There are various economic activities carried out in different countries. Mining is one of them. It could be done on land as well as in the sea. The sea is one of the most precious natural resources from which various items and services could be got from. Various minerals are mined from the sea for instance salt, gravel, sand, copper, iron, nickel, cobalt, and manganese. Crude oil is also drilled from the deep sea (Richards, 2010). This piece of paper looks at salt as one of the substances found in the sea. It will include the process required to extract it.
Discussion
Thomas (1999) asserts that salt is an essential resource got from the sea. It is a compound that contains chlorine and sodium. It is used in many ways for instance cooking, being put on the roads during winter to avoid freezing as well as making other essential chemicals such as chlorine, hydrogen, and sodium hydroxide. Sea water contains a relatively high percentage of salt. It requires some processes in order to extract it from the sea. Evaporation is essential in extracting salt.
In extracting salt from the sea, an ancient technology is applied. It involves evaporation ponds. The technology entails digging out shallow ponds, which are water proof, and connecting them to the sea using a short canal. It is necessary that a broad area which is relatively shallow is maintained in an effort to allow optimal absorption of sunlight by the water. The pond is usually flooded with water and the canal closed. The water is left to evaporate under the sun. Water vaporizes leaving behind salt which in turn increases the level of salinity of the water. It is through continuous evaporation that a great percentage of the water evaporates leaving behind a layer of sea salt crystals which are easily collected. This therefore shows how important the process of evaporation is in regard to extraction of salt from the sea (Nanda, 1989).
There are also other modern operations that are applied in extracting salt from the sea. A variety of ponds is brought together and separated using levees. Here, time is a critical aspect in determining the success of the evaporation process. To avoid instances like rain, which could prolong the evaporation process; large indoor ponds are used, usually termed as pans. This helps in shortening of the process used in extraction of salt due to use of large scale operations and protection of the salt pan from any adverse weather (Horsfall and O’Brien, 2001).
Although salt could be found underground, in rocks, the task of extracting it is relatively hard and time consuming as compared to sea extraction. This therefore explains that sea water is a cheap source of salt in terms of time and other resources needed to complete the process.
Conclusion
It is evident that the sea is extremely resourceful due to the services it facilitates as well as the minerals contained there in. Salt is for instance a very essential mineral that have many uses. However, it necessitates some efforts to be taken in order to extract and process the salt into a usable form. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that the benefits accrued to salt and other sea substances surpass the time and cost spent in the extraction and processing activities.
Reference List
Horsfall, P and O’Brien P. (2001). Science Web Text Book, Volume 1, UK: Nelson Thornes. Web.
Nanda, J N. (1989). Development of the Resources of the Sea, India. New York: Concept Publishing Company. Web.
Richards, B. (2010). Chemical Substances Found in Sea Water. Web.
SOFAR is an acronym for Sound Frequency and Ranging Channel. The SOFAR channel is a layer in the ocean that consists of regions of high pressure due to the compression of water near the ocean bed. This occurs at depths of around 1000 meters, where the pressure and temperature differences combine to produce an area where it moves at minimum speed. At this region, the sound moves at its minimum speed because of the low frequency that is generated by the increased pressures and temperatures (SOFAR Channel, 2011). This makes it possible for the sound waves to travel for many miles with minimal reflection and refraction.
Benefits of SOFAR to Marine Life
The unique characteristic of the SOFAR channels makes it possible for some mammals to communicate and ensures that explorers and scientists are able to send and receive the low frequency waves even from far distances. The speed and energy of the sounds that are transmitted in the SOFAR channel are maintained without being altered because of the pressure, which increases with increase in depth (Garrison, 2009, p. 24). Manmade sounds are easily detected by placing hydrophones at strategic positions in the ocean. The hydrophones are meant to capture natural and artificial sounds in the ocean.
Interference with SOFAR Channel
The scientists have also been known to use the channel to detect distress calls and in tracking other projects that are of importance to them. Acoustic thermometry of ocean climate is another study that makes use of the SOFAR channel. This study measures intensity of global warming and the effects associated with it by using the SOFAR channel. When scientists and other researchers use the SOFAR channel, they interfere with marine life.
Dolphins and whales communicate over large distances using the SOFAR channels. The changes that are experienced in the ocean cause animals to migrate from one area to another and this migration may break family ties because of the distance barrier (National Academy of Sciences, 2009). To locate families and mates, the whales and dolphins produce certain unique voice through the SOFAR channel. The sounds can travel over very large distances without losing speed or energy. For this reason, the animals require calm waters and undisturbed frequencies. Interfering with the natural sounds produced by these animals could alter their reproduction or lead to their extinction.
Hearing Sensitivity
In addition, the use of SOFAR channel by humans may alter the hearing sensitivity of marine life. The frequencies that are produced by other mammals differ from those produced by artificial means. For this reason, the use of sounds at different frequencies from those generated by animals may alter the reception sensitivity and lead to either affected receptors or ignored messages (SOFAR Channel, 2011). The confusion that is generated by the interference of the SOFAR channel by humans makes it hard for the animals to demonstrate natural behaviors and this may also affect their biological processes.
Vocalization and Natural Segregation
Vocalization may also be affected if the animals realize that their sounds are not bearing any fruit. When such a thing changes, the animals may lose communication and lead to disintegration and natural segregation. Fish and other preys might be scared by these artificial sounds. Some of the fish and sea predators use the sounds to detect the source of food. Even at night, the fish and other predators produce certain sounds and listen to the reflections developed. Different reflections are targeted at different preys. If the artificial sounds exceed the frequency of the natural sounds, the prey may detect the sounds and this may interrupt the food chain.
References
Garrison, T. (2009). Essentials of oceanography. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing. Web.
National Academy of Sciences. (2009). Sounding out the ocean’s secrets. Web.
The bathymetry of the ocean seafloor and plate tectonics
Modern scientists have a great number of various tools at their disposal, which allow investigators to discover new dimensions and analyze things and factors unknown before. Furthermore, the evolution of various technical devices also conditioned the appearance of new information about various objects, places, and phenomena. Bathymetry could be considered one of the relatively new practices that became extremely important for the investigators of the seafloor. In general, the term refers to the oceans depth relative to sea level. However, the implementation of the new technologies and practices in the process of investigation of the sea depths resulted in the appearance of the new meaning. At the moment, the term means a sort of submarine topography or the depths and shapes of the underwater surface and terrain (“What is bathymetry?” para. 1).
Bathymetric measurements provide precise information about the ocean floor. They show how it is varied, complex, and ever-changing (“Ocean-Floor Bathymetry” para. 3) in its nature. Besides, this sort of map demonstrates the land and terrain of the underwater surface. The tiniest variations in sea-floor relief could show a number of important processes that might happen and impact the environment. For this reason, this very practice is also related to plate tectonics as it provides the possibility to determine the borders of various plates, their movement, and the slightest but meaningful changes in their location. The usage of the measurements obtained due to the bathymetric analysis provides the significant information needed to predict the further behavior of tectonic plates. Furthermore, this very data is crucial for scientists as it helps them to make certain conclusions about the sea level, earthquakes, changes in the shapes of the underwater terrain, etc.
