Category: Marine Life

Bioluminescence is the term used to define the chemical that produces light energy within the body of an organism. For the reaction to take place organism must contain a molecule called luciferin, which then reacts with oxygen to produce light. According to scientists, there are different types of luciferin, and they vary depending on the animal hosting the reaction. Most organisms do also produce a catalyst by the name of Luciferase, which also helps in speeding the reaction in the organism’s body. Bioluminescence can be expected at almost any time and in any region or depth of the sea. Bioluminescence is most common in deep sea and marine life, but in our daily life application, the Firefly is considered a bioluminescent organism.

The glow worms, anglerfish, jellyfish and the octopus are the best-known species perceived to be bioluminescent. Fluorescent organisms are different from Bioluminescence organisms in that, in regular circumstances they wouldn’t glow in complete darkness. According to UCSB scientist, fluorescent pigments only glow in the presence of an external light source. In some cases, animals consume bacteria or other bioluminescent organisms for them to gain the ability to light up. This is experienced by the Hawaiian bobtail squid that has special light organs that are utilized by bioluminescent bacteria within periods of its birth.

Bioluminescence is not just limited to the deep sea alone. A study in the Journal of Experimental Biology did found out that crabs can see in color. This is because crustaceans live in the deep seas where there is no sunlight penetration, making them sensitive to blue and ultraviolet light.

Animals produce light by depending on their immediate needs be it when searching for a meal or mate; also some organisms produce light in the deep seas when a ship or a boat passes. The Navy is currently researching on bioluminescent creatures on how they produce light when objects move through the ocean. The study suggests that these organisms could put people and projects rate risk by revealing the location of submarines or even Navy Seals when they are swimming around covertly.

Organisms use their light to bait-prey towards their mouths or even light up intensively so that they can see their meals better. Splitfin flashlight fish produce their light by the use of symbiotic bacteria. When living planktonic prey is detected in their surroundings, their light organs open up so that they can detect and feed on the prey.

Fireflies use their bioluminescent flashes to attract mates and warn predators of the toxins that they contain. Bioluminescence can also be used to help organisms camouflage with the use of counter-illuminations. The bottom side of the organisms contain photospheres that could match the light coming from the surface making it difficult to be noticed by predators. The male Caribbean ostracod, a tiny crustacean is said to use bioluminescent signals on its upper lips to charm females. The flashlight fish, angler fish, and the ponyfish are all thought to use their bioluminescent light to tell the variance between males and females.

Scientists in are in the process of designing a genetically modified tree that could be able to glimmer in the dark and act as a sustainable source of street lighting in a project dubbed, The Glowing Tree Project. A company called BioPop is designing lamps by the use of bioluminescent phytoplankton and selling it to people. The lamp lights up when its contents are shaken to produce light.

Oceans are large expanses of water that expand across more of the Earth’s surface than land. In recent decades, a surplus of harmful human activities has adversely affected marine ecosystems by increasing ocean pollution. Ocean pollution is the spread of harmful toxins and debris throughout ocean waters, which negatively affects surrounding ecosystems. Increasing ocean pollution influences the formation of dead zones lethally affects marine animals, and harmfully affects human health.

Dead zone areas are a direct result of ocean pollution caused by human agricultural practices, such as fertilizer overuse. Nitrogen and phosphorous compounds, common to fertilizers, leach into a runoff, creating nutrient-rich environments along coasts. These polluting compounds encourage algae growth, often resulting in algae blooms that expend all of the dissolved oxygen found in the water; leaving little to no oxygen available for other organisms’ consumption. This thick layer of algae, found on the ocean’s surface, blocks sunlight from reaching greater depths which prevents aquatic plants from photosynthesizing and replenishing dissolved oxygen levels. In this case, human-caused ocean pollution directly reduces dissolved oxygen levels, causing the environment to be uninhabitable. Organisms found in these polluted environments die, giving them the name dead zones.

All forms of human-caused ocean pollution lethally affect marine life. In today’s society, the most topical form of ocean pollution revolves around banning plastic straws to save the sea turtle populations. Marine organisms mistake plastics for food and ingest them into their organ systems. Plastic pollutants are not biodegradable and remain undigested, taking up large amounts of space in an organism’s stomach and intestines. Eventually, the organisms begin to starve to death as they cannot feed anymore because pollutants have filled all the available space in their digestive tract. While the bodies of the dead organisms rot, the pollutants in their stomachs remain intact. Additionally, large debris, such as crates or nets, create deadly underwater traps. Turtles and large mammals become enclosed or entangled in these pollutants and suffocate to death.

Ocean pollutants contain toxic substances, such as lead and mercury, that cause detrimental effects on human health. When a sea creature ingests one of these substances, the toxins are absorbed into the creature’s tissues and passed onto humans through human consumption. Seafood poisoned by toxins gives rise to lethal illnesses in humans; for example, meningitis and hepatitis. Furthermore, direct (marine organisms) and indirect consumers (humans) of these pollutants suffer from disruption of their reproductive and central nervous systems, which affects their fertility and behavioral responses. Another way ocean pollution harmfully affects humans is in the form of pathogens. Pollutant-based pathogens, such as E. coli, are viruses that enter the ocean through rain runoff, sewage drains, or waste discharge from ships. Beachgoers, especially surfers, are particularly prone to infection by pollutant-based pathogens because of their considerable amount of time in direct contact with water, and all its pathogens.

The ocean provides nutrient-rich habitats for thousands of marine organisms. Oceans are a place of natural beauty where people can come to swim, surf, and live mutualistic ally with it. Every citizen bears the responsibility to clean up ocean pollution while marine ecosystems are still recoverable. The effects of ocean pollution can be averted by increasing public awareness about its harmful environmental effects.

