, 1127-1151.

Weart, S. (2004), The Discovery of Global Warming – Uses of Radiocarbon Dating, pp 23-5.

Willis, E.H. (1996) Radiocarbon dating in Cambridge: Some Personal Recollections. A Worm’s Eye View of the Early Days. University of Cambridge pp. 15-8.

This case study is about the attempts of Clyde Roper to find the giant squid. Roper conducted three major expeditions in deep-sea locations, one expedition was in the Azores Islands, while two searches were performed in the Kaikoura Canyon. The expeditions employed attaching cameras onto sperm whales, which are known to prey on giant squids.

Scientific terms

• Sperm whale – The sperm whale is the biggest whale species that is has been documented to carry teeth. This organism is also known as Physeter macrocephalus, due to its large head that carried a unique white area covered with wax (Harms 59).
• Deep rover – The deep rover is a submersible transporter that can fit a single individual. It can move under the sea to a maximum depth of 914 meters for approximately 6 hours. This transporter is equipped with a 360^o viewing filed, allowing investigators to view the surroundings of deep-see expeditions (Marris 908).
• Azores Islands – The Azores islands, made up of approximately 9 land forms, are located in Atlantic Ocean. These islands are under the Portugese jurisdiction yet are close to the eastern coastal region of North America. Due to the remoteness of its location, these islands were not inhabited for several centuries and thus provide a historic and natural condition that is good for biological studies (Branco 65)
• Squid – Squids are marine mollusks that are morphologically characterized to have a large head, eight protruding arms and a pair of tentacles (Kubodera 2584). There are approximately 300 squid species that have been documented to date (Derby 276). Squids belong to the class Cephalopoda, wherein “cephalo” means head, and “poda” means feet.
• Kaikoura Canyon – The Kaikoura Canyon is located near the South Island of New Zealand. This canyon is known to be very deep and runs towards the Kermadec Trench which is also documented to be a very deep area of the Earth’s crust. The Kaikoura Canyon has been reported to support a big number of marine species, including sperm whales and possibly, the giant squid, which has been regarded as a legend until it is sighting by marine biologists.

Given the limited funding for research, I think it is better to investigate the juvenile giant squids that have been captured. The study of the genomes of these juvenile squids can be compared to the DNA of the preserved giant squid specimens to further verify their identity. In addition, the optimal conditions of growing the juvenile giant squids in the laboratory can also help in the study of this intriguing species. Once the correct living conditions are reached in the laboratory, more studies can be conducted on the giant squid, including the physiology, reproduction and life cycle of these marine organisms. The scientists should also consider that conducting three expeditions with no actual footage of the giant squid is proof enough that another approach should be taken in studying this animal, but this does not prove that the giant squids do not exist.

Works cited

Branco CC, Bento MS, Gomes CT, Cabral R, Pacheco PR, Mota-Vieira L. “Azores Islands: Genetic Origin, Gene Flow And Diversity Pattern.” Annales of Human Biology, 35(2008):65-74.

Derby CD. “Escape By Inking And Secreting: Marine Molluscs Avoid Predators Through A Rich Array Of Chemicals And Mechanisms.” Biological Bulletin, 213(2007):274-289.

Harms CA, Maggi RG, Breitschwerdt EB, Clemons-Chevis CL, Solangi M, Rotstein DS, Fair PA, Hansen LJ, Hohn AA, Lovewell GN, McLellan WA, Pabst DA, Rowles TK, Schwacke LH, Townsend FI, Wells RS. “Bartonella Species Detection In Captive, Stranded And Free-ranging Cetaceans.” Veterinary Research, 39(2008):59.

Kubodera T and Mori K. “First-ever Observations Of A Live Giant Squid In The Wild.” Proceedings in the Biological Sciences, 23(2005):2583-2586.

Marris E. “Deep-sea Biology: The Life Aquatic.” Nature, 436(2005):908-909.

Abstract

Deep-sea currents and upwelling are thermohaline circulation and oceanographic processes acting on the ocean water resulting in ecosystem dynamics. Florida coast is part of the Gulf Stream system, a section of the world seawater receiving the significant impact of deep-sea currents and upwelling with swift and warm Atlantic Ocean currents, which stretches to the Gulf of Mexico. During high current flow, the Florida currents experience 25 percent increase in the mean seasonal speed by 10 centimeters in a second at a temperature of 26 degrees. These deep-sea currents facilitate the movement of cold and warm water within the South Pole, North Pole, and the equatorial regions of Florida. The overall impact of these processes includes a significant influence on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Introduction

Deep-sea currents and upwelling are oceanographic phenomena that dominate seas and oceans. Deep-sea currents, also called submarine rivers, refer to the thermohaline circulation of seawater generated by forces acting on ocean water. Temperature difference, Coriolis forces of earth rotation, and water mass density caused by salinity variations are causes of these currents. The thermohaline circulation influences the movement and population of the marine ecosystem and heat redistribution both in the sea and on the earth’s surface. According to Mauritzen, Melsom, and Sutton (2012), oceans are essential components of the earth, for they regulate global warming through effective absorption of solar radiation. Thus, ocean currents act as conveyor belts to transport warm water from the equator towards the poles and relieve cold water from the poles to the tropics. This process of redistribution of uneven heat radiations on the earth’s surface regulates the overall global climate.

On the contrary, upwelling refers to oceanographic processes in which deep-sea water, rich in nutrients, rises to the surface of the sea to replace warm surface water displaced by strong wind waves. A net balance of Coriolis Effect and strong winds on the surface of ocean water produces a spiral movement of water layers, also called Ekman motion. The winds blowing across the ocean surface produces a net motion of wind-water interaction that displaces water on the upper layer of the ocean (Morrison, Frolicher, & Sarmiento, 2015). The mechanism allows the deep-sea water to rise from beneath and replace the displaced surface water. Upwelling replaces the nutrient-depleted surface water with deep ocean dense nutrient-rich water essential to the marine ecosystem. Therefore, this paper reviews deep-sea currents and upwelling in Florida ocean currents by examining causes, effects on the ecosystem, and their importance to humans along Florida coastal regions.