The sides of ocean transform fault
The modern geology considers the movement of tectonic plates the main cause for numerous earthquakes and other processes that might impact the environment and initiate crucial changes. Yet, the movement of these plates presents a great interest for scientists as its investigation provides the information needed for the analysis. In general, transform faults could be considered one of the main forces that still shape the earth. The bigger part of these faults could be found in the ocean. The appearance of the new ocean transform fault is noticed by scientists as it might cause a strong earthquake and trigger a number of other significant processes. Traditionally, the strongest part of an ocean transform fault is in the middle. The effect of any fault is to relieve the strain that might appear due to compression, extension, etc. (Alden para. 5).
In this regard, the strain is transported between the ridges. The sides of the transform fault move in different directions to reveal the strain and prevent the further development of compression. This process conditions the movement of tectonic plates that have to change their location under the pressure of the transform fault. Furthermore, the sides between the spreading segments are rubbing together (Alden para. 5), but as far as the seafloor becomes stable, these two sides travel abreast (“Oceanic Transform Faults and Fracture Zones” para. 3). For this reason, even the smallest fault will become bigger because of the movement of the sides and other processes initiated by the appearance of this very fault. Altogether, the analysis of the given phenomenon is crucial for a better understanding of the nature of various events and the prediction of the possible earthquakes that might impact the environment greatly. Yet, scientists devote great efforts to the investigation of this very issue.
Charles Darwin’s theory on the geology of the Galapagos Islands
Charles Darwin was one of the most outstanding scientists who impacted the world greatly. Being an experienced investigator, he visited a number of various places to find clear and credible evidence for the majority of his theories. Besides, in his journey on the Beagle in 1830 he also visited Galapagos Islands. This visit became very important as it initiated numerous debates related to the character of the given place and perspectives that awaited it. The fact is that Charles Darwin suggested a theory that stated that the islands were sinking. The scientist also suggested several facts that might evidence this theory. It rests on the apparent progression of coral reefs that surrounded the islands.
Darwin could not explain why the islands were sinking. However, every stage of this process could be proved by the state of the coral reef built up in the surrounding areas (Sulloway para. 5). Various types of coral reefs show the stages of the great geological change that happened to the islands. Darwin was not able to prove his suggestion using the theory of plate tectonics as it was still unknown. However, he was sure that there was some sort of forces that contributed to the creation of coral (Wanucha para. 4). One realizes the fact that Darwin was not able to use the latest bathymetric showings and the data obtained with the help of the precise analysis of the seafloor. However, his personal observations and the knowledge of the peculiarities of the environment contributed to the creation of the hypothesis that could be proved nowadays with the help of the newest technologies and measurements. Darwin managed to foresee the further evolution of the given are and determine the existence of certain forces that might impact the land.
The formation of continental mountain ranges
Our planet is formed by a number of various forces that impacted its creation and evolution. Besides, the majority of landscapes we see today appear due to the combination of various forces and powers that impacted the world and introduced new shapes and terrains. The process is not finished yet as our planet is constantly changing and obtains new forms and landscapes. Continental mountain ranges could be considered the highest and greatest mountains of the Earth. These peaks have been created by the great forces that appeared due to the collision of continents (“When Continents Collide” para. 5). The process is simple and complex at the same time. Numerous continental plates move together and initiate significant changes of the terrain. Besides, much heavier oceanic plate between these continental plates subducts.
This process could not but impact the ocean. Being placed between two continents, ocean comes to the end of its life cycle (“Evolution of Continents and Oceans” para. 4). The fact is that these ranges play a crucial role in the life cycle of an ocean. Oceanic waters move closer together and cause a number of significant processes that are the part of the oceans lifecycle. Furthermore, the continents collision results in the great stress and pressure on all continental plates. Yet, these plates never subduct and form the new mountains. The given cycle is crucial for the evolution of the planet as it renews oceans waters and guarantees the continuity of the formation of continental mountains that act as the important force which helps an ocean to renew. Altogether, the formation of these mountains should be considered the significant part of our planet that contributes to its further evolution and development.
Geologic mechanisms explaining the existence of ocean fossils within crustal rocks in the middle of the continent
Investigation of the history of our planet is a complex and long-term process that could provide a number of facts and mysteries that could hardly be answered at the current stage of the evolution of science. However, numerous researchers tend to find answers related to the Earths geologic history. The fact is that there are various ocean fossils within crustal rocks in the middle of the continents. The discovery of these elements impacted the whole scientific world as it means that this territory used to be under the water. However, there is clear and logic explanation for this question. According to numerous credible sources (“How Old is the Earth?” para.4 ) Earth had one massive continent Pangaea about 300 million years ago.
The continent was surrounded by a great ocean. However, due to significant geologic processes in the Early Jurassic era the continent started to split (“Plate Tectonics” para. 5). This event resulted in numerous consequences. The sea floors rose and took part in the formation of various mountains. Yet, the long-term character of this process resulted in the replacement of ocean fossils up to mountain peaks. Altogether, crustal rocks in the middle of the continent used to be under the water and this fact conditioned the appearance of numerous fossils there. Besides, to understand this process better it is crucial to analyze the Earth geologic history. As stated above, its surface changed and obtained new shapes and features. Once used to be a single continent, it then split into several ones and formed a number of new landscapes. Furthermore, the existence of various eras might help to understand the process of the earths evolution better.
Scientific prediction of natural disasters
The blistering evolution of science and various technologies gave rise to a number of concerns and impacted a all spheres of human activity. The implementation of innovations resulted in the appearance of the new ways to perform traditional activities and obtain perfect results. The sphere of science could be considered those which altered under the impact of new technologies most of all. The fact is that it is crucial to use the new approaches to guarantee the evolution of society and science. For this reason, the majority of new inventions are used for various scientific purposes. For instance, the rapid evolution of geology and the main means of geological exploration combined with the data obtained from the bathymetric measurements help scientists to predict the appearance and development of earthquakes (Harris and Kiger para. 5).
This practice is crucial for the modern world as the majority of the population live in densely populated city and the natural disaster like the earthquake might result in millions of victims. Furthermore, the ability to predict the appearance of this natural phenomenon also helps to obtain the unique and significant data needed for its precise analysis and investigation. The same deals with tsunami which results from earthquakes. Furthermore, the detailed analysis of tectonic plates and other peculiarities of the Earths crust might help to predict the eruption and warn people about it. Finally, there are numerous meteorological probes and stations that help researchers to collect the needed data and foresee the development of typhoon, hurricane, etc. (Passary para. 6). It is obvious, that the further evolution of these technical devices will help scientists to become more successful and obtain even more data needed for the precise analysis and credible conclusions.
The path a water molecule takes as it travels through the hydrologic cycle
The Hydrologic Cycle is the continuous circulation of water in the atmosphere of our planter. During this very process a water molecule changes its physical state several times (“The Hydrologic Cycle” para. 7). Yet, there are some important stages of the given process. The first one is evaporation. Under the impact of warmth, sun rays, and wind water evaporates from various surfaces. Then it accumulates in clouds until the next rain or storm. It might fall onto various surfaces again and condense out of mist or fog. it is the example which describes the movement of a water molecule within the cycle. However, one should realize the fact that there are some other ways in which a molecule goes through all these stages.
Rains deliver water to earth and it enters the soil, lakes, ponds, rivers, etc. Moreover, the combination of temperature and other climate conditions might result in snowfalls. All water which enters the soil in these ways could be either evaporated or transported by plants roots (“A Summary of the Hydrologic Cycle” para. 8). In general, the given phenomenon is crucial for numerous processes and lifecycle. A water molecule changes its physical state several times and impacts various aspects of the nature. Furthermore, the hydrologic cycle is extremely vital for the existence of life on the earth as it guarantees the stable water supply to plants and animals. In these regards, the basic knowledge of the main peculiarities of the given process is crucial for the better understanding of our world.