Echinoderms are a phylum of marine organisms. They are generally characterized as invertebrates that have hard, internal calcium based skeletons, a water vascular system, and a five-rayed radial symmetry. Some examples of echinoderms are starfish, sand dollars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and brittle stars. The importance of echinoderms goes past the aesthetics that they bring to marine ecosystems. Echinoderms also have economic, ecologic, scientific, nutritional and medicinal purpose. They do so much not only for marine ecosystems, but also play a large role in the lives of humans.

The first and foremost action that echinoderms perform in the world is ecology based. Many echinoderms play critical roles in marine ecosystems and without them most of the ecosystems would be drastically altered, in most cases with calamitous consequences. For instance, pisaster ochraceus, or “the purple sea star” is a keystone species in many intertidal zones. Meaning, that without them there, the ecosystems fail, which was seen in a study done where they were removed from their natural habitat and a series of mussel beds died and didn’t reproduce as rapidly. Another example of would be the purple sea urchin. The purple sea urchin is also found in intertidal zones and acts as a buffer for coral reefs. They’re also a major food source not only for marine organisms, but humans too. The gonads of both male and female sea urchins are culinary delicacies in many parts of the world.

In addition to the life they bring to marine ecosystems, echinoderms also have a geological system. In geology, echinoderms are mainly used as index fossils, meaning that they help determine how old rocks are. The fossils found can match up with specific types of organisms found in the fossil record. Many echinoderms are used in this fashion to help determine the paleoecology of a given area. Paleozoic fossils have the potential to contain a lot of important data. This relates back to the idea that echinoderms provide a lot of necessary resources for both the organisms in their habitats and for humans as well.

Another way that echinoderms serve humans in society is as a food source. As distasteful as it may sound, some echinoderms are used as a food source. As mentioned earlier, sea urchins have real economic value along with sea cucumbers. Sea cucumbers are eaten throughout Asia because of certain theories about them such as, they’re an aphrodisiac. The problem that lies with sea cucumbers being on the market is that they get over fished. As stated earlier, when echinoderms get removed from their habitat bad things can happen. Sea urchins are also a delicacy in Japan and are hunted for their succulent innards. Unlike, sea cucumbers, the sea urchins aren’t being over fished. Surprisingly there is more stability in urchin economies than cucumber economies. Nonetheless, both have great economic value and once again contribute to society in a fascinating way. Echinoderms being used as a food source relates back to the idea that they can be used for multiple things, and they have such value not only to their ecosystems, but to humans as well.

Echinoderms also help humans make many advancements in the field of genetics. Over that past couple of decades, echinoderms have been studied in minor ways in an attempt to determine their use genetically. In the last couple of years, the main echinoderms that arrived at the forefront are purple sea urchins, asterinidae, and asterias. The purple sea urchin genome is estimated to encode approximately 23,00 genes. Many of the genes were assumed to be “vertebrate innovations” or were only known from groups outside the deuterostomes. Surprisingly the sea urchin genome compares to our own and other deuterostomes a group to which both urchins and humans belong. The purple sea urchin and humans share about 7,700 genes. Many of these genes have to do with sensing the environment which is ironic seeing as how the urchin doesn’t have a brain. The other two species, asterinidae and asterias, similar to the sea urchin, share some genetic code with humans, but it isn’t nearly as striking as the purple sea urchin. In conjunction with genetics, echinoderms also have medicinal purposes. For instance, some toxins found in sea cucumbers slow down the growth rate of tumor cells, so they have been targeted for a lot of cancer research. The plethora of uses that echinoderms have is amazing.

In conclusion, it is apparent that echinoderms have multiple uses to both humans and organisms within their specific ecosystems. It is fascinating how versatile the echinoderms are, from their genetic and medicinal use, to their geological use. Overall it is safe to say that echinoderms should be valued more in society because of their major contributions to the lives of humans and the marine ecosystem as a whole.

A marine ecosystem is an ecosystem defined by an aquatic environment with higher salinity compared to freshwater ecosystems. These ecosystems are teeming with flora and fauna, providing one of earth’s major food sources. Covering over 70% of the Earth’s surface, marine ecosystems are divided into several broader types of ecosystem, such as estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove forests, coral reefs and open ocean. Marine ecosystems are characterised by a variety of unique biotic and abiotic factors. Important abiotic (non-living) features consist of sunlight, salinity, acidity, atmosphere, distribution of dissolved properties in the water, proximity to land, current, topography, depth, and temperature. Key biotic factors (living) include plants, protista, fungi, animals and microbes. Marine ecosystems are extremely diverse and differ based on climate, longitude and latitude.

Acid rain is any form of precipitation that is abnormally acidic (PH>7, a substance with a chemical property of elevated hydrogen ion levels). Acid rain can have adverse effects on ecosystems due to its corrosive properties. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere depends on the annual rainfall. There are two types of acid rain, dry deposition and wet deposition. Dry deposition is acidic gases and particle deposits from the atmosphere lacking any moisture. While wet deposition occurs when acidic substances such as sulfuric and nitric acids from the atmosphere fall to the earth’s surface in the form of precipitation, with the presence of moisture (rain, snow, sleet, hail) The acidic substances can accumulate on surfaces like infrastructure, buildings, vegetation (etc.) and potentially soak into grounds and water bodies. Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that occurs when compounds like nitrogen oxide and sulfur oxide rise into the upper atmosphere and react and combine with gases and other substances like water and oxygen, creating acidic pollutants. Most of these acids originate from volcanic eruptions, air pollution from factories, cars, etc. Some rain is naturally acidic, however human activities have worsened it.