Ocean Currents along Florida Coast

Florida coast forms a section of Gulf Stream system (a deep-sea river) comprising swift and warm Atlantic Ocean currents stretching to the Gulf of Mexico. The Florida current receives water supply from two major sources, namely, Antilles currents and Loop currents, with the Loop current being the most significant source. Coriolis force of earth rotation produces a movement of warm water from the Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea, resulting in Florida currents (Morrison et al., 2015). The water flows to the Gulf of Mexico, where heating occurs and then forced out through Florida Straits. The estimated mean transport of Florida currents vary annually and on a seasonal scale. According to Dusek, Park, and Paternostro (2016), during high current flow, Florida currents experience 25 percent increase in the mean seasonal speed by 10 centimeters in a second at a temperature of 26 degrees. Thus a change in temperature linearly results in a compounded change in velocity. The outer edge of the Loop current produces large spiral currents that move into Florida Straits pushed along by gyres. These gyres help in nutrient and larvae transport between the Loop currents and the Florida Keys.

Overall, Florida currents have three forms of flow: the intermittent Miami terrace undercurrent, undercurrent jet on Florida shelf, and coastal countercurrents. Florida experiences the coastal countercurrent between the periods of October through January. However, from April to September, Florida experiences the southward flow in the form of undercurrent jet (Florida Current) along the continental slope. Florida Current moves towards the northern direction as the surface flow against the bottom flow, resulting in friction in the interface of the two currents. These deep-sea currents facilitate the movement of cold and warm water within the South Pole, the North Pole, and the equatorial regions of Florida.

Causes of Deep-Sea Currents in Florida

The leading causes of Florida currents include wind, salinity, and temperature variations. The wind flow determines the patterns of the current movement in the sea. In the winter, the winds blow out of the north while east and southeast winds prevail in the summer. Strong winds flowing over the surface enhance the speed of current flow and the overall pattern of current circulation (Dusek et al., 2016). Since the density of water masses in the ocean varies from one region to another, boundaries between water masses exist. Temperature and water density have an inverse relationship, in that, as temperature increases, water density reduces, making warm water to settle on the surface. In summer, Florida temperature rises as a result of the central location of the solar radiation leading to a low density of ocean surface water. On the contrary, as temperatures fall, sea water freezes, and the salt molecules freeze leading to high density. Therefore, as cold water is heavier than warm water, cold water tends to sink and settle in the deep-sea while warm water rises.

However, the salinity and density share a positive relationship. In Florida, the Gulf Stream system has high salt concentration due to the high rate of evaporation, sea ice, and river inflow. Water with high salt concentration is denser than water with low salt concentration. The water masses get positioned above or below each other according to their density. In this respect, less dense water masses flow in the upper position and float on denser water masses. Overall, the varying patterns of the density of water in the sea both horizontally and vertically lead to water movement. However, the velocity and the patterns of these currents depend on forces of earth rotation, wind direction, and gradient caused by landforms.

Causes of Upwelling in Florida

Wind is the main cause of upwelling in the sea; however, the earth’s rotation and water density are some of the causes that contribute to ocean upwelling significantly. Earth’s rotation plays a significant role in determining the direction of water flow and currents in the sea. When winds blow away water surface layers, the force of earth rotation provides Coriolis Effect resulting in the transportation of water away from the coast (Dusek et al., 2016). The winds blowing along coastal regions push away the surface water away and allow the deep-sea water to flow to the surface. In some other cases, water currents in the sea caused by wind collide and the frontal water from both sides upsurges and allows dense water rich in nutrient to rise.

Additionally, water density also plays a key role in upwelling process. As lighter water mass on the surface is pushed away by the wind, its density facilitates friction between the upper water layer and the layer beneath it causing the successive layers to move in the same direction. This process results in a spiral movement of water making more dense water beneath the sea to flow and occupy the area that was primarily covered by the lighter displaced water (Dusek et al., 2016). In the overall process, the wind flow causes a wind-water interaction, resulting in water movement sweeping away the surface layer and replacing it with a more dense water layer from beneath, rich in nutrients.

Effects on the Ocean

Water circulation is an important process in the marine ecosystem. Klemas (2012) states that the ocean water circulation significantly contributes to nutrient cycle, waste disposal, heat moderation, and climate conditions on the earth surface. Therefore, deep-sea currents and upwelling are critical for they aid in the redistribution of oxygen and nutrients, as well as regulation of heat in the sea.

Heat Regulation

The Florida current forms part of the Gulf Stream System acting as a conveyor belt that transports warm water from warm equatorial zones to the cold water in the southern and the northern poles. As the heat radiation from the sun falls on the earth surface, much of the heat energy is deposited in the water body. Upwelling pushes this warm surface water away and replaces with the deep cold dense water helping to enhance heat regulation (Mauritzen et al., 2012). However, distant southern and northern poles suffer from extensively cold periods due to low solar radiations. As a result, water acts as the appropriate mechanism for heat distribution within the earth surface. Morrison et al. (2015) explain that deep-sea currents flow from the poles towards the equatorial zones while the relatively less dense warm water layers get displaced and move to the cold regions. This process of water movement acts to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching the earth surface and promotes the distribution of heat energy and the regulation of global temperature.

Nutrient Distribution

The nutrient content in the ocean water varies according to the water layers. The upper layer of the sea surfaces contains various species of organisms, with an entire food web but with a net loss of nutrients to the deep-dense water beneath due to the sinking of nutrients, fecal matter from the organisms, and the remains of the dead organisms sink into the sea. These biological processes in the upper layer of the sea water lead to net utilization of the nutrients elements reducing its nutrient level. Ekman transport in upwelling provides the mechanism for the transport of these nutrients from the deep water layers to the ocean surface.

Oxygen Level

Oxygen is continuously added to seawater through air-water interaction processes as well as through photosynthesis. As organisms require oxygen, its depletion has adverse effects on the marine ecosystem. Moreover, as temperature increases water loses the ability to hold oxygen. Thus, ocean currents help in lowering water temperatures necessary for enhancing the ability to hold more volume of dissolved oxygen. Moreover, the displacement of the upper layer of ocean water facilitates the transfer of oxygen to other sea areas. In general, upwelling and deep-sea currents promote distribution of oxygen within the water body.