Major ocean current systems and their impact on climate
First of all, one should accept the fact that the ocean plays a fundamental role in shaping the climate zones of the Earth and determining the weather. Even lands that do not have the direct access to the ocean and are situated millions of miles from its waters are still impacted by the ocean and respond to its slightest changes. The fact is that the ocean is significant for distribution of heat across the planet (“Weather and Climate” para. 5). Covering the bigger part of the planet, it absorbs the heat and radiation that comes with the sunlight and acts as a great heater that distributes warmth to various parts of our planet. The fact is that when water molecules are heated they initiate the process of evaporation and move freely in the atmosphere, increasing the temperature and guaranteeing the stable source of warmth.
However ,there is also another mechanism that is used to deliver heat to the needed place and maintain the needed temperature. The fact is that ocean current system is crucial for the existence of life on our planet as the majority of weather patterns are driven by these very currents. In general, these are the movements of the ocean water caused by winds, oscillations in temperature, Earth rotation and tides (“Ocean Currents and Climate” para. 7). These currents play a significant role in the existence of our planet and heat exchange. They transport heat and warm masses of water to the poles and take cold waters back to the tropics. They also impact the world climate as currents help to distribute heat and solar radiation in the most appropriate way. They also guarantee the existence of comfortable temperatures that could promote the comfortable existence of numerous species.
The layers of the atmosphere and effects on weather
Our atmosphere is the unique system that protects the surface of our planet from radiation, absorbs heat and water and delivers it to various places. Moreover, the unique character of the given phenomenon conditions the great complexity of its functions. The atmosphere consists of 5 layers and they all have their own unique peculiarities. Exosphere is its highest layer. It is situated about 10000km above the Earth. It is extremely thin and it is the place where the atmosphere merges into outer space (Sharp para. 2) and let molecules and atoms escape there. Then comes thermosphere which is often referred as the upper atmosphere (Sharp para. 4). It still remains thin, however, the gases that could be found there become more dense. A number of molecules and atoms start to absorb radiation and heat that come with the sun rays and guarantee the increase of the temperature. The mesosphere starts from about 50 km above the Earth’s surface.
The given layer is characterized by the increased density of such gases as oxygen, and high temperatures. Yet, it is already thick enough to slow the majority of meteorites that come to the Earth. Stratosphere is the next layer of the atmosphere. It holds 19% of atmosphere gases but very little vapor (“Layers of the Atmosphere” para. 7) which makes it extremely vital for the heat and gases exchange. Finally, troposphere is the lowest layer of the given system. It is known as lower atmosphere and has the greatest impact on the weather. Yet, one should realize the fact that the given system has the great impact on our climate. It is responsible for distribution of water across the planet as the water molecules are accumulated there. Moreover, the atmosphere protects the earth from the direct sun rays guaranteeing the comfortable temperature and protecting us from sun radiation.
Erosion, mass wasting, streams, oceans and glaciers shaping the land
Our planet is still developing and there are certain forces that impact its evolution. Besides, erosion is the process characterized by the transportation of rocks and soil by such powers as wind and water (“Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition” para. 6). Numerous rains might take the tiniest particles of soil away into rivers or other reservoirs. The long-term character of the given process result in the formation of new landscapes or changing the shape of rivers. There is also such phenomenon as wind erosion characterized by the great winds impact on certain surfaces. It could also promote the appearance of new landscapes. Yet, erosion could also be caused by “gravity, glaciers, and water in the form of ocean currents, streams, and ground water” (“Landslide and other gravity movements” para. 6)
Mass wasting is the another force that impacts landscapes and result in the formation of new terrains. It transports rocks, sediments and soil with the help of gravitation. Numerous cracks and cavities that appear due to this process might be filled with water which will freeze, causing another cracks.
Glaciers could be considered the extreme masses of ice that might result in the significant alteration of the local landscape when moving. Their movement is slow but powerful. It might impact rocks and replace masses of soil and sand to new places.
Finally, oceans and streams also play a great role in the process of shaping the land. Being the great natural powers, they might destroy existing terrains and contribute to the formation of new ones.
Altogether all these forces are extremely vital for the evolution of our planet as they guarantee the continuous process of the creation of new lands.
The processes of plate tectonics making metals and minerals
The human society depends on mineral resources greatly. One could hardly imagine the modern world without things made from metal or other important minerals. For this reason, minerals prospecting is crucial for the further evolution of our society. It is also vital to understand what processes make metals and minerals usable for us. Besides, a number of processes of plate tectonics are responsible for the formation of various deposits. The fact is that there are three types of plate boundaries which are convergent, divergent, and transform. Yet, each type of these boundaries has a certain set of mineral deposits needed for humanity (“Physical Geography: Plate Tectonics” para. 5).
That is why their movements are extremely important. For instance, divergent boundaries move in different directions. Moving away from each other they create the low pressure zone and magma obtains the possibility to move to the surface. It contains a number of minerals that could be extracted by people. Moreover, contacting with water, magma initiates reaction and produces black smokers on the sea floor (“Plate Tectonics and people” para. 7). These are also rich in various mineral resources that could be used by people. Moreover, there are many other similar processes that result from the movement of tectonic plates and boundaries. In general, they all make minerals and metals usable for us by moving them from the unreachable places to the surface.
Ways humans have altered the planet
One realizes the fact that hundreds years of human activity have changed the Earth greatly. Besides, in the last several decades the humans influence became extremely significant. The rapid growth of technologies and science resulted in the blistering development of industry. Being considered one of the greatest achievements of the modern age, these processes also give rise to a number of concerns related to the state of environment. The fact is that humanity has never had such need for mineral resources it has nowadays. That is why numerous lands are given to extraction industries. Moreover, there is the great problem related to deforestation. Wood is used in a number of industries. According to statistics, about half of the world’s tropical forests have been cleared (Bradford para. 5).
It could not but impact the environment as trees play a significant role in thermoregulation and other processes crucial for the existence of life. Furthermore, the creation of new plants and factories resulted in the significant water, soil, and air pollution. A number of harmful gases change the structure of the atmosphere and introduce the problem of greenhouse effect which causes global warming and other significant climate changes. Additionally, peoples attempts to alter the landscape and create beneficial conditions needed for the evolution of a certain industry or creation of a settlement also impact the environment and destroys the balance peculiar to the region (Green para. 5). That is why a number of species are at the edge of extinction nowadays. The given facts evidence the way human beings change the image of the planet and contribute to its destruction.
The composition of the solar system, discussing similarities and differences between planets
Our solar system is organized according to the same principles millions of systems in the Universe function (“Solar System Formation” para. 2). Sun is the star which is the center of the whole system. It is the main source of heat, energy, and radiation. It also impacts all other planets and objects in the system. There are eight comparatively distant planets. The four smaller inner planets are Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Earth. They are composed primary of rocks and located at different distances from the Sun. The four other planets are much bigger. Saturn and Jupiter are gas giants which consist mainly of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter is the greatest planet in the system and it contains the most of the mass remaining for planets. Yet, Neptune and Uranus could be considered giant ice planets that are composed of elements with comparatively high melting points (“Difference between the inner and outer planets” para. 7).