Acid rain often imposes negative consequences on ecosystems flora and fauna. These effects are worsened in marine ecosystems due to the amount of evaporation. The impacts in streams and salt marshes are evident as it flows through topsoil, it may leach aluminum and carry it into the subsoil and other streams and lakes. Increased aluminium exposure can have neurodegenerative effects on animals, causing defects and population decreases in certain species who inhabit the water or consume it. With increased phytotoxicity in the soil caused by aluminum, root development ceases. Since H2O is brought to the plant via roots and xylem vessels to complete photosynthesis, energy production drastically decreases, causing it to die.

Additionally, in the absence of roots and minerals, topsoil has a higher chance of being swept away by currents and extreme weather conditions, lessening the chance of new plant growth and removing primary consumers’ energy sources. To summarize, organisms need the right PH to function and grow at their optimal rate, but if the PH is too low, it can have devastating effects on biotic factors of an ecosystem. Once acidic rain deposits into a body of water (e.g. ocean, salt lake, etc.) acid-sensitive organisms will suffer. The population of fish will decrease because most species of fish eggs aren’t able to grow and hatch in a PH of 5 and below. The other organisms that may be able to tolerate the acid could lose a major predator or prey, knocking the dynamic equilibrium out of balance, damaging biodiversity and the food web. Plus, ocean acidification causes a reduction in the distribution of carbonate, a key component of seawater. This puts marine organisms at a profound disadvantage, making it difficult for organisms like coral to form skeletons and shells. Coral reefs are vital to marine ecosystems for a myriad of reasons, If coral reefs were to be extensively damaged, marine ecosystems will suffer. Coral reef degradation could cause coastlines to be more prone to erosion, habitats to be destroyed, gas cycling to decrease, construction materials and food to decrease, etc.

Whales, turtles and seabirds are in critical danger with 8 million tons of plastic dumped into our oceans every year, marine life is swallowing more plastic than ever and it’s killing them fast. Today I am here to discuss the types of marine pollution and how it affects marine life.

Sewage is a common pollution, it consists mostly of greywater, blackwater soaps, detergents and toilet paper. Blackwater can contain feces, urine, water and toilet paper from flushed toilets, blackwater is contaminated with disease-carrying bacteria, salmonella, it is one of the most dangerous types of bacteria in raw sewage.

Litter consists of trash and household substances that are improperly disposed of on land or in water. There are three bins, a green which should be used for garden waste and organic food. A yellow bin should contain only recyclable substances, a red bin only waxy cardboard, non-recyclable plastics, polystyrene and ceramics. To prevent littering make sure you put your rubbish in the right bin.

Deep-sea mining is a process that takes place on the ocean floor. Mining on the ocean floor could do irreversible damage to deep-sea ecosystems, says a new study of seabed mining proposals around the world. The scraping of the ocean floor by machines can destroy deep-sea habitats, leading to the loss of species and loss of ecosystem structure and function.

Single-use plastics like plastic bags, water bottles, straws, cups, utensils, take-out containers are used once and then discarded. If a straw is a must, purchase a reusable stainless steel or glass straw, a single plastic bag can take 1,000 years to disintegrate. Purchase your reusable bag and be sure to wash them often. The best way to do this is by refusing any single-use plastics that you do not need.

Aquatic life and birds can mistake microplastics for food. Plastic strapping bands can also be dangerous for marine animals like seals and dolphins causing cuts around their necks or fins. Many marine animals and seabirds can also mistake litter items for prey that can lead to chocking and blocking the air ways and stomach.

Organisations such as 4Ocean are trying their best to aware people what marine pollution is doing to humanity and nature. “We’re here to clean the ocean and coastlines while working to stop the inflow of plastic by changing consumption habits,” from the official 4Ocean page, they have teams all over the world in places like Bali, Florida, Haiti and Texas. They use recycled plastic from the ocean to create -bracelets and try to get as many people to contribute to beach clean-ups because not many people know how fast climate change can affect us. This will help to remove easily accessible garbage from the ocean.

Our Earth’s oceans contain some of the most valuable resources on the planet, taking up nearly 70 percent of Earth’s surface. Our seas dictate the weather, clean the air, employ millions, and feed even more. As the use of fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions began to rise in popularity, the polluting of the Earth’s oceans did as well, leaving devastating, lifelong effects on all of its ecosystems. The ocean has absorbed over 90 percent of the heat from human based global warming in addition to absorbing nearly one third of all greenhouse gas emissions. There are several threats that our oceans must face such as overfishing, commercial whaling, plastic pollution, habitat loss, ocean acidification, rising sea levels, oil spills and runoff, and much more. I want to keep a focus on commercial whaling.

Commercial whaling has left several whale species on the brink of extinction. The blue whales of the Antarctic have less than one percent of their original numbers along with the West Pacific grey whale barely holding on with just over one hundred of them remaining. Over 90 percent of plastic isn’t recycled, and a large portion of that number finds its way into the ocean and surrounding beaches, and the huge amount of plastic make a damage for whales existence. Plastic is being ingested by marine life as well as entangling them, putting them all at major risk. Without change, our Earth’s oceans will not be able to continue on for much longer.

Bill Kardash was born on June 10, 1912. It was not until the summer of 1971 however, that his life changed forever. As he was walking into the annual International Whaling Commission (IWC) in Washington, D.C., he crossed paths with a man sitting cross legged on the floor, playing his guitar. It was later found out that the man sitting there was singer John Denver. Kardash explained his passion for whales and all the horrid acts that were happening to them. Denver simply stated, “Well, what are you going to do about it?”. This brief conversation with the shaggy-haired, cross legged man playing the guitar struck Kardash and filled him with an immense amount of inspiration. The following year, The Delta Corporation, later known as Ocean Conservancy, was born.