Effect on Marine Ecosystem

Oceans form the main component that supports marine ecosystem. Current circulation is essential in marine life as it enhances primary production of the food chain for the ecosystem. According to Hays (2017), the continuous movement of seawater significantly affects the aquatic ecosystem through climate change moderation, movement of marine plants and animals, and the distribution of nutrients within the sea. The transport of nutrients by the currents from and to different locations and layers in the sea increases their bioavailability and accessibility. These ocean currents transport the leaked nutrients from the deep-sea back to the upper layer with a large population of living organisms. The marine creatures on the upper layer of the seawater include phytoplankton and seaweeds that have important roles in the food webs. These organisms are the primary producers in the food web that support other organisms such as fishes, worms, sea mammals, and humans.

Importance to Humans

In Florida, the ocean currents along the coastal regions have significantly influenced the way of life. Hay (2017) argues that ocean currents act as a mechanism that enhances marine life distribution and population shift. As such, marine ecosystem provides a favorable environment to marine organisms such fish, planktons, algae, mammals, and sea anemones. These animals have economic and social importance to humans for they promote fishing, recreation activities, and climate regulation.

Fishing plays an important role in economic development for it creates employment, generates revenues, and provides nutrition. In the ecosystem, fish provides proteins and minerals to humans. The deep-sea currents promote bioavailability of nutrients to fish from the deep-sea water through upwelling thus enhancing their reproduction. As nutrient content rises due to continuous ocean currents, the population of fish rises in these coastal regions and promotes the capacity of food security. Consequently, the supply of enough fish in ocean water opens an opportunity for employment and business activities leading to economic empowerment.

Besides, ocean currents provide humans with diverse conditions for recreational activities. Some of the favorite recreational activities along Florida coast include skiing, swimming, and fishing activities. As world technology advances, skiing activities continue to gain popularity among the young generation. Skiing, swimming, and fishing competitions enhance socialization across different age categories and strengthen relationships.

Conclusion

Deep-sea currents refer to the flow of water in the deep ocean due to forces generated by temperature difference, earthquakes, and salinity variations while upwelling refers to the process in which deep-sea water, rich in nutrients, rises to the surface and replaces warm surface water displaced by strong wind waves. These water circulation processes are essential to redistribution of water, oxygen, heat, and nutrients in the sea. Consequently, it helps promotes marine ecosystem by enhancing the primary production and food chain of the organisms. As such, oceans are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environment. The marine ecosystem provides a home to several lives that include different species of animals and plants such as fish, planktons, mammals, and corals. These animals have economic and social importance to humans. Overall, the socioeconomic benefits of deep-sea currents and upwelling are fishing, recreational activities, and climate regulation. Therefore, humans have the responsibility to control and manage these sea currents to promote sustenance of marine ecosystem for the benefit of humans as in the case of Florida.

References

Dusek, G., Park, J., & Paternostro, C. (2016). Seasonal variability of tidal currents in Tampa Bay, Florida. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, 143(3), 1-15. Web.

Hays, G. (2017). Ocean currents and marine life. Current Biology, 27(11), 470-473. Web.

Klemas, V. (2012). Remote sensing of coastal and ocean currents: An overview. Journal of Coastal Research, 28(3), 576-586. Web.

Mauritzen, C., Melsom, A., & Sutton, R. (2012). Importance of density-compensated temperature change for deep North Atlantic Ocean heat uptake. Nature Geoscience, 5(12) 905-910. Web.

Morrison, A., Frolicher, T., & Jorge, S. (2015). Upwelling in the southern ocean. Physics Today, 68(1), 27-41. Web.

Introduction

Biodiversity of the world’s oceans has been under threat in the wake of intensified economic activities and human-induced climate change. For example, the fishing industry has had the most devastating impact on marine ecosystems. Global fish catches expand deeper into oceans, and industrial fishing covers at least 55% of the ocean surface (Diaz et al., 2019). Rising temperatures diminish ice shields in the Arctic, which can lead to the reduction of distance between Europe and Asia by about 40% (Aksenov et al., 2017). At the same time, several studies have shown that ships emit sulphur dioxide, which, in turn, intensifies the acidification of oceans (European Commission, 2016). All these activities undermine the sustainability of marine ecosystems and require collaborative action.

Companies that employ resources of the oceans are not always able to take complete responsibility for the consequences of their activities. Therefore, there is a need for a legal tool to protect and conserve the marine environment. Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are the tools for the coordinated safeguarding of these territories. This essay dwells on the definition and importance of MPAs, including the ones in the high sea. Besides, it presents international legislation, consideration of a new international agreement, opportunities, and challenges.

Overview of Marine Protected Areas

Definitions matter a lot, especially when it comes to addressing legal papers and agreements. As defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, a protected area is “a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” (Day et al., 2019, p 8).

It should be highlighted that the ultimate goal of any protected area is to protect nature. Data accumulated by Marine Conservation Institute (n.d.) shows that all marine reserves account for 5.3% of global oceans. Marine protected areas vary from zones that are strictly protected to those that conserve specific natural monuments or particular habitats (Day et al., 2019). Therefore, established categories designate the level of allowed human intervention depending on the conservation objectives of every category.

The marine environment is different from coastal and terrestrial regions because of its unique characteristics. There are multiple difficulties with controlling the entry to denoted zones, even though modern technologies offer solutions. Moreover, the lack of constant monitoring hinders the visibility and understanding of caused damage. Finally, issues of ownership in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) and the management of oceans as global commons make current challenges more topical.

High Seas MPAs

Specific features of the marine environment imply a cautious use of definitions. High seas are zones that extend beyond the EEZs, which stretch for 200 nautical miles (Karan, 2019). Despite the fact that high seas remain unexplored, scientists believe in their significance for migratory marine species (Karan, 2019). Up to the present moment, only 1% of high seas is dedicated to MPAs (Marine Conservation Institute, n.d.).The largest conservation area in the high seas is the Ross Sea in Antarctica (Howard, 2016). According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) states that “high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked” (United Nations, 1982). This open access forestalls adequate protection of high seas because there is no single responsible organization or state.

