Category: Marine Life

Abstract

Deep-sea currents and upwelling are thermohaline circulation and oceanographic processes acting on the ocean water resulting in ecosystem dynamics. Florida coast is part of the Gulf Stream system, a section of the world seawater receiving the significant impact of deep-sea currents and upwelling with swift and warm Atlantic Ocean currents, which stretches to the Gulf of Mexico. During high current flow, the Florida currents experience 25 percent increase in the mean seasonal speed by 10 centimeters in a second at a temperature of 26 degrees. These deep-sea currents facilitate the movement of cold and warm water within the South Pole, North Pole, and the equatorial regions of Florida. The overall impact of these processes includes a significant influence on both marine and terrestrial ecosystems.

Introduction

Deep-sea currents and upwelling are oceanographic phenomena that dominate seas and oceans. Deep-sea currents, also called submarine rivers, refer to the thermohaline circulation of seawater generated by forces acting on ocean water. Temperature difference, Coriolis forces of earth rotation, and water mass density caused by salinity variations are causes of these currents. The thermohaline circulation influences the movement and population of the marine ecosystem and heat redistribution both in the sea and on the earths surface. According to Mauritzen, Melsom, and Sutton (2012), oceans are essential components of the earth, for they regulate global warming through effective absorption of solar radiation. Thus, ocean currents act as conveyor belts to transport warm water from the equator towards the poles and relieve cold water from the poles to the tropics. This process of redistribution of uneven heat radiations on the earths surface regulates the overall global climate.

On the contrary, upwelling refers to oceanographic processes in which deep-sea water, rich in nutrients, rises to the surface of the sea to replace warm surface water displaced by strong wind waves. A net balance of Coriolis Effect and strong winds on the surface of ocean water produces a spiral movement of water layers, also called Ekman motion. The winds blowing across the ocean surface produces a net motion of wind-water interaction that displaces water on the upper layer of the ocean (Morrison, Frolicher, & Sarmiento, 2015). The mechanism allows the deep-sea water to rise from beneath and replace the displaced surface water. Upwelling replaces the nutrient-depleted surface water with deep ocean dense nutrient-rich water essential to the marine ecosystem. Therefore, this paper reviews deep-sea currents and upwelling in Florida ocean currents by examining causes, effects on the ecosystem, and their importance to humans along Florida coastal regions.

Ocean Currents along Florida Coast

Florida coast forms a section of Gulf Stream system (a deep-sea river) comprising swift and warm Atlantic Ocean currents stretching to the Gulf of Mexico. The Florida current receives water supply from two major sources, namely, Antilles currents and Loop currents, with the Loop current being the most significant source. Coriolis force of earth rotation produces a movement of warm water from the Atlantic into the Caribbean Sea, resulting in Florida currents (Morrison et al., 2015). The water flows to the Gulf of Mexico, where heating occurs and then forced out through Florida Straits. The estimated mean transport of Florida currents vary annually and on a seasonal scale. According to Dusek, Park, and Paternostro (2016), during high current flow, Florida currents experience 25 percent increase in the mean seasonal speed by 10 centimeters in a second at a temperature of 26 degrees. Thus a change in temperature linearly results in a compounded change in velocity. The outer edge of the Loop current produces large spiral currents that move into Florida Straits pushed along by gyres. These gyres help in nutrient and larvae transport between the Loop currents and the Florida Keys.

Overall, Florida currents have three forms of flow: the intermittent Miami terrace undercurrent, undercurrent jet on Florida shelf, and coastal countercurrents. Florida experiences the coastal countercurrent between the periods of October through January. However, from April to September, Florida experiences the southward flow in the form of undercurrent jet (Florida Current) along the continental slope. Florida Current moves towards the northern direction as the surface flow against the bottom flow, resulting in friction in the interface of the two currents. These deep-sea currents facilitate the movement of cold and warm water within the South Pole, the North Pole, and the equatorial regions of Florida.

Causes of Deep-Sea Currents in Florida

The leading causes of Florida currents include wind, salinity, and temperature variations. The wind flow determines the patterns of the current movement in the sea. In the winter, the winds blow out of the north while east and southeast winds prevail in the summer. Strong winds flowing over the surface enhance the speed of current flow and the overall pattern of current circulation (Dusek et al., 2016). Since the density of water masses in the ocean varies from one region to another, boundaries between water masses exist. Temperature and water density have an inverse relationship, in that, as temperature increases, water density reduces, making warm water to settle on the surface. In summer, Florida temperature rises as a result of the central location of the solar radiation leading to a low density of ocean surface water. On the contrary, as temperatures fall, sea water freezes, and the salt molecules freeze leading to high density. Therefore, as cold water is heavier than warm water, cold water tends to sink and settle in the deep-sea while warm water rises.

However, the salinity and density share a positive relationship. In Florida, the Gulf Stream system has high salt concentration due to the high rate of evaporation, sea ice, and river inflow. Water with high salt concentration is denser than water with low salt concentration. The water masses get positioned above or below each other according to their density. In this respect, less dense water masses flow in the upper position and float on denser water masses. Overall, the varying patterns of the density of water in the sea both horizontally and vertically lead to water movement. However, the velocity and the patterns of these currents depend on forces of earth rotation, wind direction, and gradient caused by landforms.