In the beginning years of Ocean Conservancy, their main initiative was the Whale Protection Fund. This fund focused on saving the species and protesting against commercial whaling; specifically in Japan and Russia. They gained the support of many, and were able to raise the funds to invest and later conduct scientific research as well as launching petitions and running ads in the paper to bring further awareness to the overlooked and undereducated topic known as the whaling industry. Ten years later, the International Whaling Commission finally banned commercial whaling. They then shifted their focus to not only whales, but to seals and sea turtles as well. Though they made significant progress with these animals, they came to the conclusion that these animals can not thrive without a healthy, sustainable environment. The workers of Ocean Conservancy then adjusted their focus to the marine ecosystems and habitats.

As the years went by, Ocean Conservancy gained the support of hundreds of thousands of people. Currently, they are found on several social media platforms, with a following of over 350,000 on both Instagram and Twitter. In 1986, they became the first organization to engage in an International Coastal Cleanup. As well as being the first organization to clean the beaches, they were also the first to engage industries in conserving the Earth’s waters and in banning whaling. Their main partnerships are built around Cause Marketing, International Coastal Cleanup, and Trash Free Seas Alliance. Several well known industries are partnered with Ocean Conservancy as well such as Coca Cola, CVS, Georgia Aquarium, Breitling, Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings, and the list goes on.

Ocean Conservancy is one of several organizations working toward a common goal; saving the Earth’s oceans. They have started doing this by creating Whale Protection movement that stil exists. Though they have made significant progress throughout the years, there is still much to be done. Only when the common goal is shared by all groups, governments, and individuals, will real change be made.

Sharks are a crucial part of the marine ecosystem. They help maintain the balance and health of the ocean. Shark culling has occurred in Australia in both Queensland and NSW as a response to shark attacks, it also appeared in Western Australia. Shark cull is implemented through shark nets and drumlines. Hundreds of sharks are caught each year in each state, including small sharks, threatened species, and other marine animals such as turtles, whales, and dolphins. Therefore, this essay argues that shark culling must be banned as it can lead to serious negative environmental and economic impacts and should not be pursued when there are effective non-lethal strategies.

Shark culling can impact not only the oceanic ecosystem but can accelerate climate change and increase the risk of disease in the ocean. Although shark culling is leading to the death of hundreds of different marine animals each year, it can dangerously increase the number of particular species. Sharks are apex predators and killing them can damage the balance of the ocean and disrupt every level of the food chain. Moreover, according to Professor Robert Day, a marine biologist at the University of Melbourne, shark numbers control the number of other creatures. This means massive shark culling can increase the population of fish and marine creatures consumed by sharks, which results in the overeating of other smaller creatures and so on, leading to massive changes in the ecosystem. In addition, sharks play an important role in influencing and controlling the behavior of their prey using their large size, which stops the prey from overusing certain water habitats. For instance, researchers in Hawaii have found that tiger sharks help in preventing turtles from overgrazing by eating them, which in turn keeps the seagrass beds healthy. As a result of losing sharks, serious cascading effects can happen to the carbon stored in the ocean, leading to climate change. Furthermore, trophic downgrading, which is the changes to the structure of food webs that happen when removing top predators from an ecosystem, for example, sharks, has become extremely common. That can lead to increasing the numbers of the prey and then impact the ability of the ocean to store carbon. Moreover, in ecosystems such as the coastal zone, which is known as the blue carbon ecosystem, most of the carbon is stored there within the bodies of the plants such as seagrass, salt marsh, and mangrove. The blue carbon ecosystem is one of the most efficient carbon sinks on the planet, as it can store carbon forty times faster than tropical rainforests and for thousands of years. Therefore, when apex predators such as sharks are killed, this can lead to overeating of plants by other creatures, which can ruin the ability of the blue carbon ecosystem to store carbon (Griffith Sciences Impact, n.d.). Shark culling can also result in increasing the risk of disease in the ocean, as sharks are known to choose sick and injured prey as it is easier to catch. In addition, sharks help in clearing the ocean of decomposing debris. For instance, a study of the South African coast found that great white sharks eat whale carcasses instead of killing prey. The researchers found that sharks were getting aggressive when they feed on the same prey while it is alive, whereas multiple sharks were able to feed on the same dead prey. This demonstrates that sharks are selective when feeding and killing these species can lead to the spreading of diseases in the ocean (Welsh, 2013).

Shark culling can have massive impacts on the economy of a country, as it can affect shark ecotourism and cost the government considerable amounts of money installing drumlines and shark nets. Shark ecotourism is often defined as watching sharks in their habitats without causing them any harm. Tourists can watch sharks during day trips and longer tours, from boats or underwater with snorkel and scuba gear. This industry makes millions of dollars annually from tourist expenditures, which support the economy directly and indirectly. A study done by the University of British Columbia and Dr. Michele Barnes was published in 2013. This study found that, globally, shark ecotourism generates $314 million per year, providing 10,000 jobs. Also, the study stated that shark watchers in Australia expend $23,313,000 annually, which can support the tourism operators who collect profits from the activity, and the government that may obtain taxes from entry or tag fees (Barnes, 2013). In addition, the indirect economic benefits of shark ecotourism can include salaries paid by tourists for local services such as hotels, this helps the hotels to pay for other services and goods, which in turn increase the income of primary and secondary industries in the country. In some areas, for example, the Ningaloo coast of Australia, whale shark tours are very necessary, particularly for remote communities, as they represent an important source of income. Therefore, culling sharks can significantly reduce the economic benefits provided by shark ecotourism. Most of the time, shark culling is applied through shark nets and drumlines. These strategies can be very expensive compared to their efficiency in reducing the risk of attacks. For instance, the NSW shark nets program costs the government approximately $1.5 million per year. Western Australia spent $28 million on shark culling strategies between 2008 and 2015. Also, Queensland’s shark safety program is estimated to cost the government about $1.7 million annually (ACUITY, 2016).