International Oceans Legislation

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea consists of the legal principles that function as the foundation for the set up of international treaties. UNCLOS has a direct influence on the national legislation of coastal states guiding their management of marine resources. For example, it delineates a country’s right for the breadth of the territorial sea, Exclusive Economic Zone, and defines the continental shelf of a coastal state (United Nations, 1982). Other international bodies deal with economic activities of states and companies in oceans.

Safety by sea is a mutual concern for all shipping companies. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was established in 1948 to ensure maritime safety (International Maritime Organization, n.d.). IMO has updated the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea to control traffic along trade routes and carriage of dangerous goods. Moreover, IMO has introduced measures to prevent accidents and minimize the number of oil spills. Hence, coordinated actions have been embraced at the international level to regulate economic activities in the world’s oceans. Nowadays, commitment is needed to preserve the natural habitat of marine flora and fauna.

High Seas MPAs Legislation

The establishment and management of high seas MPAs deserve special attention. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) distinguishes four types of MPAs governance options. These options are governance by governments, shared governance, private governance, and governance by indigenous people and local communities (Day et al., 2019). Every coastal nation possesses the right to choose the most appropriate management practice. However, high seas are the space beyond national jurisdiction, and, therefore, international cooperation takes place.

The High Seas Alliance unites non-governmental organizations that, in partnership with IUCN, move the conservation of high seas MPAs forward. The goal of the alliance is to bolster international collaboration and exchange of knowledge. An intergovernmental conference was initiated by the UN in 2017 to launch the negotiation of a new treaty (High Seas Alliance, 2019). The new treaty for the conservation of the marine biodiversity under the UNCLOS was brought to the table of discussion in 2018 (High Seas Alliance, 2019).

The third round of the debate was finalized in August 2019, where delegates proposed amendments and proposals for the first draft. For instance, the representative of Chile called for a more profound inclusion of coastal states in high seas preservation (United Nations, 2019). Many countries, like the Philippines and Paraguay, underlined the value of oceans as global commons and worldwide heritage (United Nations, 2019). The fourth and final round is about to take place in the spring of 2020.

The high seas are complex interconnected environments with vertical and horizontal zoning in water and air. UNCLOS and existing institutional frameworks have gaps that do not provide comprehensive protection for these ecosystems. There is neither a mechanism to create MPAs in high seas nor a guideline for conducting environmental impact assessments (High Seas Alliance, 2019). The agreement on the conservation of biological diversity beyond national jurisdiction should rely on principles of stewardship and transparency (Gjerde et al., 2020). This new treaty will strengthen measures to conserve and manage biodiversity, share scientific knowledge, and deploy marine technologies.

Challenges and Opportunities

One of the anticipated challenges is the formal setting of MPAs in the high seas, the so-called phenomenon of “paper parks.” These parks usually receive little attention and, in practice, exist only on papers (Miller & Spoolman, 2016, p. 240). However, the case of Ascension Island in British Overseas territories suggests positive evidence. With the help of the satellite monitoring, scientists detected only three vessels engaged in illegal fishing within the boundaries of an MPA (MercoPress 2019, para. 4). In the given case, scientists cooperated with governmental forces to perform observations. Hence, comprehensive management and control over fragile marine territories are feasible.

Marine Protected Areas in the high seas are designed to cover large surfaces. The static nature of MPAs boundaries will pose a challenge for potent biodiversity conservation. Highly mobile species that inhabit high seas are not represented in the discussion of the new treaty (Maxwell, Gjerde, Conners, & Crowder, 2020). Consequently, Maxwell et al. (2020) argue that it is essential to focus on mobile MPAs with shifting boundaries to implement dynamic management. Mobile MPAs can be supported by modern satellite monitoring technologies to facilitate a thorough collection of scientific data.

Conclusion

The high seas are very fragile ecosystems, and their integrity is threatened because of the unclear legal status. Since these territories lay beyond national jurisdictions, only an international agreement can become a baseline for preservation activity. Therefore, the new agreement should give power to all states to act individually or collectively to enhance the resilience of the marine environment. It implies the inclusion of definitions and standards applicable across jurisdictions.

In order to make MPA a useful tool, it is necessary to determine goals and targets before the formal creation of the zone. If goals are measurable and time-bound, it will be easier to monitor progress. Monitoring practices will guide the international community and facilitate a comparison between MPAs. Reporting databases with publicly available information, in turn, will secure transparency and quick access to scientific knowledge. The enacting of the international agreement will denote the legal field for productive cooperation.

References

Aksenov, Y., Popova, E., Yool, A., Nurser, A., Williams, T., Bertino, L., & Bergh, J. (2017). On the future navigability of Arctic sea routes: High-resolution projections of the Arctic Ocean and sea ice. Marine Policy, 75, 300-317.

Ascension Island MPA. Satellite data suggests conservation success likely. (2019). MercoPress. Web.

Day, J., Dudley, N., Hockings, M., Holmes, G., Laffoley, D., Stolton, S., … Wenzel, L. (2019). Guidelines for applying the IUCN protected area management categories to marine protected areas. Web.

Díaz, S., Settele, J., Brondízio E.S., Ngo, H. T., Guèze, M., Agard, J., … Zayas, C. N. (2019). Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the intergovernmental science-policy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Web.

European Commission. (2016). Ocean acidification exacerbated by emissions from ships on major shipping routes. Web.

Gjerde, K., Laffoley, D., Payne, C., Mossop, J., Epps, M., Lundin, C.G., … Spadone, A. (2020). Area-based management tools in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

High Seas Alliance (2019).Protecting half the planet: A new high seas biodiversity treaty in 2020. Web.

Howard, B. (2016). World’s largest marine reserve created off Antarctica. National Geographic. Web.

International Maritime Organization (n.d.). History of IMO. Web.

Karan, L. (2019) How MPAs safeguard the high seas. Web.

Marine Conservation Institute (n.d.). Atlas of marine protection. Web.

Maxwell, S., Gjerde, K., Conners, M., & Crowder, L. (2020). Mobile protected areas for biodiversity on the high seas. Science, 367 (6475), 252-254. Web.

Miller, G.T., & Spoolman, S. E. (2016). Living in the environment. Boston, MA: Senage learning.