Besides, all planets have circular orbits and are placed within the ecliptic. It has already been stated, that the differences between planets are significant. They are conditioned by the planets structure and their distance to sun (“Difference between the inner and outer planets” para. 8) The Earth could be taken as the unique one as the combination of various these factors resulted in the germ of life and its evolution. Altogether, the Solar system’s structure is not unique and there are many other systems that have the same pattern and could be investigated to discover some signs of living beings.
The ocean floor is comprised of many hills, mountains, valleys, volcanoes and certain forms of life, easily unimagined to the common man.The entire global ocean floor is approximately 366 million square kilometers and the entire surface area is a volcanic terrain (Fisher, 1998, p. 81). Of the entire ocean floor, there are about a million deep sea volcanoes. Approximately 75,000 of them rise over a kilometer above the ocean floor. The number of active volcanoes is however not determined but it is projected to be in thousands.
Deep sea volcanic eruptions are quite prevalent than is otherwise known. In fact, about 4 cubic kilometers of volcanic lava is erupted annually according to estimations developed from the movement of the earth’s tectonic plates (Fisher, 1998, p. 82). Most of these eruptions are however not seen on the earth’s surface but they are often observed when ridges stretch into dry land.
Oceanographers have in the past carried out research to better understand the ocean’s volcanic terrain. However, their conclusions have not been comprehensive enough; especially with regard to the effects of deep sea volcanic eruptions on the environment. This study therefore explores the relation between deep sea volcanic activities and the environment, with specific reference to existing myths on global warming, an emphasis on marine life, general climatic conditions and topographical effects.
Background
Not all volcanoes are a menace to the environment because of their toxic gases and molten lava. The effects of volcanoes are varied and may even result in the development of lahars. For instance, in September 1996, an undersea volcano with a magnitude of five on the Richter scale shook the Southeastern part of Iceland.
A month later, a deep basin formed on the glacier. Subsequent glaciers were also observed on the same zone (Patricia, 1999, p. 201). This indicated that melting was going on underneath the glacier and generally, the effects of deep sea volcanic activities go beyond toxic gases and molten lava.
The impacts of deep sea volcanoes are therefore varied, and the predictability of a volcano erupting is as difficult as predicting an earthquake (Patricia, 1999, p. 201). However, scientists at present use various parameters and devices to predict volcanic activity such as seismicity (which is also used to predict earthquakes and tremors) and other changes in gravity or electrical impulses.
Also, key in the study of undersea volcanoes is the subsequent earthquakes and tremors that occur after eruptions. Due to the fact that volcanic activities occur close to dry land or deep into the sea; they are bound to affect aquatic life and human life respectively. Their gas emissions also affect the environment. These variables will be categorically analyzed further in the study.
Absorption of Carbon Dioxide
A group of Australian and French scientists have in the past undertaken several studies on the effects of deep sea volcanic eruptions on the environment and established that volcanic activities undersea produce large volumes of iron which plant species known as phytoplankton use to soak up carbon dioxide when they bloom (Fogarty, 2010).
Carbon dioxide being the main greenhouse gas in the world; the studies never focused on the impact of volcanic activity on the environment and especially carbon storage in the Ocean. Deep sea volcanoes are present under deep sea ridges of the ocean floor and the above research has been based on the amount of carbon dioxide that is present in depths of four kilometers on the ocean floor. The studies are therefore shallow.
Carbon is present in small volumes along the ocean floor and this prevents the growth of phytoplankton. However, science has often affirmed that large amounts of carbon often come from wind borne dust. This may be witnessed through sandstorms or iron rich sediments from the ocean which in turn triggers rampant phytoplankton growth (Fogarty, 2010).
At present, research studies have pointed out that deep sea volcanoes constantly produce a significant amount of iron over constant timescales. This has also been identified as the main factor which accounts for about 5%-10% of the total carbon storage in the oceans. Such studies have been observed in the Southern ocean but in other regions, the amount of carbon storage may go up to 30% (Fogarty, 2010).
The implication here is that the iron produced in the ocean and in turn the carbon retention witnessed, can act as a buffer when factors such as sandstorm vary. However, climate change has affected the progression of iron onto the earth’s surface, after deep sea volcanic eruptions. Ocean stratification has also been observed to be another cause of low iron penetration onto the earth’s surface (Fogarty, 2010).
Large amounts of Phytoplankton have been observed at the Antarctica, meaning the region is rich in iron. However, some studies have shown that huge winds will eventually blow the iron onto the ocean surface. In turn, more phytoplankton will grow and capture more carbon dioxide from the air (Fogarty, 2010). A vast network of deep sea volcanoes therefore produce mineral rich water each year soaking up large amounts of carbon dioxide produced by man. This has reduced the acceleration of global warming.
Landslides
Deep sea volcanoes are known to cause massive landslides because of their massive cones (International Consortium on Landslides. General Assembly, 2005, p. 257). The main cause of landslides for deep sea volcanoes is caused by the very forces that created the volcanoes in the first place.
This is essentially the rise of lava. Every time lava is pushed aside, the surrounding rocks that create ground stability are shoved aside to make room for the molten rock. In turn, internal shear zones are created and this oversteps one or more sides of the cone (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
Normally, the magma that never comes out releases certain volcanic gases that are partially dissolved in the ocean, creating strong hydrothermal systems that further weaken the rock underneath the ocean floor and thereafter burning them to clay (US Geological Surveys, 2009). In addition, the thousands of layers of lava and rock debris often lead to fault lines that weaken the ocean surface. This is often accelerated by the downward pull of the cone by gravitational force.
These factors are especially detrimental when the deep sea volcano is near dry land. This easily triggers a landslide due to a weakened earth surface and also allows part of a volcanic cone to collapse under the pull of gravity into the volcano (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
Certain factors have been observed to accelerate this process including; intrusion of magma into the volcanic surface, deadly earthquakes under the ocean floor, and a saturation of the volcano with large volumes of water; especially preceding an earthquake (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
A Landslide caused by these volcanic activities often destroys everything that stands in its way and also initiates a flurry of activities like explosive eruptions, buried valleys, generation of lahars and a trigger of deadly waves that have even been witnessed in the recent past (like the tsunami) (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
In addition, such landslides may cause varying degrees of topographical effects; ranging from development of hills and closed depressions, created by accumulated debris. Sometimes, the deposits left by these volcanoes create tributaries and later cause flooding, either through the misdirection of tributaries or subsequent forming of lakes and other smaller water bodies (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
After eruptions, a large part of the volcano’s cone is usually displaced and this triggers the landslides which decrease the pressure on the magmatic and hydrothermal systems and in turn cause varying degrees of explosions, ranging from small to large steam explosions (US Geological Surveys, 2009).
Rising Temperatures and Melting Ice Caps
Contrary to popular opinion that melting ice and rising temperatures are solely as a result of global warming, deep sea volcanic activities have been identified as another cause of this observation. In fact, scientists have reported that recent volcanic activity under the Arctic Ocean floor have resulted in a large spew of fragmented lava into the sea.
Such eruptions have been observed in Gukkel ridge which records one of the most massive eruptions that even buried Pompeii. This took place in 1999, from an underwater volcano located at the tip of green land near Siberia (Ajstrata, 2008).
Scientists have pondered whether there is a relation between subsequent earthquakes and volcanic explosions (School Specialty Publishing, 2006). Further explorations under the ocean rubbished reports that earthquakes were caused by slow spews of fragmented lava because they discovered that there were huge explosions taking place in the ocean (Ajstrata, 2008).