Causes of Upwelling in Florida

Wind is the main cause of upwelling in the sea; however, the earths rotation and water density are some of the causes that contribute to ocean upwelling significantly. Earths rotation plays a significant role in determining the direction of water flow and currents in the sea. When winds blow away water surface layers, the force of earth rotation provides Coriolis Effect resulting in the transportation of water away from the coast (Dusek et al., 2016). The winds blowing along coastal regions push away the surface water away and allow the deep-sea water to flow to the surface. In some other cases, water currents in the sea caused by wind collide and the frontal water from both sides upsurges and allows dense water rich in nutrient to rise.

Additionally, water density also plays a key role in upwelling process. As lighter water mass on the surface is pushed away by the wind, its density facilitates friction between the upper water layer and the layer beneath it causing the successive layers to move in the same direction. This process results in a spiral movement of water making more dense water beneath the sea to flow and occupy the area that was primarily covered by the lighter displaced water (Dusek et al., 2016). In the overall process, the wind flow causes a wind-water interaction, resulting in water movement sweeping away the surface layer and replacing it with a more dense water layer from beneath, rich in nutrients.

Effects on the Ocean

Water circulation is an important process in the marine ecosystem. Klemas (2012) states that the ocean water circulation significantly contributes to nutrient cycle, waste disposal, heat moderation, and climate conditions on the earth surface. Therefore, deep-sea currents and upwelling are critical for they aid in the redistribution of oxygen and nutrients, as well as regulation of heat in the sea.

Heat Regulation

The Florida current forms part of the Gulf Stream System acting as a conveyor belt that transports warm water from warm equatorial zones to the cold water in the southern and the northern poles. As the heat radiation from the sun falls on the earth surface, much of the heat energy is deposited in the water body. Upwelling pushes this warm surface water away and replaces with the deep cold dense water helping to enhance heat regulation (Mauritzen et al., 2012). However, distant southern and northern poles suffer from extensively cold periods due to low solar radiations. As a result, water acts as the appropriate mechanism for heat distribution within the earth surface. Morrison et al. (2015) explain that deep-sea currents flow from the poles towards the equatorial zones while the relatively less dense warm water layers get displaced and move to the cold regions. This process of water movement acts to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching the earth surface and promotes the distribution of heat energy and the regulation of global temperature.

Nutrient Distribution

The nutrient content in the ocean water varies according to the water layers. The upper layer of the sea surfaces contains various species of organisms, with an entire food web but with a net loss of nutrients to the deep-dense water beneath due to the sinking of nutrients, fecal matter from the organisms, and the remains of the dead organisms sink into the sea. These biological processes in the upper layer of the sea water lead to net utilization of the nutrients elements reducing its nutrient level. Ekman transport in upwelling provides the mechanism for the transport of these nutrients from the deep water layers to the ocean surface.

Oxygen Level

Oxygen is continuously added to seawater through air-water interaction processes as well as through photosynthesis. As organisms require oxygen, its depletion has adverse effects on the marine ecosystem. Moreover, as temperature increases water loses the ability to hold oxygen. Thus, ocean currents help in lowering water temperatures necessary for enhancing the ability to hold more volume of dissolved oxygen. Moreover, the displacement of the upper layer of ocean water facilitates the transfer of oxygen to other sea areas. In general, upwelling and deep-sea currents promote distribution of oxygen within the water body.

Effect on Marine Ecosystem

Oceans form the main component that supports marine ecosystem. Current circulation is essential in marine life as it enhances primary production of the food chain for the ecosystem. According to Hays (2017), the continuous movement of seawater significantly affects the aquatic ecosystem through climate change moderation, movement of marine plants and animals, and the distribution of nutrients within the sea. The transport of nutrients by the currents from and to different locations and layers in the sea increases their bioavailability and accessibility. These ocean currents transport the leaked nutrients from the deep-sea back to the upper layer with a large population of living organisms. The marine creatures on the upper layer of the seawater include phytoplankton and seaweeds that have important roles in the food webs. These organisms are the primary producers in the food web that support other organisms such as fishes, worms, sea mammals, and humans.

Importance to Humans

In Florida, the ocean currents along the coastal regions have significantly influenced the way of life. Hay (2017) argues that ocean currents act as a mechanism that enhances marine life distribution and population shift. As such, marine ecosystem provides a favorable environment to marine organisms such fish, planktons, algae, mammals, and sea anemones. These animals have economic and social importance to humans for they promote fishing, recreation activities, and climate regulation.

Fishing plays an important role in economic development for it creates employment, generates revenues, and provides nutrition. In the ecosystem, fish provides proteins and minerals to humans. The deep-sea currents promote bioavailability of nutrients to fish from the deep-sea water through upwelling thus enhancing their reproduction. As nutrient content rises due to continuous ocean currents, the population of fish rises in these coastal regions and promotes the capacity of food security. Consequently, the supply of enough fish in ocean water opens an opportunity for employment and business activities leading to economic empowerment.

Besides, ocean currents provide humans with diverse conditions for recreational activities. Some of the favorite recreational activities along Florida coast include skiing, swimming, and fishing activities. As world technology advances, skiing activities continue to gain popularity among the young generation. Skiing, swimming, and fishing competitions enhance socialization across different age categories and strengthen relationships.