Shark culling programs are ineffective and outdated solutions because there are no scientific demonstrations to prove that these methods can reduce shark attacks and protect people. In 2006, at Amity Point in Queensland, a fatal shark attack occurred at a drum-lined beach. Moreover, drumlines and shark nets are unselective, which means that other marine animals can be killed or injured. The shark control program in Queensland, for example, has led to the death of 44 dolphins and 11 turtles between 2013 and 2017. However, because of the technological developments in recent years, new non-lethal measures must be seriously considered and deployed by the government to help protect both humans and sharks (Australian Marine Conservation Society, 2018). The non-lethal measures can involve public awareness programs, shark spotting, warning systems, and shark deterrent measures. Enhancing public awareness, through media or governmental programs, is an essential step to decrease the risk of attacks. The general public need to be aware of the fact that there are no strategies that can prevent hundred percent of shark attacks. However, practicing ‘SharkSmart’ behavior, such as swimming with groups, staying close to the shore, and avoiding large schools of bait fish, can be effective in reducing the risk of shark attacks (Hart and Huveneers, 2016). Shark spotter programs are also a non-lethal method that aims to achieve a balance between both, protecting the public and sharks. A study by the National Centre for Biotechnology Information in 2017 stated that shark spotting programs are significantly helpful in reducing the risk of attacks. This program can be applied by trained shark spotters through aerial patrols, drones, or from vantage points in mountains. For example, shark spotters use vantage points on mountains near the beaches to detect sharks. When the spotters notice any presence of sharks close to the surf zone, they communicate their sightings to operators on the beach, who then warn the public using both visual warning systems, such as colored flags, and auditory warning systems, such as sirens (Engelbrecht et al., 2017). Shark deterrent devices are another non-lethal strategy that helps to reduce the risk of attacks by interfering with one of the senses that sharks use to find their prey. Shark deterrents can include electrical and magnetic repellents, spray repellents, or acoustic repellents. Electrical and magnetic shark deterrents work by releasing small electrical or magnetic currents that interfere with special sensing organs in a shark’s snout. These organs can be overstimulated, which forces the shark to turn away. The spray repellents are small cans that contain extracts of dead shark tissue. As some studies believe that sharks don’t like being around other dead sharks, this method provides a temporary safety zone for swimmers by spreading a cloud of repellent into the water. Acoustic shark repellents are small plastic devices that can be worn on the leg. These devices emit sounds of shark predators such as orca whales, these sounds can act as a shark deterrent (Doyle, 2016). Considering non-lethal measures to control shark attacks is a necessary approach to provide safety for both humans and the oceanic ecosystem.

Environmental negative effects, economic costs, and ineffective lethal strategies are significant reasons to stop shark culling. Destroying the balance of the oceanic ecosystem that can lead to accelerating climate change and the spread of diseases, are all risks of shark culling proved by scientists and environmentalists. In addition to the economic impacts that are caused by the cost of culling and the decrease in ecotourism in the country. Also, culling must not be the solution when other non-lethal measures can be applied to provide safety for both humans and sharks. Therefore, killing apex predators in an ecosystem to protect recreational water users is not the appropriate action a country can take.

Turritopsis dohrnii is a species of jellyfish with significant ability and is part of the class of Hydrozoa. Large bodies of research on the unique survival strategy and cellular mechanisms of this jellyfish concluded in the 1990s that it is able to revert to its immature form when needed, ultimately hitting a ‘reset button’. Turritopsis is the only known genus that has this ability to perform ‘reverse metamorphosis’. Therefore, it is hypothesized for the Turritopsis jellyfish can’t die of old age, hence its reputation for being ‘immortal’. This has led to significant research in the areas of biomedical science, specifically about the possible implementation of human stem cell research.

Turritopsis dohrnii is approximately only 3 mm in height and diameter in full adult form (medusa). Adult medusae have approximately 80-90 tentacles. The basic anatomy of T. dohrnii is the same as any other Cnidarian body.

Turritopsis dohrnii was first discovered in the 1880s in Mediterranean waters, off the coast of Italy. It was then found to be in temperate warm waters near Panama and Japan, but it is thought that the populations found in these waters were invasive and non-native to the area. It is since been discovered that T. dohrnii attaches themselves to large vessels such as cargo ships when undergoing regeneration, thus distributing them outside of their natural habitat

Most organisms, both plants and animals, have the same three stages in their life cycles. This process begins as a fertilized egg or seed, then develops into an immature juvenile, which finally matures into a fully developed adult. Once the organism is at full development, reproduction will then occur. This is a ‘one-way’ cycle. However, the life cycle of Turritopsis dohrnii has a two-way cycle.

The life cycle of T. dohrnii is perhaps the most complex part of its existence, as it involves both asexual and sexual reproduction. A T. dohrnii egg is fertilized by the mass amounts of sperm and eggs released into the water by adult medusa. Once an egg is fertilized, it will develop into a planula (a free-swimming larva), which then resides on the sea floor. From there, they mature into a polyp, with hollow tube structures. These polyps then asexually reproduce more polyps, creating a colony, and young medusae begin to form. Once developed enough, the medusa detaches from the polyps and sexually matures into adult medusae which can reproduce. Most organisms will die after reproduction, however, T. dohrnii has an additional cycle that allows for regeneration. The regeneration process is triggered when a Turritopsis is stressed, injured, or in imminent death. Research has shown that this process can occur in both adult and newly released medusae. This switch means they can cycle back and forth, therefore allowing them to avoid unfavorable conditions, and thus avoid death.