In understanding the melting of ice at the arctic, it should be understood that the Arctic Ocean resembles a closed system which has very limited outlets (Ajstrata, 2008). The natural basin and its characteristics emphasize the belief that volcanic eruptions are the cause of the melting ice because there isn’t much room for the heat generated out of the deep sea volcanic activities to circulate out of the basin. Ice and glaciers have therefore melted over the centuries.
These discoveries have led to many questions being asked about the real causes of ice melting. Interestingly, the arctic surface has recently had very thin surfaces of ice and either by sheer coincidence or not, the ocean floor underneath is home to some of the most active volcanoes on the ocean floor (Ajstrata, 2008). Evidence at the arctic therefore attests that volcanic activity is one of the primary reasons why ice is quickly melting on the global surface.
With regard to the thickness of ice underwater, it is often observed that bout 90% of icebergs is underwater. Interestingly, areas that have thick ice resemble inverted mountains but areas of thin ice resemble valleys (Ajstrata, 2008).
Evidently, if we were to analyze the effects of deep sea volcanoes, it makes perfect sense that the zone resembling a valley gets heated up fast because it takes less time for the heat to reach the ice and similarly, it would take a long time for the heat to reach the thick ice because of the stumbling inverted mountain-like barrier (Ajstrata, 2008).
Marine Life
There is enough evidence to prove that deep water volcanoes improve the aquatic life undersea. For instance, an active volcano at Guam has recently caught the attention of scientists because despite its regular spewing of lava, it remains home to numerous aquatic lives, including ocean critters, shrimps, limpets, crabs and barnacles (Rosaly, 2005, p. 20).
The volcano is now high enough to resemble a 12 storey building and with recent observations, there has been a growing population of aquatic animals living at the volcano’s dome. The development of a positive relationship between an increase in volcanic activity and the growing population of animals around the volcano is therefore inevitable.
Some scientists even point out that some of these animals found at the volcanic tip are completely new species. Interestingly, these animals are well adapted to their environment which is essentially toxic, in relation to other marine environments. Normal marine life wouldn’t survive there either (Ajstrata, 2008). It is therefore inevitable to conclude that the surrounding marine life is nourished by the deep sea volcanic activity.
Scientifically, this phenomenon has been explained by the slow deposits of bacterial filaments over surrounding rocks that provide a good source of food for the surrounding marine life (Ajstrata, 2008). Some shrimps have even been observed to have adapted to the volcanic environment by developing pruning claws to extract food from the rocks. Another animal species known as the Lohili shrimps has perfectly adapted to its environment by grazing on the bacterial filaments through the developments of garden like shears.
These species however graze as a primary source of obtaining food but as they develop into adult life, they develop their claws to become predators (Ajstrata, 2008). In this regard, the shrimps become predators and feed on dead animals like fish and squids which were jumped up by the volcano (Ajstrata, 2008). These underwater volcanoes have therefore provided better ground for understanding volcanic activities than volcanic mountains on land would.
Conclusion
Deep sea volcanoes have a huge impact on the environment. Virtually, marine life is largely dictated by volcanic activities that go on in deep waters. This is in reference to an evident change of aquatic life conditions especially in light of toxic gases released in the deep waters.
These volcanic activities also rival existing facts about global warming because their activities have been noted to increase world temperatures and result in ice and glaciers melting. In the same regard, landslides and earthquakes have been attributed to a destabilization of the earth’s surface by volcanic activities.
However, we cannot pass a blanket judgment that deep sea volcanoes only have detrimental effects because this study identifies that it helps reduce green gas emissions through carbon dioxide reduction. Conclusively this study identifies that the effects of deep sea volcanic activities have been largely underrated and more research needs to be done to quantify its effects.
International Consortium on Landslides. General Assembly. (2005). Landslides: Risk Analysis and Sustainable Disaster Management: Proceedings of the First General Assembly of the International Consortium on Landslides. Amsterdam: Birkhäuser.
Patricia, L. (1999). The Oryx Guide to Natural History: The Earth and All Its Inhabitants. Boston: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Rosaly M. C. (2005). The Volcano Adventure Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
School Specialty Publishing. (2006). World Atlas. New York: Carson-Dellosa Publishing.
US Geological Surveys, (2009). Volcano Landslides and their Effects. Web.
The discovery of underground mineral deposits is always seen as an opportunity for economic emancipation. However, the difficulties involved in exploring the minerals have been the greatest obstacles to the full exploration of sea floor mineral deposits such as sulphide.
The first challenge is in locating an active ridge spreading area. The location of an active hydrothermal activity is a very taunting task requiring the use of high resolution multi-beam sonar and a comprehensive mapping of the seafloor requiring the use of magnetic field sensors.
The possibility of encountering corrosive acidic fluids from vents is another great challenge experienced by seafloor miners. The situation becomes worse when the mining team does not have chemical and temperature sensors. The process of locating hydrothermal vents with sulfide deposits requires extensive underwater surveys with concrete photographic data.
Although many sulfide deposits have been discovered in international waters, the mineral has not been fully exploited because of the high cost involved in mining seafloor mineral deposits. The process of locating, characterization and final extraction is still very costly compared to land-based mining. There are very few mining companies all over the world with the high resolution equipment for mining underground mineral deposits such as sulfide.
There are a lot of risks involved in exploring deep sea sulfide deposits that are beyond the Exclusive Economic Zones. The financial risk is relatively high considering the fact that the economic prospects of deep sea mining in those zones are unpredictable. The regulatory environment is the other issue of concern in deep sea mining of sulfide.
There are no special regulations to govern deep sea mining in both international and territorial waters. For comprehensive exploration of deep sea sulfide deposits, in is necessary for regulations governing research, and all exploration activities to be put in place. Currently there are no regulatory codes for deep sea mining.
The International Seabed Authority has voluntary codes that are yet to be fully enforced. Countries with deep sea mineral deposits have to come up with the necessary regulations to facilitate the exploration of deep sea minerals like sulfide. Environmentalists have always been against deep sea mining by claiming that deep sea mining is a serious threat to the marine environment.
The International Seabed Authority has been at the forefront in regulating deep sea mining to protect the marine environment from the adverse effects of deep sea mining. A comprehensive environmental impact assessment is needed before any deep sea mining activities begin.
The potential impact of sulfide exploration to marine life and the possible models of transporting dissolved minerals need to be determined before the exploration of sulfide deposits. The cost and benefits of seabed mining have not been seriously explored in recent times due to the economic hardships experienced in recent times. Many mining companies have come up with new technologies to fully explore deep sea mining but this has been possible due to the many hardships involved in getting operation permits.
Building on Singapore’s existing track record of balancing terrestrial conservation with development, Singapore can, with additional effort, position herself to become a global example of sustainable development in the coastal and marine environment. We can, thus show the absence of mutual exclusivity between marine conservation and coastal development.
A holistic approach to conservation including studies, research and best practices related to ecosystem preservation should be adopted. Biological, economic and social objectives should also be balanced in the effort to conserve natural heritage for future generations in Singapore (Chee 2008, p. 1). The social objectives are being achieved by Singapore’s relentless effort in the sustainable establishment of world-class living conditions with sensitivity to the existing ecosystems.
This will, in turn lead to attraction of valuable clients across the globe. Conservation is our responsibility in order to preserve biodiversity for our future generations. The coral reefs, like our natural, cultural and national heritage-has to be kept alive. This will enable future Singaporeans to enjoy the biodiversity beauty of their country and give them a chance to make a difference in conservation (Goh 2009, p. 1). Let us have a look at more detailed conservation recommendations.