Conclusion

Deep-sea currents refer to the flow of water in the deep ocean due to forces generated by temperature difference, earthquakes, and salinity variations while upwelling refers to the process in which deep-sea water, rich in nutrients, rises to the surface and replaces warm surface water displaced by strong wind waves. These water circulation processes are essential to redistribution of water, oxygen, heat, and nutrients in the sea. Consequently, it helps promotes marine ecosystem by enhancing the primary production and food chain of the organisms. As such, oceans are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environment. The marine ecosystem provides a home to several lives that include different species of animals and plants such as fish, planktons, mammals, and corals. These animals have economic and social importance to humans. Overall, the socioeconomic benefits of deep-sea currents and upwelling are fishing, recreational activities, and climate regulation. Therefore, humans have the responsibility to control and manage these sea currents to promote sustenance of marine ecosystem for the benefit of humans as in the case of Florida.

References

Dusek, G., Park, J., & Paternostro, C. (2016). Seasonal variability of tidal currents in Tampa Bay, Florida. Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, 143(3), 1-15. Web.

Hays, G. (2017). Ocean currents and marine life. Current Biology, 27(11), 470-473. Web.

Klemas, V. (2012). Remote sensing of coastal and ocean currents: An overview. Journal of Coastal Research, 28(3), 576-586. Web.

Mauritzen, C., Melsom, A., & Sutton, R. (2012). Importance of density-compensated temperature change for deep North Atlantic Ocean heat uptake. Nature Geoscience, 5(12) 905-910. Web.

Morrison, A., Frolicher, T., & Jorge, S. (2015). Upwelling in the southern ocean. Physics Today, 68(1), 27-41. Web.

Introduction: Basic Overview of Business Report

The business report under analysis is issued by National Marine Fishery Service for the purpose of exploring the existing business projects and legislatures aimed at reducing overfishing and by-catch mortality as well as expanding and developing an eco-friendly aquaculture. The report provides a basic overview of fishery management, measure taken for habitats conservation, analysis of protected resources, advances in science and technology, international concerns, law enforcement, and organizational future perspectives. Finally, the report discusses the main plans and programs that will ensure safety of citizens, as well as ecological food production within a newly created aquaculture.

Defining the Main Critical Points of the Report Outcomes

Within a fishery management context, the report primarily focuses on the provisions of the Magnuson-Steven Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act issues in 2006. According to the act, it is necessary to end overfishing by promoting novelty approaches to fishery management, improving data collection, addressing illegal issues of fishing, and enhancing international cooperation. In this respect, setting up an annual catch limit (ACL) creates a solid platform and a starting point for reducing overfishing, which is of paramount importance for NOAA Fisheries Service (NOAA Fisheries Service 3). Adhering to major principles of the Act can ensure a sustainable supply of wild seafood, socially and economically vibrant fishing communities, and healthy marine ecosystems (NOAA Fisheries Service 3).

Furthermore, the report focuses on the mission to progress fishery management in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). In addition, MSRA has guided the NOAA Community-based Restoration program aimed at implementing safety habitat restoration programs. As per minimizing by-catch, a new rule was issued to take control of fishing gear and increase the survival of the spices being under the threat of extinction. There was also a Governmental Performance Results Act that demonstrated and controlled the tax payment spent on achieving the above-established objectives. To monitor the programs fulfillment regular data collection and statistics was carried out.

Regarding the program on preserving the endangered species, the report reveals that the Open Rivers Initiative under NOAA accomplished three projects to have restored 30 miles of rearing and spawning habitat for migratory fish, including Calapooia River (NOAA Fisheries Service 12). The programs also foresaw protection of coral reefs. Specifically, the report highlighted the necessity of introducing a fishing ban on territorial waters and presented plan on developing on a network of protected areas, particularly reef ecosystems. In addition, coral reef protection implied the establishment of climate change program aimed at preventing the negative consequences of global change.

The report further discusses the situation with invasive species and everything connected to understanding and controlling this problem. In this respect, NOAA Fisheries Services was collaborating with Aquatic Invasive Species program that had models and plans on dispersing European green crab for the purpose of reducing bivalve fishery. Another partnership was established with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Green Diamond Resource Company which led to the creation of a new conservation plan covering 416.000 acres and supporting the recovery of such species as steelhead trout, coho salmon, and Chinook salmon inhabiting the northern part of California (NOAA Fisheries Service 15).

To sustain and protect the existing resource in the region, the Recovery Plan for Endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal and Puget Sound Chinook was adopted. In 2007, the Fishery Services also introduced a greater protection measures for Elkhorn and staghorn coral that were under the threat of extinction. According to scientists, over 90 % of corals were vanished due to coral bleaching, high temperatures, and storm damage. Whale conservation was also a top priority for the Service because only about 300 species were left in the region (NOAA Fisheries Service 17). In this respect, the U.S. government presented a proposal for modifying the Traffic Separation Scheme in the Boston area to cut off the danger of vessel collisions.

To strengthen the programs on mammals survival, Marine Mammal Rescue Assistant Program by John Prescott awarded about $ 3.7 million to progress the recovery of marina mammal and contribute to data collection and scientific research (NOAA Fisheries Service 20). Aside from scientific exploration, the report has also presented technological discoveries contributing to sustaining an ecological health marine life. Particularly, a noise-quieted vessel called the Oscar Dyson was introduced. Other than that, the Service regularly introduced a team of researchers and environmentalist for exploring the marine life to define the main problems and provided immediate solutions to those. Because of the exploration, it has been found that 100 species of fish were controlled under the West Coast Groundfish Fishery Management Plan (NOAA Fisheries Service 24). Each year, California spent over $ 200 million for the recreational fishery activities.