The apoptotic process involves the degeneration of existing, dominant cells due to programmed cell death. Apoptosis occurs in T. dohnrii at the start of its reverse ontogeny, ridding the stressed/injured medusa of its tentacles to converting the medusa to a cyst-like structure that is ready to attach to a surface and grow into a polyp again. Apoptosis is the main cause of the organisms’ dramatic reorganization, both cellular and physical.

Transdifferentiation is not unique to Turritopsis dohnrii, however, it is the only known animal that transdifferentiates all its cells. Cellular transdifferentiation occurs when a mature pluripotent cell changes into another mature cell. For cellular transdifferentiation to occur, a previously differentiated cell is required to be de-differentiated (returned to a simpler form) before being re-differentiated to another structure and cell fate. The new cell has a different function and gene expression. For example, the conversion of a muscle cell into a nerve cell. The cell change process in Turritopsis dohrnii does not involve stem cells, which is unlike most research that occurs in tissue production research. By ‘skipping’ the use of stem cells, allows the process to be completed much faster. Therefore, transdifferentiation in T. dohrnii only takes approximately 1-2 weeks. This was observed in a controlled, experimental setting in laboratories. One study found that the intermittent period between regeneration was less than one month. This demonstrates the significant ability of adaption T. dohrnii have to the environment around them when considering their survival strategy.

Although Turritopsis dohrnii can perform reverse metamorphosis to avoid unfavorable environments, this does not eliminate all threats to the possibility of death caused by predators. The most common predators of T. dohrnii are other species of jellyfish. Other common predators of T. dohrnii include sea turtles, swordfish, and tuna. T. dohnrii can also be affected by diseases caused by bacteria and pathogens that inhabit seawater. One study found jellyfish are often affected by bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria, Flavobacteriia, Gammaproteobacteria, and Synechococcophycidae. Further information proves that the jellyfish may also die when they are a polyp if they are starved or sick in this form, and therefore will not regenerate.

There have been numerous studies focusing on the sequencing of the T. dohrnii genome to gain further understanding and identify species that may have similar survival mechanisms. Research indicates that as a medusa reverts into the polyp, the resulting medusa produced are exact replicas of the original, containing the same DNA and genetic makeup. This finding has led scientists to question whether this is considered immortality, regarding that all of the cells in the organism are replaced. However, they are replaced with the same copies. Although it has been hypothesized that T. dohrnii can regenerate limitless amounts of time, this has led researchers to question if the same risks of constant cell regeneration that apply to humans also apply to these jellyfish. When cells are consistently regenerated, there is an increased risk of an underlying gene mutation occurring, which may lead to serious conditions such as cancer. For example, the constant regeneration of ovarian cells may increase the possibility of a mutated gene (BRCA1 or BRCA2) sequencing the new cells, thus increasing one’s risk of developing ovarian cancer.

The research question investigated concludes that Turritopsis dohnrii are only biologically immortal, and some circumstances have not been considered when labeling this creature as ‘immortal’. These factors include natural predation from other species that rely on jellyfish for food sources, such as sea turtles, swordfish, and other jellyfish. Another factor includes diseases caused by bacteria. As previously stated, there is the question of whether the new medusa produced after a polyp, although genetically identical, does not represent the same medusa as before regeneration. This theory is however largely proven wrong due to the transdifferentiation of the cells and replica DNA. Researchers have also hypothesized that there may be an eventual limit to the number of times that regeneration can occur, due to constant cellular regeneration and how this increases the risk of mutation, which may eventually kill T. dohnrii.

The case of Turritopsis dohrnii is remarkable to modern research because scientists are constantly studying ways to generate new tissue. Discovering how these cells can transform from one type of cell to another may lead to massive insight into how this phenomenon could be applied to human biology. This is specifically relevant to cancer, aging, and biomedical research. Thus, the cellular mechanisms and survival strategies of Turritopsis dohnrii are still a paramount focus for these specific scientific research fields.

One of the reasons why the issue of ocean pollution is currently relevant is marine life. In this report, I want to note the importance of the ocean’s ecosystem – and to explore the factors that threaten it. I am going to research various solutions to these problems and the obstacles that are in the way.

Marine biodiversity, which includes both living and genetic resources, is important for humankind for various reasons. It may possess characteristics such as the presence of biochemically active components, necessary for the development of technology, medicine, and other industries (Matz. N, 2002). It is also a fact that fish and other marine resources make up a large part of our diet. Global seafood production is approximately 150 million tons annually (Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, 2015). This figure is currently stable, but with the development of aquaculture, the uptake of seafood can soon exceed pork and beef (Charles Moore, 2014).

However, many factors threaten marine life. As already known, 150 million tons of seafood are processed annually. Some of them – about 600 species – are grown artificially in captivity. However, the remaining 90 million tons are caught at out in the sea (Charles Moore, 2014). Therefore, one of the threats to marine life is overexploitation. Both the variety of fish and its quality are exposed to hazards, which may significantly reduce fish stocks (Matz. N, 2002). Another factor which has the same effect is plastic pollution.

Small plastic debris is frequently found in the aquatic environment, contaminating coastal, near-shore and open-ocean habitats. (Thompson, R. C. et al, 2004). According to a recent study, which is based on 30 years of observation, plastic debris, particularly single-use products, are of frequent occurrence even at depths >6000m and have also reached the Mariana Trench at 10,898m. The density of the plastic in the North Pacific ranges from 17 to 335 items per square kilometer – which also affects deep-sea organisms and other marine life. (Chiba S. et al., 2018). For example, plastic bags cause entanglement, which may block different essential life processes for the organism. Small plastic bits often resemble natural food resources. Marine creatures then consume these bits, which leads to starvation, poisoning, liver cancer and stomach blocking – plastics transport toxic chemicals used in manufacturing processes. Because of that, disturbances appear in the food chain, and the quality of different marine biological resources degrades (Rochman C., Hoh E., Kurobe T., Teh S., 2013).