The following are some recommendations for balancing coastal development and marine conservation in Singapore. First of all, a government agency should be identified to be reviewing coastal development plans (Helvarg 2006, p. 32). It should establish a carefully developed policy for EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) to be conducted on all coastal projects as well as significant inland projects with potential effects on coral reefs and marine life.
The government agency should also have an independent committee for coordination of reviews on coastal development plans. The committee should comprise of a balanced membership for holistic review of the coastal development projects (Knoell 2005, p. 17). It should have representation from state bodies, academic institutions, businesses and non-governmental organizations (NGO).
NGO membership is to ensure that ideas of corporate social responsibility are implemented in development projects in an effort to conserve marine life. The central government agency should institute a monitoring programme aimed at implementing preventive measures against marine interference (McKenzie 2007, p. 1). The monitoring agency should have prosecuting powers in order to perform its duties effectively.
Reduction of land reclamation and maximization of the use of existing land could also help in preserving marine life (Onn 2007, p. 1). This may be achieved by development of biodiversity rich areas to discourage environmental degradation through eco-tourism. This will also have financial gains to the stakeholders. There should also be a regulatory board whose objective is the limiting of recreational activities of corporations to check their effects on the environment (Chou 1997, p. 21).
The government agency should also implement appropriate measures to reduce siltation levels. This can be achieved by setting up of silt screens during reclamation and avoiding careless deposition of silt during drenching. The last recommendation is the identification of islands with commendable biodiversity and making them MBAs (Marine Biodiversity Areas) through implementation of thorough protective measures (Ray 2004, p. 23).
From the discussion above, it is evident that an integrated conservation system is desirable for marine protection. However, the establishment of such a system faces a myriad of limitations. Firstly, the activities of the government agency require highly skilled personnel. This translates to more capital for the implementation of these recommendations (Chou 2008, p. 1). The lack of legislation related to marine conservation is also a major setback.
Lastly, coral translocation does not have guarantee of success due to problems of manpower, technique and time (Lim 2009, p. p. 1). It is therefore important for the government and other stakeholders to put these limitations into consideration before implementing these recommendations in order to achieve the positive impacts that the recommendations are designed to have.
Reference List
Chee, D. (2008). “Conservation Activities in Singapore.” Web.
Chou, L. (1997). Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation in Singapore. U.K. Bell & Bain Publishing.
Chou. L. (2008). Country report: Singapore. U.K. McMillan Publishing.
Helvarg, D. (2006). 50 ways to save the ocean. Hawai’i. Inner Ocean Publishing.
Goh, J. (2009). “Did you know about Singapore reefs?” Web.
Knoell, C. (2005). Developing the concept of building a coral reef in Singapore. U.S. Barnes & Noble.
Anti Inflammatory, Antinociceptive and Central Nervous System Depressant Activities of Marine Bacterial Extracts
Introduction
Marine microbes associated with macroalgae produce diverse secondary metabolites that include alkaloids, polypeptides, polyketides, etc. Some novel bioactive compounds of epiphytic origin exhibit anti-inflammatory activity against reactive oxygen species and other mediators that induce the inflammatory process in tissues. Their ability to suppress inflammatory factors indicates that they can inhibit oxidative damage and nociceptive sensitivity in vivo.
Summary
The study examined the pharmacological properties – anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and CNS depressant – of epiphytic bacteria associated with seaweeds and other marine organisms. The study involved the inoculation of ectosymbionts and endosymbionts isolated from three seaweeds (C. limonoids, U. Lactuca, and E. compressa) growing on the Tuticorin coast, India, in seawater broth to grow bacterial cultures.
Epiphytic bacteria associated with ascidians were also isolated. Crude extracts from the bacterial cultures were used in the pharmacological assays. The anti-inflammatory activity of the extracts was tested using model animals (rats) with edematous paws. The antinociceptive activity analysis involved comparing the reaction time of mice treated with the extracts and the controls. The CNS depressant activity test entailed measurement of locomotor activity of mice injected with diazepam and the extract. From the results of the anti-inflammatory test, extracts from seaweed (C. compressed) associated bacterial strains (EM13 and EM14) exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity.
The inhibitory effect was 20.4-59.5% at 200 mg/Kg dosage. The isolates significantly minimized paw edema through the bioactive compounds that mimic anti-inflammatory mediators and antioxidants. The bacterial extracts also lowered the locomotor activity and CNS depressant state in the mice. Strains EM13 and EM14 showed pharmacological potential as anti-oxidants for protecting tissues from factors that induce inflammation. The authors conclude that the isolation and characterization of the bioactive principles from the potent strains could yield pharmacological agents with antioxidant potential.
Presence of Quorum-sensing Inhibitor-like Compounds from Bacteria Isolated from the Brown Alga Colpomenia sinuosa
Introduction
Marine bacterial quorum sensing (QS) antagonists are seen as potential pharmacological compounds with antioxidant activity. QS is a bacterial signaling mechanism that is mediated by autoinducers such as N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL). Preexisting epiphytic bacteria produce QS antagonists that inhibit surface colonization by other competing strains through the disruption of QS signaling. The QS inhibitory effect of these molecules is attributed to the reduction of the signal mediators produced by epiphytes.
Summary
The study sought to screen for potent QS inhibitors produced by epiphytic bacteria using a protocol that was applied in isolating inhibitory pigments from indicator bacteria. In this study, the researchers inoculated agar plates with isolates of epibiotic bacteria attached to the surface of brown algae (C. sinuosa) growing on a Japanese Island. Selection based on colony morphology obtained 96 strains, which were cultured on agar plates.
The indicator bacterial sp. – Serratia rubidaea – was also isolated and cultured. The screening for QS inhibition involved inoculating agar plates containing the isolates with the S. rubidaea and incubating them for 48 hours. Molecular characterization of strains producing QS antagonists involved 16S rRNA analysis and BLAST searches. From the results, 12% of the epibiotic isolates secreted bioactive compounds that mimic QS inhibitors.
Their inhibitory effect was indicated by a lack of pigmentation due to S. rubidaea growth inhibition. 16S rRNA identification revealed that the potent isolates were Bacillaceae and Proteobacteria. QS inhibitors inactivate QS-regulated products that cause oxidative stress on epibiotic symbionts. They hydrolyze the AHLs produced by other bacterial strains, inhibiting their settlement on algal surfaces. The reduction of signal products indicates that QS antagonists from C. sinuosa associated bacteria have pharmacological potential as natural antioxidants.
Isolation of Seaweed-associated Bacteria and their Morphogenesis-inducing Capability in Axenic Cultures of the Green Alga
Introduction
Seaweed-associated bacteria produce bioactive molecules that are regulators of algal morphogenesis and development. These bacterial symbionts, in turn, benefit from the organic nutrients secreted by the host through the bacterial-seaweed interaction. Cellular antioxidants are required for cell proliferation in eukaryotes. They create a reducing cellular environment that is ideal for the morphogenesis of green algae, e.g., Ulva fasciata.
Summary
The study entailed the screening for the morphogenesis-stimulating activity of bacteria associated with cultured Ulva spp. and Gracilaria spp. It also examined the strain’s subsequent reproduction-inducing ability on U. fasciata and characterized them based on 16S rRNA. In this study, 53 isolates from three algal species belonging to two genera (Ulva and Gracilaria) native to Veraval, India, were grown on algal plates to obtain pure colonies.