Analysis of international relations within fishery practices has also been reviewed to define which kind of species should be banned for the international trade. In this respect, such species as sawfish and shark-like fish were under protection of NOAA Fishery Service. Additionally, report informs about global tuna summit, an important meeting during which such problems as bluefin tuna and swordfish management and protection were being solved.

Report attains much importance to legal and regulatory issues to prevent overfishing. At this point, more than $ 15.5 million were received by Commonwealth and Territories (NOAA Fisheries Service 30). These financial resources will be spent on advancing scientific research and enhancing the protection of extinct species. It planned to be spent on prohibiting illegal harvest. The report also presents a number of legal cases revealing illegal fishing and infringement of the established laws.

While presenting organizations activity outside the country, specific attention should be placed to a forum on Gulf of Mexico Grouper (NOAA Fisheries Service, 2007, p. 34). The forum has been aimed at discussing the opportunities for cooperating and working together with other services and enhancing managing and controlling techniques. Fishery managers, thus, noticed significantly increased interest on the part of the public that is concerned with environmental issues as well. The forum has also highlighted a one-day marketing workshop presented by NOAA Fisheries Service. The workshop was oriented on supplying the participants with pertinent information about existing legal provision for exporting products. The workshop was also aimed at preserving the steelhead species in Southern Carolina and increasing awareness among people.

Conclusion

Overall, the report presents potential figures and outcomes of productive fishery management for sustaining health aquaculture and for improving marine life. The business report also covers the basic components of different programs implemented to advance the scientific research and technological advances, as well as introduce penalties for reducing overfishing and establishing by-catch limits. Specific financial resources were spent on implementing research projects to prevent the ecological disaster and preserve the life of endangered species.

Works Cited

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and National Marine Fisheries Service 2008, NOAA Fisheries Service: 2007 Business Report. Web.

Review

The aspects of ecotoxicology are associated with the spread of pollutants in the hydrosphere as well as the development of the environmental protection measures that are taken to minimize the crucial effect of toxic wastes emission. The paper aims to analyze the level of toxic wastes in the Marmara Sea and define whether the toxic levels exceed the requirements of the European Community of seafood intended for human consumption.

The research data that is provided is rather detailed and sufficient, however, the paper is overloaded with numbers and indices, which makes it difficult to read. The author should have included all the numbers and data in tables and graphs, while the paper itself should be focused on interpretations and explanations mainly. Hence, the size of the paper is unreasonably extended, while the actual size needed is essentially smaller.

The importance and actuality of the paper can not be exaggerated, as the problem of toxic wastes is one of the most burning in Europe. Hence, the European community is aiming to avoid and mitigate possible ecologic crises associated with toxic wastes into the hydrosphere. This paper provides the required monitoring tools for controlling the ecological situation in Europe and the basis for performing additional researches and measurements required for assessing the ecotoxical situation. (Boon, Davies, et.al., 2007)

Style and Format

The organization level of the paper is rather high, and the structure is perfect. All the sources are properly formatted and the factual information is properly referenced. However, the source list required essential improvements as most of the resources are outdated and represent outdated concepts. Surely, they may be relied upon, nevertheless, the research of such a scale should be based on newer sources. As for the post-2000 books and articles, they do not give reliable research results, as they are also based on outdated sources. (Lauenstein, Daskalakis, 1998)

The research of persistent organic pollutants should be based on the clear notification of these components in the biosphere. If this component is a key one in the aspects of ecotoxical contamination, the explanation should be given from the chemical and biological perspectives. (Gomez-Gutierrez, Garnacho, 2007) Though the analytical method part involves all the required indices and indicators, the explanation which is given in the discussion part does not cover the enlisted parameters.

In general, the ecotoxicology approach is aimed at researching the anthropogenic toxicants, and the ecological effects of biotic and abiotic stresses (Lettieri, 2006). Nevertheless, the paper does not place a focus on explaining the secondary effects of anthropogenic activities. Hence, acidification should be studied as the secondary effect of dioxin-related contamination.

The water surface is generally subjected to serious anthropogenic ecotoxical influence, and the paper gives the clear explanation of all the negative sides of anthropogenic influence. As it is stated by Roots, Henkelmann, Schramm (2004, p. 339):

It has been proposed that this broadening of focus from purely toxicological effects to the consideration of more general stressors moves beyond the definition of ecotoxicology. It is also argued that the field had diversified to become Stress Ecology and that, as the effects of anthropogenic toxicants compound existing, natural stressors, an exclusive study of their effects in an ecological context was nonsensical.

In the light of this statement, the paper is based on the traditional ecotoxicology concepts and defines the key role of anthropogenic influence in the geographic region of the Marmara Sea. Nevertheless, the study may not be regarded full, as only mussels are subjected to analysis, moreover, mussels are from only part of the sea and coastline.

Anyway, independently of the statements of traditional approaches of contemporary ecotoxicology, the paper is written with sufficient capacity for further researches, as the toxic wastes are observed not only in the Marmara Sea, and not only in mussels. (Van den Berg, Birnbaum, et.al. 2006) Though, to be accepted for publishing in a journal, the paper should be restructured. This restructuring should relate to the manner of data arrangement, as the paper is extremely overloaded with indices and numbers, while they should be arranged in accurate tables and graphs.