During my research, I have discovered that different solutions are proposed for this problem. Some studies claim that alternative plastics could be a possible solution. For example, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a biodegradable plastic, could be used as a substitute for PVC. Although – it is twice as expensive. The other factor – overexploitation – could be solved with monitoring the wild capture, researching the marine food web and marking plastics, which are safe for the environment and marine life. This could be done with support for aquaculture by governments (Charles Moore, 2014). However, judging by another study, the government – specifically the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Convention on Biological Diversity – is not prepared to offer any kind of protection for marine resources if the problematic area is located outside the area of national jurisdiction (Matz. N, 2002). Other sources assume that regulation of the production of plastic and the flow of it into the ocean is the only way to prevent further destruction of marine ecosystems. However, the issue now affects more extreme environments, such as the deep-sea regions. Research and protection in these areas require the most advanced technology, which leads to the need of proper funding from the government (Chiba S. et al., 2018).

Marine biological resources are threatened by various factors: change or destruction of ecosystems due to pollution from different sources or human-induced disturbances such as overexploitation. The conclusion I can make judging by the studies I have researched is that the legal protection of marine resources is essential to preserve – and use – these resources for the benefit of humankind.

Aim of the project and its importance

This project aims to develop strategies that can help firefighters better respond to marine emergencies. Firefighters, who struggle against emergencies at sea, often lack proper resources and manpower. In part, these difficulties can be explained by the fact that governmental organizations are not prepared for such emergencies. Such situations require fire departments, police and medical workers to coordinate their efforts (Henstra, 2008, p 302). They cannot be effectively managed without effective use of marine-based, land-based and air-based resources (Collins, 2004, p 226). In this case, we need to speak about the fire engines, fire boats, helicopters etc. Each firefighter has to possess well-developed skills as well experience to perform his/her duties effectively in such circumstances. Furthermore, it is of crucial importance that they are able to work a group, since the outcomes will strongly depend on this ability. This is why this project is so important. Thus, one can say certain organizational changes should take place. Moreover, the policy-makers must ensure that each fire-fighter and rescuer is ready to act efficiently.

Major Objectives

It is possible to set several objectives which are consistent with this goal.

1. First of all, it is necessary to provide appropriate training to firefighters, and for this purpose one has to develop a training program that would take into account the challenges which are faced by firefighters and rescuers during marine emergencies. This objective must be attained within the next three months.
2. Secondly, a fire service needs to create a more effective emergency response system which must be ready in four months. This task is of great importance because in order to respond to marine emergencies, a fire service needs to mobilize different resources: equipment, vehicles, boats, or boats. Unfortunately in many cases this process becomes very time-consuming. The new system will enable this organization to reduce delay time to a minimum. Furthermore, it would allow fire department to better coordinate its actions with other public agencies, for example other fire departments and hospitals. The thing is that fire service stations can be located throughout the town, and in case of marine emergency they cannot mobilize their forces as quickly as possible. This argument is particular important when we are speaking about marine and air-based resources such as boats and helicopters. Furthermore, this response system is supposed to alert those firefighters and rescuers who are returning from a call. It will be most beneficial when the rescuers and firefighters have to cope with serious accidents that demand immediate mobilization of personnel and resources. At this point, we need to specify the major deliverables. First of all, one has to speak about the web-based application that stores data about the resources, available to rescuers and firefighters. Moreover, this program must specify its current location, and it is particularly important when the department has to respond to numerous calls at a time. This information will be accessible via Internet and mobile phone. Secondly, it will spread the information about emergency throughout various fire stations.
3. The third objective is to disseminate this practice among other fire departments. It seems that other organizations will also adopt this model if it proves successful. However, we still need to facilitate this process, for instance, by informing the National Fire Service about the implementation of this project and its results. These are the most objectives that have to be attained in the course of this project.

Benefits

At this point, we can single out the following benefits which this project will bring. Most importantly, successful implementation of this project will enable firefighters to better protect the lives and property of other people. This is eventual goal of every fire service department. Furthermore, this strategy will lead to improved use of resources such as fire engines, boats, equipment, etc. Finally, we need to speak about the overall performance of the fire service. The new alarm system that we had mentioned in the previous section will help this department to respond not only to marine emergencies but to the land-based fires as well. However, one should not assume that this project will improve only the quality of their work. It will also help them minimize their expenses. For instance, the fire service has to spend a substantial amount of money to indemnify the employees who were injured while performing their duties. This is what we can expect from this project.

Costs

At this stage, we can make only approximate estimations of the costs since we do not know the exact amount of money required for the development of the emergency response system and the costs of training. On the whole, it is possible to divide the costs into the following groups:

These are the major expenses that the Fire and Rescue Department needs to incur in order to better serve the community and minimize the risks for the lives of rescuers and firefighters. Additionally the costs will involve training of the personnel, however, the lengths and costs of training will not be available. The total costs are given below:

Business Case

Thus, when we have identified the costs and benefits of this project we need to better explain why this project is necessary. In the previous section of the paper, we have already said that this new model will greatly improve firefighters’ ability to respond to marine as well as to land-based emergencies. Secondly, it will minimize the risks for the life and health of firefighters. By providing extra training to them, the department will succeed in avoiding a great number of accidents and injuries. Under such circumstances, one should oneself a question what would happen if the administration refuses to offer additional training to firefighters and abandons the idea of introducing new emergency response system. Therefore, it is quite likely that in the future this department will face such dangers as risks as increased number of incidents among firefighters and subsequent costs of health insurance. As it has been said before, this project will bring not only qualitative benefits.