The next step involved the inoculation of the bacterial isolates on axenic algal cultures developed from U. fasciata zoospores to test their effect on morphogenesis. Five isolates that induced algal morphogenesis were inoculated on algal stock culture to determine their zoospore inducing activity. DNA samples isolated from the colonies were PCR amplified for 16S rRNA-based characterization. The study isolated five epiphytes that showed significant morphogenesis inducing activity on U. fasciata thallus cultures, including spine development. Further, two isolates associated with Glacilaria spp and exhibited a significant zoospore induction when inoculated on U. fasciata (107,700 spores per gram of thallus).
Based on16S rRNA sequence homology, one of the five strains belonged to Marinomonas spp., while the rest were Bacillus spp. The morphogenesis-stimulating activity of these isolates on U. fasciata indicates that epiphytes play a role in the growth and development of green algae. They work by secreting antioxidants that provide a reducing cellular environment that is required for algal differentiation.
Epiphytes prevent light from reaching algal surfaces, leading to free radical (ROS) accumulation that causes oxidative stress. Light attenuation due to a high concentration of bacterial communities activates the algal antioxidant system for protection against oxidative damage. The ROS accumulation in seagrasses is seen as a protective mechanism against bacterial epiphytes. Some bacterial strains synthesize antioxidants, including phenolic compounds, which enable them to colonize algal surfaces.
Summary
The study compared the modulation effect of epiphytic bacteria on photosynthesis and oxidative stress responses in a seagrass species (P. oceanica) with controls. P. oceanica samples colonized by epiphytic bacteria and those without heavy epiphyte load from Isleta del Moro were obtained. The epiphytes were washed off from the leaves, and in situ photosynthetic rate measured. The authors also measured photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant enzyme activity, and antioxidant compound quantity (phenolic compounds) in the leaf samples.
The results indicated that the epibiotic communities did not affect the net photosynthetic production in the shoots. However, chlorophyll b levels were lower in colonized shoots than in leaves without epiphytic bacteria. The antioxidant content was elevated in epiphyte-associated leaves, especially at noon. However, the level of antioxidants and phenolic compounds was lower between dawn and noon in all samples. The epiphytic bacteria were associated with elevated peroxidation of membranes before dawn.
The results show that epiphytes modulate oxidative stress in seagrasses due to the shading effect on leaf surfaces. Under the conditions of light limitation and photoinhibition, ROS accumulates in P. oceanica. To prevent oxidative stress, the macroalgae and epiphytic bacteria synthesize antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds, to neutralize the effects of oxidative damage. For epiphytic bacteria, a higher antioxidant capacity is required to colonize algae surfaces.
References
Costa, M. M., Barrote, I., Silva, J., Olive, I., Alexandre, A., Albano, S., & Santos, R. (2015). Epiphytes modulate Posidonia oceanica photosynthetic production, energetic balance, antioxidant mechanisms, and oxidative damage. Frontiers in Marine Science, 2, 1-10. Web.
Kanagasabhapathy, M., Yamazaki, G., Ishida, A., Sasaki, H., & Nagata, S. (2009). Presence of quorum-sensing inhibitor-like compounds from bacteria isolated from the brown alga Colpomenia sinuosa. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 49, 573–579. Web.
Ramasamy, M. S., & Kumar, S. S. (2009). Anti inflammatory, antinociceptive and central nervous system depressant activities of marine bacterial extracts. Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 4(4), 152-159. Web.
Singh, R. P., Mantri, V. A., Reddy, C. R. K., & Jha, B. (2011). Isolation of seaweed-associated bacteria and their morphogenesis-inducing capability in axenic cultures of the green alga. Aquatic Biology, 12, 13-21. Web.
Making a revolutionary statement in geology in general and the origin of the Port Phillip Bay in particular, Holdgate claimed that the area, which the port originated, used to be a dry land at some point. According to Holdgate, it was the “catastrophic ocean flooding” (Cauchi 2011, par. 3), which contributed to the creation of the region. While the previous existence of the lake in the place where the bay is located currently has not been proven yet, the ostensible idea of the area is dry before seems to have enough supporting evidence to be deemed as quite realistic.
Findings
Being quite credible and based on a plethora of calculations, the study will still need some tangible evidence to prove Holdgate’s point. Therefore, it is required that large-scale studies of the area should be conducted. The specimens of Port Phillip Bay’s core should be analyzed so that the corresponding data should be revealed and that the study could be supported. Specifically, the fossils of specific creatures, such as the shells of tertiary foraminifera (Wilson and Miner 2015), as well as the meanders of the river channels, which were located in the area, are bound to bolster the hypothesis suggested by Holdgate and enable the latter to prove that the amount of water in the bay reached the highest level of shrinkage ca. 1000 years ago.
Port Phillip Bay
Since Holdgate’s hypothesis presupposes that the area, in which the bay is located nowadays, used to be represented by a lake that later on dried out, there are significant changes in finding the “alluvium, lacustrine and swamp deposits” (Wilson and Miner 2015, p. 77) in the area. The specified findings, however, can be expected at the level, which the Holocene era is represented; as far as the Pleistocene pieces of evidence are concerned, the specimens of calcareous and siliceous dunes, as well as volcanic basalt (Wilson and Miner 2015, p. 77) are likely to be located in the area in question. Therefore, a range of sandy deposits is most likely to be identified at the given level of Port Phillip Bay’s evolution, as the area was represented mostly by dry land at the time (Chen, Eisma & Hotta 2013). As far as the fossils are concerned, one must bring up the aforementioned shells of the sea creatures once again, as the area used to be under water before the drastic drop in the sea levels and the following process of drying out. Hence, shells and other remnants of sea animals of the pre-Holocene epoch are expected to be located in the area as well (Patterson 2013).
Sea Levels, Dunes and Dates
Image 1 – The sea level history for the last 140,000 years in south eastern Australia.
The two graphs under analysis provide a range of information that can be classified as identical or similar at the very least. Specifically, both the graphs provided by Zhou and the one under analysis represent the alterations in the sea level over the course of the Holocene and Pleistocene eras display a sharp drop in the sea level (roughly 140–150 m) in approximately 20,000 y. B. P. (Zhou et al. 1994). It should be noted, though, that Zhou seems to make a larger approximation of the data. Similarly, the increase in Zhou’s graph is shown in a less obvious manner than the alterations in the second graph are.
As far as the thermoluminescent dates marked in Zhou’s (1994) article are concerned, the cliff top dune sand seems to be the key ingredient, which the aeolianites that the area is represented by were created with. Indeed, the data represented in Zhou’s paper proves that, after having been under significant pressure and withstanding other essential factors, including the physical and the chemical ones, the cliff top dune sand finally morphed into the aeolianites of the Port Phillip Bay. Moreover, the introduction of the quartzose sand to the process of the aeolianites formation contributed to the increase in the pace of the process, thus, causing the aeolianites formation to speed up in the era of Holocene.
The data provided above shows clearly that the sand for the formation of aeolianites can be derived from the lithification of the sand deposits. The latter, in their turn, can be viewed as the effect of the chemical and physical weathering of the sediments located in the area. In addition, the sand, which the aeolianites were formed with, could be retrieved from the remnants of the aquatic animals, which remained in the area after the drastic drop in the sea level. With the surface covered in shells and other elements that were subjected to relatively fast destruction, the amount of sand required for the development of aeolianites could be replenished rather quickly. The Diamond Bay data, though showing a different tendency in the Aeolian dust deposition, also displays a similar pattern of the aeolianites formation (Chiocci & Chivas 2014, p. 289). Therefore, the latter process involved the introduction of dust from fossils and sediments to significant pressure.