Finally, it should be emphasized that the importance of the paper is not doubted, however, the author did not pay sufficient attention to the aspects of toxic wastes spread and sources. Considering the fact that the results of the study revealed that the contamination level is not high at the moment, there is a necessity to control the sources but not the contamination level. (Piersanti, Scrucca, et.al. 2006) Anyway, the actual importance of the study methods should not be underestimated, and the values of the chemical analysis reveal the sincere interest of the author to the problem of hydrosphere contamination by toxic wastes.

Comments

The author needs to consider newer researches in the sphere of ecotoxicology, as most of the used sources are too outdated. Regardless of the fact that the information is sources and cited properly, the author needs to address the environmental protection and ecological legislation of the European Union.

Checklist

Scientific Questions

• Is this a new and original contribution? [x] Yes [] No
• Is the topic
  • Suitable for the journal? [x] Yes [] No
  • Of broad international interest? [] Yes [x] No
  • Better suited for local journal/audience? [x] Yes [] No
• Is the quality assurance/quality control documented? [] Yes [x] No
• Quantity of data presented [x] Too much [] Adequate [] Too little
• Quality of interpretation and conclusions [] 1 [x] 2 [] 3
• Support of interpretations/conclusions by data presented [x] 1 [] 2 [] 3
• Importance of this work [] 1 [x] 2 [] 3

Technical Questions

• Is the abstract informative? [x] Yes [] No
• Is the title adequate and are the keywords appropriate? [x] Yes [] No
• Is this paper
  • Properly organized? [x] Yes [] No
  • Difficult to read/understand? [x] Yes [] No
  • Written in good grammar and syntax? [x] Yes [] No
• Are the illustrations/tables
  • Useful and necessary? [] Yes [x] No
  • Of good quality? [x] Yes [] No
• Are the references cited relevant and up to date? [] Yes [x] No
• Is the length of the paper in keeping with its importance? [] Yes [x] No
• Is a testable hypothesis presented? [x] Yes [] No
• Overall quality of the work [] 1 [x] 2 [] 3

Reference List

Boon, P. J., Davies, B. R., & Petts, G. E. (Eds.). (2007). Global Perspectives on River Conservation: Science, Policy, and Practice. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Web.

Gomez-Gutierrez, A., Garnacho, E., Bayona, J. M., Albaiges, J., (2007). Assessment of the Mediterranean sediments contamination by persistent organic pollutants. Environ. Pollut. 148, 396-408.

Lauenstein ,G. G., Daskalakis, K. D., (1998) U.S. Long-term coastal contaminant temporal trends determined from mollusk monitoring programs, 1965-1993. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 37, 6-13.

Lettieri, T. (2006). Recent Applications of DNA Microarray Technology to Toxicology and Ecotoxicology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 114(1), 4.

Piersanti, A., Scrucca, L., Galarini, R., Tavolini, T., (2006) Polychlorobiphenyls (18 congeners) in mussels from middle Adriatic Sea. Organohalogen Compd. 68, 1951-1954.

Roots, O., Henkelmann, B., Schramm, K.W., (2004). Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in soil in the vicinity of a landfill. Chemosphere 57, 337-342.

Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L.S., Denison, M., De Vito, M., Farland, W., Feeley, M., Fiedler, H., Hakansson, H., Hanberg, A., Haws, L., Rose, M., Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tohyama, C., Tritscher, A., Tuomisto, J., Tysklind, M., Walker, N., Peterson, R.E., (2006) The 2005 World Health Organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds. Tox. Sci. 93, 223-241.

The Importance of a Marine Ecosystems

In a historical document taken from the archives of the State of Virginia, one can find Captain John Smiths journal entry. Captain Smith described an event wherein his men were able to haul an abundant harvest of fish (Roberts, 2012, p.10). Scientific evidence supports Smiths claim (Roberts, 2012). Thus, there was a time when the Earths marine ecosystems were teeming with marine life. Captain Smiths journal was written in the year 1624. It is good to read about Smiths account. His account of Americas rich natural resources encourages the creation of initiatives to save the marine ecosystems of the present time.

Cutting-edge technology is supposed to guarantee a bountiful harvest. However, scientists all over the world are making the following sad refrain: For all their technological brilliance, modern fishing fleets operate at the margins of profitability (Roberts,2012). Fishermen are having a hard time hitting their quotas. The main culprit is the destruction of marine ecosystems due to the tremendous increase in human populations. The growth of communities dependent on fishing is proportional to the destruction of marine ecosystems. Scientists are lamenting the fact that many fish species are in precipitous decline (Abel & McConnell, 2010). Nevertheless, responsible citizens must never give up. The destruction of the aquatic environment is an inevitable outcome of human development. Responsible citizens must take concrete steps in order to reverse the negative impact of the exploitation of marine life. The survival of the human race, and the survival of millions of species of wildlife is dependent on a healthy marine ecosystem.

Marine ecosystems are important because these are major sources of food for the human population. Seafood is an important source of protein. The inability to harvest fish will exacerbate the nutrition problem in areas where hunger is already a major issue. Marine ecosystems also play an important role in the livelihood of hundreds of millions of people around the world. A significant number of workers are dependent on a health ecosystem in order to create jobs related to tourism. Millions of employees are dependent on jobs related to aqua sports, scuba diving, and recreational fishing. Marine ecosystems are also critical sources of medicines.