United Nations (1982). United Nations convention on the law of the sea. Web.

United Nations. (2019). New oceans treaty must be robust, practical in application, delegates stress, closing third round of marine biodiversity negotiations. Web.

It is challenging to find a place to visit that combines beauty and historical interest without advice. The Marine Protection Act of 1999 established Marine Protected Areas in California, and it marked the most picturesque places that are worth visiting. It allowed the state to protect the nature of these territories from people, industry, and urbanization. I want to visit San Francisco Bay because it is an iconic place connected with American history, and it is beautiful.

San Francisco Bay is a combination of wild nature and civilization that does not spoil the environment but adds meaning. It might be great to watch this place from the bird’s eye because this view is panoramic. San Francisco Bay Bridge will become the central place for this trip because it is just in the center of this view. It is also possible to look at the Oakland skyline from the bridge, and this view is also interesting because it has extraordinary urban beauty.

There are also several islands in this area open for tourists, and I plan to visit them. The first place will be Treasure island, situated near San Francisco, and the second is Alcatraz island, where the old prison was located. It is near another bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge, a picturesque place to see (Kipling, Saroyan, & Child, 2020). I think that it will be interesting to listen to the stories about this area and especially about the times when the bridges and the prison on Alcatraz island were constructed because these episodes are essential parts of the history of the United States. I assume that I will have to read more about this place’s past to understand its value and beauty because I do not know much about them.

Reference

Kipling, R., Saroyan, W., & Child, J. (2020). Discover the San Francisco Bay area. Visit California. Web.

Marine debris is a major concern related to the accumulation of floating garbage that cannot be easily seen on satellites or spotted from far away. A major limitation that makes the eradication of the problem difficult is the fact that most of the debris contains microplastic (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2011). The small floating particles of plastic are hard to collect due to their size and difficult to prevent due to the wide use of plastic (da Costa et al., 2020). A solution is limiting the use of microplastic altogether to avoid polluting waters.

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the international agreement concerning regulations to prevent pollution facilitated by ships. Annex five, in particular, addresses the types of garbage, how they are to be disposed of, and specific materials that are not to be discarded in the water, including plastic (International Maritime Organization, 1988). The annex intends to limit pollution initiated by ships in particular and ultimately regulate the substances that are not to be in contact with water.

Other laws that can assist in a reduction of marine degrees include the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1994. The agreement addresses the topic of requiring garbage facilities at ports to have authorizations that are to be renewed every five years (US Congress, 1994). The act also addresses pollution from ships and helps regulate garbage disposal. An initiative that addresses the prevention of microbeads on the water is The Micro-bead Free Waters Act of 2015, which prohibits manufacturers from producing rinse-off products containing microbeads made of plastic (Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, 2015). As a result, the legislative measures help address both the actual problem of accumulating marine debris as well as preventing microplastic from polluting waters altogether.

References

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. (2015). The microbead-free waters act. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Web.

da Costa, J. P., Mouneyrac, C., Costa, M., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2020). The role of legislation, regulatory initiatives, and guidelines in the control of plastic pollution.Frontiers in Environmental Science, 8. Web.

International Maritime Organization. (1988). International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships (MARPOL). International Maritime Organization. Web.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2011). What We Know About: The “Garbage Patches.” NOAA Marine Debris Program.

US Congress. (1994). H.R.4668 – Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1994. Congress. Web.

Introduction

The need for comprehensive control over coastal areas is a prerequisite for ensuring the environmental safety of these territories and the effective management of local infrastructure. As a target region to consider, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden (RSGA) area will be analyzed in the context of targeted work undertaken by local authorities and other stakeholders, for instance, PERSGA, to oversee coastal zones. To identify the range of activities and determine the responsibilities of specific stakeholders, this is essential to consider the concept of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) with an emphasis on its functioning in the region under consideration. Appropriate analysis can help identify the specific tasks that the designated boards perform, the existing regulations in force in the area in question, and the anticipated difficulties that may arise soon. The relevant charts and diagrams can be utilized as an evidence base to make the conclusions visually understandable. The role of the ICZM in the control of environmental, transport, industrial, and other types of safety is high, and the example of the RSGA region proves this.

ICZM and the Key Stakeholders in RSGA

The control of coastal areas to ensure sustainable and safe movement of maritime transport, the preservation of infrastructure, and other important tasks is carried out through initiatives within the ICZM. According to the definition provided by Papatheochari and Coccossis (2019, p. 285), “ICZM is a dynamic, multidisciplinary and iterative process for promoting sustainable coastal zone management”. Particular attention should be paid to the term “integrated” because, in this type of activity, it implies a combination of efforts and different control strategies. Control is performed through vertical and horizontal management systems, which makes it possible to cover the relevant territories comprehensively and ensure the effective implementation of corresponding interventions (Papatheochari and Coccossis, 2019). Moreover, ICZM procedures are often an integral part of the management of initiatives to maintain urban regeneration projects. In Table 1, the relevant links between these two initiatives are shown (Papatheochari and Coccossis, 2019). Based on this information, one can note that a large number of stakeholders are involved in ICZM, and both managerial and legislative regulations are the essential attributes of productive control.

The RSGA region is an area in which ICZM is actively promoted due to a large influx of tourists and a well-developed ship infrastructure. As Kay and Alder (2005) note, this region is one of 14 overseen by the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the organization involved in controlling the adequate implementation of development plans and maintaining a favorable environment. UNEP, in turn, is the initiator of the Regional Seas Program, or RSP, which is engaged in managing coastal areas, including those of the RSGA. At the local level, the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the RSGA region oversees all coastal protection management initiatives in the region (PERSGA, 2004). The list of stakeholders includes the local authorities, non-governmental organizations, fisheries unions, and others. Due to sponsorship and funds received in the course of support from the budget, there is an opportunity to implement valuable projects for the protection and development of territories in the RSGA region within ICZM initiatives.

PERSGA and Its Roles

PERSGA is the board that oversees the effectiveness of the implementation of ICZM projects and ideas to preserve an enabling environment in the RSGA region. In Figure 1, a scheme is presented, which reflects the territories under the jurisdiction of PERSGA (Roa-Quiaoit, 2005). Based on this map, one can see that the organization covers a large area in which a few Middle Eastern and African countries are involved. As a result, the scope of PERSGA’s responsibility is high and requires effective control procedures for the timely identification of problem locations and the implementation of projects designed to optimize the state of coastal areas.