Chen, J, Eisma, D & Hotta, H J 2013, Engineered coasts, Springer Science & Business Media, Norwell, MA.
Chiocci, F L & Chivas, A R 2014, Continental shelves of the world: their evolution during the last glacio-eustatic cycle, London, UK.
Patterson, G 2013, Coastal guide to nature and history: Port Phillip Bay, Coastal Guide Books, Briar Hill, AU.
Wilson, R and Miner, A 2015, ‘Landslides on the Bellarine and Nepean Peninsulas, Victoria,’ Australian Geomechanics, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 75–84.
Zhou, L, Williams, M A J, and Peterson, J A 1994, ‘Late quaternary aeolianites, palaeosols and depositional environments on the Nepean Peninsula, Victoria, Australia,’ Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 225–239.
In his article devoted to the topic of the origin of Port Philip Bay Holdgate (2011) makes a rather bold statement concerning the origin of the port. According to the researcher, the area used to be entirely dry, with only a small lake in the place of the bay. Nowadays, the area is represented vastly by numerous muddy regions. As the scientist explains, the phenomenon of the port’s emergence in the dry environment can be attributed to the fact that considerable water shrinkage could be observed in the area roughly 1,000 years ago (Cauchi 2011, para. 7).
Secrets of the Core
The research proposed to test the hypothesis suggested by Holdgate will require that samples of the earth core underneath the bay should be taken in order to verify the correctness of the supposition. It is expected that a study of the sediment core of the area will contain a large amount of foraminifera and the related elements, including shells and sand. A bay floor hiatus in the area of 2,800–1,000 cal. Yr. BP is expected to be located.
Specifically, the Holocene record of the designated area needs to be analyzed. It is also assumed that the bay mud floor will contain sandy lithologies, therefore, exposing its unique origin and making it quite obvious that the area used to be entirely dry. Specifically, shelly mud and river-like incisions are expected to be discovered in the area of Port Philip Bay as proof of the fact that the area used to be dry once.
Shells in the Bay
In case Holdgate’s hypothesis is correct, the area, which is now represented by the Port Philip Bay, might have been experiencing a considerable drop in the average sea level in the central basin. The reasons for the above-mentioned conclusion are quite obvious; seeing that the author mentioned a consistent dryness of the area on the above-mentioned time slot, it will be quite legitimate to assume that the sea level decreased significantly at the time. Moreover, it can be suggested that the sea level also stabilized in the given time period and approached the one that can be observed at present. In other words, the blocking of the channels and the delay in the marine transgression (Cauchi 2011) could be observed in the specified area 2,800–1,000 years ago (Crockett & Keough 2014).
Sea Levels, Dunes, and Dates
Sea Levels
Based on the graph provided, the sea levels for the southeastern coast of Australia have changed quite drastically over thousands of years of sea-level history. According to the data introduced in the graph, the sea level had been quite low (–140 meters) up until 120 years B. P., when it rose to 0 meters. Over the course of the next several thousands of years, the sea level was gradually decreasing until it reached the mark of –140 meters again around 20,000 years B.P., as the chart provided shows in a very graphic manner. The consistent increase in the sea level, which followed and has been maintained up to these days, can be viewed as the effect of the global warming process. More importantly, the latter factor is likely to trigger a further increase in the average sea level (Schaeffer, Hare, Rahmstorf & Vermeer 2014).
Data Comparison
The sea-level record, which is indicated in Zhou’s paper, can be considered somewhat different from the data provided in the graph mentioned above. The differences in the findings can be explained by the high level of approximation, which was used in Zhou’s paper in order to arrange the data as concisely and adequately as possible. However, apart from certain inaccuracies in the delivery of the data, there are significant differences between the information provided in the first and the second graph. Specifically, the data concerning the last glacial maximum, which was stated to be around the sea level of – 140 meters, was reduced to – 150 meters of ea level in the report provided by Zhou et al. (1994). However, apart from the above-mentioned inconsistency, there are very few minor differences between the two methods of data representation.
TL Dates
A closer look at the TL (thermoluminescent) dates for Diamond Bay display the obvious tendency for the area in question to be represented by the cliff top dune sand. In other words, erosion has had a significant effect on the Diamond Bay area development. In addition, the fact that the area in question is represented by the dark brown Paleosol clay displays the fact that the specified region used to be dry and that the sea level has changed drastically (Eze & Meadows 2014). Thus, it can be assumed that the aeolianites were formed in the Pleistocene era, i.e., ca. 9,900 years ago in the given area, the clifftop dune sand creating the pressure required for the process to occur (Erginal et al. 2012).
Crockett, P F & Keough, M G 2014, ‘Ecological niches of three abundant Caulerpa species in Port Phillip Bay, southeast Australia,’ Aquatic Botany, vol. 119, pp. 120–131.
Erginal, A E, Kiyak, N G, Ekinci, Y L, Demirci, A, Ertek, A & Canel, T 2012, ‘Age, composition and paleoenvironmental significance of a Late Pleistocene eolianite from the western Black Sea coast of Turkey,’ Quaternary International, vol. 296, pp. 168–175.
Eze, P N & Meadows, M E 2014, ‘Mineralogy and micromorphology of a late Neogene paleosol sequence at Langebaanweg, South Africa: Inference of paleoclimates,’ Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol. 409, pp. 205–216.
Schaeffer, M, Hare, W, Rahmstorf, S & Vermeer, M 2014, ‘Long-term sea-level rise implied by 1.5◦ C and 2◦ C warming levels,‘ Nature Climate Change, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 1–4.
Zhou, L, Williams, M A J, and Peterson, J A 1994, ‘Late quaternary aeolianites, palaeosols and depositional environments on the Nepean Peninsula, Victoria, Australia,’ Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 225–239.
Any living creature cannot survive alone and constantly interacts with other species of beings. In the process of livelihood, they create various forms of contact. Ecological systems include many species with their unique relationships at different levels. Non-trophic interactions are relationships between species that do not imply consumption. An example of non-trophic relationships between marine species is decorator crabs and sponges. Their connection is built on mutualism – interaction, which benefits both sides.
Non-trophic interactions can be different, for example, mutualism, parasitism, or commensalism. The type of interaction is determined by the influence that the species make on each other – benefit, harm, or absence of an effect. Mutualism suggests that both species will benefit; for example, bees transfer pollen and, in turn, receive the nectar. Among marine species, this type is common, and decorator crabs and sponges’ interaction is a distinctive example. Crabs cut a piece of sponge and attach it to their shell, where it continues to live (Deepblu, 2018). Sponges serve as camouflage and poisonous species – as protection from predators. Decorator crabs’ shells have hooked hairs that act like sticks (Langley, 2018). Sponges receive benefits as crabs transfer them to new feeding sites. Crabs can also use other species for masking and protection – anemones or toxic algae.
Thus, non-trophic interactions between species may differ, but their distinguishing feature is that they do not include consumption. Such relationships may be beneficial, harmful, or have no effect on the species. Decorator crabs and sponges’ relations are an example of mutually helpful non-trophic interaction – mutualism. Crabs attach sponges to the shell to mask or protect against predators, and sponges, in turn, can move to new places for nutrition.