The Effects of a Growing Human Population

Overfishing is the number one concern with regards to the growing human population in coastal areas. Growing cities have an indirect impact on the destruction of marine ecosystems. Globalization has created greater demand for exotic food and exotic sea creatures. People harvest corals for aesthetic purposes without considering the fact that aquatic animals rely on corals to survive.

Mangroves are needed to protect coastal communities from storm surges. At the same time, the mangrove ecosystem interacts with the marine ecosystem in the area in order to produce healthy marine life. The interaction of different groups of organisms ensures the survival of the human population. However, the need to produce more food necessitates the destruction of mangroves in order to give way to man-made structures.

Petroleum products are major sources of pollutants that destroy aquatic life in marine ecosystems. The growth of the human population directly increases the demand for petroleum products. Therefore, there is significant increase in the amount of petroleum products transported across the seven seas. As a result, the incidence of oil spills are also on the rise. Oil spills degrade aquatic life and destroy sensitive marine habitats (Abel & McConnell, 2010). It is important to develop tankers that are not prone to accidents. It is also important to develop effective strategies for oil spill clean up. The clean up method must be efficient enough to minimize damage to the marine ecosystem in the said area.

Conclusion

People dependent on marine ecosystems must use resources at their disposal to reverse the negative consequences of uncontrolled exploitation of marine life. One of the practical strategies to repair the damage is to create marine protected zones that are designed to handle diverse species of marine life. Another important strategy is to impose penalties on factories and other man-made endeavors that are responsible for dumping toxic waste into ocean floor. It is important to develop protected zones that are free from human interference.

References

Abel, D. & McConnell, R. (2010). Environmental oceanography. MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Roberts, C. (2012). The ocean of life. New York: Penguin Books.

Introduction

Six nations and sixty million people were put at risk by the death of once the fourth largest lake on earth. Today the Aral Sea is the epitome of human-environmental malpractice and one of the earths worst environmental catastrophes. Soviet-era mismanagement, transboundary water conflict issues, and rapidly worsening climate change have made the Aral Sea a thing of the past. Even UNESCO added the lakes documents in the Memory of the World Register. The Aral Sea is one of the most ideal models of the connection between the wellbeing of an ecosystem and that of communities and economies dependent on it. Humans do not always manage to preserve the beauty of nature, and some of its phenomena deteriorate or become destroyed altogether. To prevent this, citizens of all countries must make every effort to save the wonders of the Earth and take responsibility for the destruction of forests, deserts, water, and other resources. The Aral Sea has many severe problems, and people have to try to solve them soon to save at least a part of its region.

The primary cause of the Aral Seas decline is human activities, most importantly the careless handling of the irrigation project that drained it, and it can only be preserved and restored through the funneling of water back into it.

Objectives

• To identify and analyze the problems of the lake, its basin, and the entire region
• To discuss the causes and consequences of the lakes destruction
• To evaluate the solutions proposed for ameliorating the consequences

Study Area

The Aral Sea was a sinking lake between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Due to an irrigation program that drained water from it, it started drying up in the 1960s. Before the 1960s, the lake used to be the fourth-largest in the world and had an area of 26,300 sq ml. By 1997, it has split into four distinct lakes: the South Aral Sea, split into two parts, a small lake in the middle, and the North Aral Sea. In 2014, the eastern basin of the lake desiccated completely, and now it is called the Aralkum Desert.

Literature Survey

A lot of literature exists covering the damage of the lake, the consequences, and possible solutions to the problem. Dilbar et al. (2019) examine the issue of the Aral Sea and the possibilities of eliminating it. Micklin (2016) tries to predict the likelihood of saving the Aral Sea region through restoration. Many scholars have studied issues surrounding the Aral Sea including Aladin et al. (2019), Guo et al. (2016), Izhitskiy et al. (2016), and Kalimbetova et al. (2020). People living in the lake basin struggle with a variety of problems, such as the death of the fishing trade and the lack of water with which to water crops (Izhitskiy et al., 2016, Micklin. 2016, Shukla, 2015). The extent of the damage was classified until the collapse of the Soviet Union, at which point the decay was already in an advanced state. Though complex, the roots of the disaster are now well understood and restoration efforts have been going on in the last few decades.

Causes of Aral Sea Shrinking

Historical geography suggests that the drying of the Aral Sea must have taken place previously. Millions of years ago, northern parts of Uzbekistan and southern parts of Kazakhstan were covered by a vast endorheic lake. The water receded gradually and highly saline soil plains were exposed leaving a few intermittent water bodies that became the Aral Sea. Evidence suggests that the lake has been completely or partially flooded more than eight times for the past ten thousand years. The role of rainfall variations in this flooding is unclear (Shukla, 2015). Recent shrinking which started in the 1960s is the focus of this paper. In the 1960s, the Aral Sea covered an area of 26,300 sq ml but by 2008, it covered only 1,270 sq mi (Dilbar et al., 2019). The water volume decreased by more than 90% and the concentration of salt contents increased five-fold (Dilbar et al., 2019). Over the last six decades, the lake has been gradually separating into smaller water bodies. The dried-up floor came to be known as Aralkum Desert.