Tasks

1. In the course of the project the team will need to perform the following tasks. Some of them can be done grouped together and done at the same time, while others will be critical milestones which require full attention of the project team.
2. To discuss this question with the administrators of the Fire and Rescue Department and most importantly receive permission for the initiation of the project. (April 4^th– April 7^th)
3. To interview firefighters about the expectations for a training program and a new emergency response system (April 8^th– April 14^th).
4. To research information about the best practices used by fire departments in the United Kingdom and throughout the world (April 8^th– April 20^th).
5. To consult with governmental officials (April 8^th– April 20^th).
6. To report the finding to the administration of the Fire and Rescue Department and receive their permission to continue the project (April 20^th).
7. To evaluate the services and prices of various of various IT developers that can provide the fire service with a new emergency response system (April 20^th– April 27^th).
8. To find instructors who have both experience and expertise to train rescuers and firefighters and prepare them for marine emergencies (April 20^th– April 27^th).
9. To monitor the work of IT developers (April 20^th– July 1^st)
10. To provide training to every member of the Fire and Rescue Department (April 27^th – June 1^st)
11. To introduce a new emergency response system (July 1^st – August 1^st)
12. To conduct follow-up assessment (August 1^st September 1st).
13. To report the findings to the National Fire Service.

Precedence Chart

On the basis of this tasks we draw a precedence chart. It can be presented in the following way:

We have highlighted critical milestones with red color. The activities play the most important role in this project. The project team should pay attention to the cooperation with IT developers, who will be responsible for the delivery of a new emergency response this team. These people must receive feedbacks from the administration and employees of the Fire and Rescue Department. Only in this way, we will be able to make this system reliable and efficient. However, the implementation of a new training program is the most significant stage of the project.

Staffing

In the previous section, we have identified the main members of the project team: project manager, project coordinator, two assistants, and supervisor. Each of these employees is indispensible for this task. The assistants will be responsible for interviewing firefighters and rescuers, search of information about the best practices used by fire departments, and other tasks. The project coordinator will help the Fire and Rescue Department cooperate with other organizations, in particular, IT developers and other governmental agencies such as National Fire Service. In his turn, project supervisors will ensure that every task is done properly and on time. Finally, we need to specify the responsibilities of a project manager. He has to act as a coordinator and facilitator (Grisham, 2009). He will work with the administrators of the department, governmental officials, suppliers, and employees.

Apart from that this project is possible only under condition that rescuers and firefighters are involved into decision-making process. In order to put this strategy into practice, the management should first gain support of the employees. This project will inevitable entail great changes in the organizational culture of this department, and it is quite probable that some people will resist it (Baca, 2005). Therefore, the management must clearly explain the benefits of this project. The firefighters need to know why they need to undergo extra training and why new alarm system has to be introduced. This problem can be overcome by involving firefighters into decision-making. For instance, one can ask them for their recommendations about the training program. They can accurately describe those difficulties which they encounter while responding to marine emergencies. It is also important that the project managers clearly assign roles and responsibilities to each person who will be responsible for the implementation of this project.

Risk Management Plan

Prior do developing risk management plan, we need to identify the major constraints that can prevent us from implementing this project. It is possible to mention the followings ones:

1. budget limitations;
2. organizational factors such as unwillingness of the employees to assist the project team;
3. lack of resources;
4. lack of time.

These are the risks that we need to expect and the main task of risk management is to avoid them or minimize their impact. At first, it is necessary to assess these risks in terms of their impact and probability. The results of this assessment can be presented in table format.

Thus, we have demonstrated that none of these risks are negligible and it is vital for us to mitigate their effects. The project team has to pay special attention to meticulous cost estimation and careful evaluation of different training programs that are available to firefighters. However, the most important thing is to encourage employees to take part in this project. Provided that the project team will have to cope with budget limitations, we will have to redevelop the training program for firefighters and make it less sophisticated. Additionally, we will have to redesign the emergency response system.

Documents Management Plan

The major purpose of a documents management plan is to determine how documents should be stored and to what extent they should be accessible to the stakeholders. In this case, we have to several groups of stakeholders: the administration of the fire department, the firefighters, and most importantly the community. Moreover, it is possible to classify the documents into the following groups:

1. Financial documents like receipts, bills, price catalogues etc (hardcopy and electronic version);
2. Information about the team’s progress (both hard copy and electronic version);
3. The results of the surveys which we will conduct among firefighters (hardcopy).

We should stress the idea that some documents should be accessible via Internet. The work of the project team must be made as transparent as possible, and this argument is extremely relevant for firefighters and community. They seem to be the major stakeholders of this project and they have a right to about the goals of the project and its outcomes. Provided that we make this documentation accessible only to the administrators, other employees of the Fire and Rescue Service will not support the efforts of the project team.

References

Baca C. 2005. Project manager’s spotlight on change management. NY: John Wiley and Sons.

Barkley B. 2004. Project risk management. London: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Collins L. 2004. Technical Rescue Operations, Volume I: Planning, Training, and Command. NY: PennWell Books.

Grisham. T. 2009. International Project Management: Leadership in Complex Environments. London: John Wiley and Sons.

Henstra D. 2008. Evaluating and explaining municipal emergency management policies in Ontario. London ProQuest.

Lock. D. 2007. Project management. London: Gower Publishing, Ltd.

Rad. P. 2002. Project estimating and cost management. Management Concepts.

Staples. L. 2010. Project Management: A Technician’s Guide. ISA.