The vastness of the territories involved explains the wide range of tasks that PERSGA performs. Based on the scheme presented in Figure 1, in addition to the main functions associated with the supervision of the state of coastal areas, the organization monitors reef sites (Roa-Quiaoit, 2005). This activity requires comprehensive training and, therefore, appropriate financial capacities. While looking at the map shown in Figure 2 shows that, despite the relatively small ocean coverage, the RSGA region is full of coral reefs, which explains the need for skilled monitoring (Khalil, 2014). This scheme explains why PERSGA’s functions are widely required in the areas under consideration and where careful analysis and management are needed.

Along with the control of natural issues, PERSGA is actively involved in the commercial field. The organization oversees shipping activities and monitors the share of income generated by fishing in the sea areas in question. Figure 3 shows income dynamics over several decades (Khalil, 2014). This chart demonstrates that by the end of the 20th century, the fishing industry was much more active in the RSGA region than before, which, in turn, was reflected in real income figures. Thus, PERSGA is an important board that performs crucial functions and participates in relevant projects to control and coordinate ICZM initiatives.

Rules, Regulations, and Policies of ICZM

As part of ICZM initiatives, relevant policies and regulations must be respected as rules dictating the nature of interventions and the principles of control implemented by the responsible authorities. In Figure 4, Frihy (1996) shows how the process of setting up steps is built to organize projects and programs in accordance with the planned tasks. This scheme demonstrates the multi-stage nature of tasks to be completed to provide effective and, at the same time, credible interventions designed to eliminate any discrepancies in the calculations and contribute to phased goals implementation. From the technical and economic productivity perspective, this framework is a convenient and efficient guideline.

Among the regulations undertaken within the framework of ICZM projects, various initiatives are promoted. For instance, Newton (2006) mentions the principles of organization for controlling bird migration, accounting standards for biogeographic populations, regulations regarding oil production, and others. Since the region under consideration is rich in mineral deposits, particular attention is paid to the rules for establishing the extractive industry, with a focus on the inadmissibility of environmental damage. In Figure 5, Khalil (2014) mentions the list of protocols and action plans initiated by PERSGA since the late 20th century. These policies have become important programs of interaction between stakeholders and have contributed to strengthening the control measures taken for effective financial oversight, climate monitoring, and other necessary tasks.

In the RSGA region, some ICZM initiatives and regulations are curated by the World Bank. Cicin-Sain and Knecht (1998) describe the activities of this board’s individual divisions and note relevant policies aimed at assessing and monitoring the marine biotechnological potential of the RSGA region. Many targeted projects are also funded by the World Bank (Cicin-Sain and Knecht, 1998). Thus, policies and regulations in the territories under consideration are built in accordance with the need to take into account both the laws of the countries involved and the legislative conventions of international agencies.

Anticipated Challenges for ICZM in the RSGA Area

In the next 20 years, ICZM in the RSGA region may face some significant challenges that will have to be overcome to maintain a safe environment. One of the potential issues is the pollution of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Arden. In Figure 6, a chart is shown that reflects the total proportion of contamination at five different locations selected by the researchers (Alkalay, Pasternak, and Zask, 2007). Based on this proportion, one can see that plastic waste is high, which explains the need to take appropriate measures to maintain the cleanliness of the waters in the region in question. Khalil (2014) complements the problem with high tourism activity, which is directly associated with pollution, and provides the distribution of hotels in the Red Sea in Figure 7. These factors are an occasion for PERSGA and other responsible authorities to pay particular attention to the problem of pollution and adapt existing regulations and legislative norms to address the issue. Otherwise, the likelihood of environmental disturbance in the RSGA region increases, which is a threat to biodiversity in the marine areas under consideration.

Despite the existing state borders, this is more difficult to divide marine areas into corresponding territorial units than land. In this regard, the risk of claims by the countries of the RSGA region against each other from the perspective of influence in individual zones may become a problem in the future. The situation may be aggravated by the continuous activities of oil production. According to Kwiatkowska (2001), maritime demarcation should not be an issue associated with the violation of the sovereignty of individual states. Therefore, in the future, within the framework of ICZM initiatives, this may be necessary to optimize the legislation regarding the control over the respective territories and the sphere of some countries’ responsibilities.

Conclusion

The performed analysis has made it possible to identify the significant role of the ICZM concept in the context of coastal territory control in the RSGA region. Relevant government and regulatory authorities, particularly PERSGA, are involved in monitoring environmental, infrastructural, and other aspects of maintaining the safety of maritime areas. The ways of drawing up projects and targeted intervention programs are demonstrated, which are largely related to the economic conditions for the development of the region under consideration. As the anticipated challenges, pollution and problems with the administrative division of territories may arise. The coordinated work of all interested parties is crucial for maintaining the bio-ecological and political balance in the areas under consideration.

Reference List

Alkalay, R., Pasternak, G. and Zask, A. (2007) ‘Clean-coast index – a new approach for beach cleanliness assessment’, Ocean & Coastal Management, 50(5-6), pp. 352-362.

Cicin-Sain, B. and Knecht, R. W. (1998) Integrated coastal and ocean management: concepts and practices. Washington: Island Press.

Frihy, O. E. (1996) ‘Some proposals for coastal management of the Nile delta coast’, Ocean & Coastal Management, 30(1), pp. 43-59.

Kay, R. and Alder, J. (2005) Coastal planning and management. 2nd edn. New York: CRC Press.

Khalil, A. S. M. (2014) Regional indicators used for assessment of the marine environment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden.

Kwiatkowska, B. (2001) ‘The Eritrea-Yemen arbitration: landmark progress in the acquisition of territorial sovereignty and equitable maritime boundary delimitation’, Ocean Development & International Law, 32(1), pp. 1-25.

Newton, S. F. (2006) Regional organization for the conservation of the environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA): implementation of the strategic action program (SAP) for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: guide to standard survey methods for seabirds.