There is a significant number of serious issues that destroy the lake and make the region poor. It has experienced rapid shrinking and desiccation since Soviet projects diverted its inlets (Dilbar et al., 2019). Though this project made agricultural activities successful in the area, it also divided the sea into several parts and made it much smaller. When the lake desiccated, fisheries and other economic activities the communities depended on collapsed. The water became saltier and polluted with pesticides and fertilizer, which is decimated fish and other aquatic life (Ogli & Qizi, 2019). The dust that was blowing from the exposed lakebed was poisoned and contaminated with agricultural chemicals (Micklin et al., 2016). It became a public health hazard, substantially affecting the health of the residents. The shrinking of the sea even influenced changed microclimates as winters became colder and summers drier and hotter.

Massive water withdrawals and technological advances are the main cause of basin-wide desiccation and shrinking. This is a terminal lake that depends on groundwater and river inflow to maintain surface levels. It is fed mainly by the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers but in the 1950s and 1960s, both rivers were used to channel water for irrigation purposes and as a result, the supply of water to the lake was greatly impeded (Shukla, 2015). This led to excess evaporation resulting in major imbalance and drastic shrinking in surface and volume of water. The Soviet Union regime embarked on a massive expansion irrigation scheme with an aim to

• Multiply the production of cotton
• Increase the production of fruits and vegetables
• Supply the Central Asian states with rice and export too
• Employ local people

To meet these objectives, massive amounts of water were diverted from the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigation schemes. In the 1960s, there were more than five million hectares of land in the lakes basin under irrigation (Aladin et al., 2019). That figure would jump to 8.5 million hectares in 1990.

By 1990, Uzbekistan was the biggest producer of cotton globally. Cotton is still the main cash crop in that country accounting for approximately 17% of its exports. Many of the canals for purposes of irrigation during the Soviet era were poorly built allowing evaporation and leakage. It is estimated that 30 to 70% of water meant for irrigation went to waste (Shukla, 2015). This diversion and wastage of water from the river discharge led to drastic drops in the water feeding the Aral Sea. In some years, the lake received virtually no water inflows from the rivers. While agricultural production did increase, it was at a huge environmental cost. Sadly, the Soviets were well aware that the lake would disappear. They considered the existence of the lake an error in nature and knew it would eventually evaporate and shrink due to the irrigation scheme. The complete extinction of the Aral Sea has various disastrous outcomes for those residing in the Aral Sea Basin.

Consequences

The Aral Sea shrinking is a textbook case of ecosystem collapse and the epitome of environmental malpractice. The flora and fauna of the Aral Sea Basin have suffered greatly as the water disappeared. Inhabitants were reliant on the Aral Sea for water supply and economic activities such as fishing (Kalimbetova et al., 2020). The dry surface is covered with salt and toxic chemicals and worsening soil and water quality.

There is massive environmental degradation as salt from irrigation drainage water is partially returned to rivers to pass to downstream areas. This has increased land and water salinization. Increasing salinization threatens the livelihoods of millions of residents physically and economically. Erosion and sedimentation threaten freshwater regulation and allocation in the basin (Shukla, 2015). There is serious soil contamination from the overuse of chemical fertilizers. Biodiversity and wetlands have diminished and surrounding mountains have suffered from deforestation.

The drying of the lake has caused serious socio-economic and environmental consequences. There is a vast area that has now been turned into a desert as rivers flow through deltas and spring floods are virtually eliminated. The construction of storage reservoirs upstream has led to falling water surface levels in the Aral Sea and the intensification of the desertification process. The now largely barren land covering an area of more than fifty thousand square kilometers is characterized by dust and salt winds that are harmful to domestic animals by reducing their food supply (Aladin et al., 2019). The areas climate has also experienced a shift from maritime conditions to desert conditions.

The shrinking of the Aral has had dangerous effects on the health of the population around it. Environmental and health experts call the Aral Sea Basin an ecological disaster zone. The airborne dust and salt contribute to the high prevalence of eye problems, respiratory ailments, and certain types of cancer. Contamination of drinking water from the massive irrigation project is to blame for typhoid, dysentery, tuberculosis, anemia, and hepatitis. Due to salt concentration in drinking water, kidney and liver diseases are widespread in the area. Other effects of the disappearance of the lake include the shortage of drinking water and an increase in unemployment in the fishing sector. Former fishing towns are today marveled at as ship graveyards. The main fishing port known as Aral lies several miles from the sea and its population has gone down dramatically as the main economic activity dies.

Solution

There has been multi-government and multiagency collaborations and effort to restore the Aral Sea with some results albeit slow ones. The recovery of the 1960s water levels requires cooperation from all countries whose rivers feed the lake. Attempts to revive the lake started in the late 1990s and there has been some success especially in Kazakhstan. A rudimentary dam built to save the North Aral Sea and sacrifice the South Aral Sea broke a few years later. In 2004, the World Bank financed the building of a new dam, and since then the North Aral Sea has been steadily improving its water coverage and volume. It has also recovered some of its aquatic fauna and evaporation has slowed. Water is now 15 km away from the city of Aralsk and it was one 50 km away (Plotnikov et al., 2016). Fishing is slowly resuming in the North Aral Sea and healthiness is slowly being restored.