Papatheochari, T. and Coccossis, H. (2019) ‘Development of a waterfront regeneration tool to support local decision making in the context of integrated coastal zone management’, Ocean & Coastal Management, 169, pp. 284-295.

Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) (2004) The Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.

Roa-Quiaoit, H. A. F. (2005) Ecology and culture of giant clams (Tridacnidae) in the Jordanian sector of the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea. PhD dissertation. The University of Bremen.

Introduction

There are numerous issues that undermine the efficiency of marine research. Nevertheless, there have been numerous breakthroughs in this sphere recently, as technological solutions substantially enhance both the quality and volume of data that is collected via a wide range of sophisticated sensors. Therefore, it is essential to realize all the opportunities that ingenious approaches create in the field of marine science. Autonomous platforms are considered to play a crucial role in data collection, which has become the cornerstone of all the processes that enhance marine research.

Sustainability and Efficiency

The quality of data has significantly improved the efficiency of various types of research that previously had to rely solely on information collected during dedicated expeditions. Moreover, a direct consequence of the enhancements in sensor technology is an increase in the volume of data, accompanied by lower costs (Malde et al., 2020). The ability to construct platforms with different designs that can work autonomously and collect data with minimal assistance has become a significant success factor in the application of new technologies.

It is crucial to use all the existing potential fully, as there are numerous ways to enhance current ways of acquiring and processing information. Jones et al. (2019) pinpoint that the existing marine autonomous systems provide a wide range of solutions for significant monitoring challenges. One of the prominent examples includes the application of a wide range of autonomous marine vehicles for mapping upper ocean properties and the global ocean circulation. Previously researchers had to rely on satellite remote sensing, which was not efficient, as the electromagnetic radiation cannot penetrate water.

The amount of data that needs to be processed in order to provide optimal solutions to numerous industries and communities that rely on oceans and their resources is remarkable. Therefore, it is crucial to use technologies that require a minimal number of operators and researchers. Nornes (2018) claims that a significant benefit of different autonomous platforms is the ability to operate in cases that are believed to be dull, distant, or dangerous for operators. Thus, a wide range of issues that used to slow down the process of oceans exploration has finally been addressed with enhanced information technologies. Future advances in that sphere will prove to be instrumental in the exploration of oceans’ resources, which, in turn, can dramatically increase the currently available understanding of how the planet functions.

Different organizations across the world have pinpointed the importance of addressing the issues that currently threaten the proper functioning of ecosystems in the oceans. Several UN sustainability goals directly highlight the influence that marine ecosystems have on human lives. The current problems that are directly linked to oceans include those related to food security, health, and the use of oceans’ recourses. Moreover, various ecological organizations have long been proposing absolutely new approaches to the importance of marine ecosystems. The lack of data that once used to be a severe issue is now negligible, which eliminates the disbalances concerning the insufficient number of studies on oceans.

Networks

One of the significant ideas that can increase the overall efficiency of the data collection process is the creation of networks of autonomous platforms. Such an approach can significantly enhance the sustainability and reliability of an entire framework. Sharoni, Braginsky, and Guterman (2018) state that it is possible to improve the capabilities of autonomous marine vehicles – autonomous underwater vehicles and autonomous surface vehicles – by encouraging cooperation between them. Thus, the usefulness of data collected on one of the platforms can be multiplied by a body of evidence collected by other vehicles.

Sensors

The rise in the use of new types of sensors has long become a trendy topic concerning different industries, such as self-driving cars. At the same time, these technologies have allowed for enhanced efficiency of marine research. Optoacoustic imaging is encouraging a remarkable expansion in marine ecological monitoring, allowing for the collection of new biological and environmental data at a spatiotemporal scale (Aguzzi et al., 2020). Thus, multiple ingenious solutions in sensors production and imaging have led to discoveries that rapidly improve the living standards of millions of people.

Ecology

There are multiple spheres of science where autonomous platforms play a key role in acquiring quantitative data. According to An, Yu, and Zhang (2021), making autonomous sailboats more powerful can enhance marine science research, such as studies on ecosystems, biogeochemistry, and meteorology. Autonomous marine vehicles equipped with biogeochemical sensors help observe marine biogeochemical processes and ecosystem dynamics, covering multiple spatial and temporal scales (Chai et al., 2020). Oceans cover more than 70% of the planet’s surface and have an enormous impact on everyday activities performed by humans. Moreover, they provide people with a wide range of resources and food, ensure the functioning of essential ecosystem services, and directly influence climate.

Autonomous platforms of various designs are increasingly used in numerous ecological projects. Acquiring a substantial amount of data on the activities and behavior patterns of marine mammals and fish used to present a severe obstacle to the development and implementation of a sophisticated framework that could ensure the efficiency of protection methods. Acoustically equipped mobile autonomous marine vehicles, including deep-water profiling floats, gliders, and drifting surface buoys, can collect data on numerous marine mammal species over intermediate spatiotemporal scales (Fregosi, 2020). Thus, the application of new types of autonomous platforms has proven to be instrumental in protecting wildlife and saving various marine ecosystems in general.

Marine Archeology

Studies concerning climate, biology, and a wide range of industries are not the only spheres that benefit immensely from the introduction of extensive networks of autonomous marine vehicles. Marine Archeology is to become an extremely important field of study due to the availability of sophisticated tools related to underwater robotics and autonomous underwater vehicles. Langeland et al. (2019) claim that data management platforms provide access to processing data in real-time as well as providing researchers with advanced tools for analysis. Ødegård (2018) pinpoints that sound management of underwater cultural heritage requires methods and technologies for detection, monitoring, and investigation. Exploring large areas with SAS, classifying objects according to their spectral fingerprints with UHI, and recording them can provide a detailed explanation of different episodes of human history and culture.

Conclusion

The use of autonomous platforms in the field of marine science and technology has substantially enhanced the efficiency of numerous types of research. Various new technologies that allow for instantaneous processing of large amounts of data encourage more precise research results, which leads to better strategies to address issues in a number of spheres. Moreover, the application of advanced technologies, such as AI, helps employ new perspectives on existing problems. All the above mentioned has become possible due to the wide use of autonomous marine vehicles that are rapidly becoming even more cost-efficient and energy-efficient. What is more, multiple projects currently develop new approaches to the application of existing marine technologies that can substantially enhance the performance of existing autonomous platforms.

Reference List

Aguzzi, J. et al. (2020) ‘The hierarchic treatment of marine ecological information from spatial networks of benthic platforms’, Sensors, 20(6), pp. 1751–1772. doi: 10.3390/s20061751

An, Y., Yu, J. and Zhang, J. (2021) ‘Autonomous sailboat design: a review from the performance perspective’, Ocean Engineering, 238, 109753. doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109753

Chai, F. et al. (2020) ‘Monitoring ocean biogeochemistry with autonomous platforms’, Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 1(6), pp. 315–326. doi: 10.1038/s43017-020-0053-y

Lindstrom, E. J. et al. (2017) ‘Autonomous multi-platform observations during the Salinity Processes in the Upper-ocean Regional Study’, Oceanography, 30(2), pp. 38-48. doi: 10.5670/oceanog.2017.218

Fregosi, S. (2020) Applications of slow-moving autonomous platforms for passive acoustic monitoring and density estimation of marine mammals. PhD Thesis. Oregon State University.

Fleets of networked datamarans sailing the seven seas (2019).

Jones, D. O. et al. (2019) ‘Autonomous marine environmental monitoring: application in decommissioned oil fields’, Science of the total environment, 668, pp. 835–853. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.310

Langeland, T. et al. (2019) ‘A data management platform for data harvesting and analysis from autonomous marine measurement platforms’, OCEANS 2019-Marseille conference proceedings. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Marseille, France. doi: 10.1109/OCEANSE.2019.8867275

Malde, K. et al. (2020) ‘Machine intelligence and the data-driven future of marine science’, ICES Journal of Marine Science, 77(4), pp. 1274–1285. doi: 10.1093/icesjms/fsz057

Nornes, S. M. (2018)Guidance and control of marine robotics for ocean mapping and monitoring. PhD Thesis. Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

Ødegård, Ø. (2018)Towards Autonomous Operations and Systems in Marine Archaeology. PhD Thesis. Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

Sharoni, C., Braginsky, B. and Guterman, H. (2018) ‘Cooperation between autonomous marine platforms’, 2018 IEEE International Conference on the Science of Electrical Engineering (ICSEE) conference proceedings. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Eilat, Israel. doi: 10.1109/ICSEE.2018.8646050

Name some organisms that inhabit hydrothermal vents

The ocean floor is a habitat for many classes of living organisms. These organisms have different modes of feeding. Thus, each species has its distinct adaptation to its immediate environment. The perfect examples are the hydrothermal vent animals that inhabit the vents, including the vent octopus, giant tubeworm, spider crab, vent crab, gastropod, gyre snail, squat lobster, Pompeii worm, Anemone, ciliate, and more (Abellgan, 2010).

How do animals living near hydrothermal vents get their energy?

Unlike the organisms that live on the earth’s surface and that depend on sunlight as the principal source of energy through photosynthesis, plants around hydrothermal vents do not have such a privilege since the great oceanic depths prevent sunlight from reaching the oceanic floor.

According to the Marine Conservation Society (UK) South East (2008), the water that oozes from the vents has chemosynthetic bacteria, which convert sulfur compounds into organic material. This process is known as chemosynthesis. Therefore, in the vent food chains, the chemosynthetic bacteria are the chief producers making all hydrothermal vent animals depend solely on them for energy.

Should federal dollars contribute to explorations like the Galapagos Rift project where scientists discovered hydrothermal vent communities?

Deep–sea exploration is a quite complex and expensive exercise that requires adequate funding, expertise, and machinery. This can only be made possible when the federal government injects enough resources to the oceanography research bodies. This will not only reduce the difficulties of the deep-sea work but will also ensure that the information obtained is accurate and reliable.

What are some advantages and disadvantages to finding new animal/plant forms?

One advantage of finding new life forms of flora and fauna is that it enhances the efforts made to preserve the life that may be otherwise endangered due to the lack of knowledge about them (Kenn, 2013).

Furthermore, it may contribute to deep-sea diving tourism that can be a source of government revenue. However, marine exploration projects are costly and require extremely sophisticated machinery. This can be detrimental to the economy, especially for a country.

Glacial landscapes are changing

Discuss the negative changes that are occurring and the cause(s) of these changes

In the recent past, the temperature on the earth has been rising steadily due to the effect of global warming. This has caused glacier ice to melt much faster than before making the glacial landscapes recede, thereby exposing the earth below. This has resulted in increased levels of seawater. Also, higher altitudes areas on the globe are characterized by ice glaciers (Grassle, 1985).

Due to continuous melting, the water flowing into the rivers has increased streams massively, resulting in devastating floods. The receding ice glaciers in some parts around the world have led to a reduction in the production of hydroelectric power, thus depicting an imminent crisis in the energy sectors of the affected economies.

Discuss how these changes negatively impact/affect other organisms/animals.

The glacial landscapes harbor many living organisms comprising both plants and animals. Some animals adapt to the very low temperatures for their survival. Therefore, the melting of ice glaciers due to global warming is a threat to the future survival of such animals. The glaciers melt into freshwater, but certain bird species solely depend on the freshwater fish for food. They feed on tiny plants on the sea floor and rock surfaces (Welford, 2011).

The rising temperature of the seawater impacts negatively the survival of bird species since it causes the death of the plants, thus significantly reducing the number of small fish.

The ever-rising sea levels caused by the melting ice glaciers will no longer allow the corals to thrive in their natural habitat. This is due to the deprivation of sunlight that is necessary for photosynthesis (Erik, 2008). Therefore, it follows that the living microorganisms and fish will be on the verge of extinction soon.

References

Abellgan, E. (2010). Creatures of the deep sea. Web.

Erik, M. (2008). Climate change and glacial melting. StudyMode.com. Web.

Grassle, J. (1985). Hydrothermal vent animals: Distribution and biology. The Journal of Science, 229(7), 713-717. Web.

Kenn, J.(2013). Marine life. Web.

Marine Conservation Society (UK) South East. (2008). Life on hydrothermal vents. Web.

Welford, J. (2011). How glaciers change the landscape. Web.