With the current situation, the full recovery of the lake is not probable as the factors that led to the disaster are still existent. The area is still in a disaster state and the natural ecosystems have been destroyed to an extent that it is not suitable for human habitation. International efforts to restore the lake are expected to replenish Arals water, restore a stable ecosystem, decrease salt and dust by blowing, and improve the climate around the lake and its basin. Various solutions have been identified and some are carried out to an extent (Izhitskiy et al., 2016). These include improving the quality of irrigation canals, promoting economic activities that are non-agricultural upstream, improving cotton farming by using fewer chemicals during cultivation, and using the plants alternative species that utilize less water. Technology such as irrigation optimization and laser leveling has also been employed in varying degrees. Five nations have implemented the Aral Sea Basin Program since 1994 in different phases.

The Aral Sea basin countries, the international community, and multiple agencies have made various attempts to solve the issue of the drying lake and eliminate the consequences of the problem. For example, Aral Sea Basin Programs are aimed at stabilizing the basins environment and rehabilitating the disaster area around the sea (Kalimbetova et al., 2020). Moreover, possible reactions include using fewer agricultural chemicals on the cotton and improving the irrigation canals quality (Bekchanov et al., 2016). These actions are of great importance and may help save the Aral Sea region. Large-scale restoration efforts have seen the resurgence of aquatic life in the North Aral Sea. The Syr Darya repair is ongoing to improve the quality of water and increase its flow. The future of the South Aral Sea has largely been abandoned but environmentalists are still campaigning for more effort to be put in. Uzbekistan, which relies heavily on cotton exports, is still using the Amu Darya river for irrigation. Plans are also underway for oil exploration in the South Aral seabed.

Conclusion

The Aral Sea disappearance disaster has fortunately led to the collaboration of nations and international bodies in the last few decades. Intergovernmental meetings and international conferences have been held to try and restore the lake. Countries in Central Asia can only realize unified development if they coordinate conflict of interests by regional and global collaboration. The Aral Sea and its basin is a highly complex ecological system that has been destroyed by the massive and reckless withdrawal of water from its two main sources. This has led to the making of one of the earths worst environmental catastrophes as the world watches. The consequences have been dire and far-reaching as the environment takes vengeance on the humans as well as the innocent flora and fauna. The consequences of this destruction can be corrected through the restoration of the lake through a concerted effort from all stakeholders.

References

Aladin, N. V., Gontar, V. I., Zhakova, L. V., Plotnikov, I. S., Smurov, A. O., Rzymski, P., & Klimaszyk, P. (2019). The zoocenosis of the Aral Sea: six decades of fast-paced change.Environmental science and pollution research international, 26(3), 22282237. Web.

Bekchanov, M., Ringler, C., Bhaduri, A., & Jeuland, M. (2016). Optimizing irrigation efficiency improvements in the Aral Sea Basin. Water Resources and Economics, 13, 30-45.

Dilbar, Q., Polvonnazarovna, A. N., & Ugli, A. B. B. (2019). The problem of the Aral Sea and the Aral Sea Basin, its consequences and solutions. International Journal of Academic Pedagogical Research, 3(4), 46-47.

Guo, L., Zhou, H., Xia, Z., & Huang, F. (2016). Evolution, opportunity and challenges of transboundary water and energy problems in Central Asia.SpringerPlus, 5(1). Web.

Izhitskiy, A., Zavialov, P., Sapozhnikov, P. et al. (2016). Present state of the Aral Sea: diverging physical and biological characteristics of the residual basins.Sci Rep, 6. Web.

Kalimbetova, R., Mambetullaeva, S., & Allambergenova, F. (2020). Environmental problems of water supply of the population of the South Aral Sea region and protection of water resources. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(8), 1784-1787.

Krupa, E. & Grishaeva, O. (2019). Impact of water salinity on long-term dynamics and spatial distribution of benthic invertebrates in the Small Aral Sea. Oceanological and Hydrobiological, 48(4). Web.

Micklin, P. (2016). The future Aral Sea: Hope and despair. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(9), 844.

Micklin, P., Aladin, N. V., & Plotnikov, I. (Eds.). (2016). The Aral Sea: The devastation and partial rehabilitation of a Great Lake. Springer.

Ogli, Z. O. T., & Qizi, A. F. A. (2019). Aral Sea problems and financial mechanisms to overcome it. Science and Education Issues, 1(42).

Plotnikov, I. S., Ermakhanov, Z. K., Aladin, N. V., & Micklin, P. (2016). Modern state of the Small (Northern) Aral Sea fauna. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, 21(4), pp. 315328. Web.

Shukla, A. (2015). The shrinking of Aral Sea (a worst environmental disaster). International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 11(3), pp. 633-643.

Summary

Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are considered to be an effective tool in addressing ecological challenges. However, the real extent of their effects on the marine ecosystem and biodiversity have not yet been thoroughly studied. The proposed research aims to analyze the MPA effectiveness for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction based on digital images collected by Automated Underwater Vehicles (AUV). The primary source of data for the study is the Squidle+ database of AUV images. The research intends to prove the hypothesis that MPAs are effective for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction and compare the data from different MPAs along the Australian coast to analyze the differences.

Background

Kelp forests are the biological engine of temperate shallow reef ecosystems in Eastern Australia that provide habitat for hundreds of species. They are currently threatened by sea urchin overgrazing, which leads to the replacement of kelp forests with much simpler barren reefs. Urchin overgrazing is largely caused by overfishing of sea urchin predators that maintain the balance in the ecosystem by keeping urchin population under control (Hamilton & Caselle). The fluctuations of sea urchin growth disturb the balance of marine ecosystems, and the reduction of kelp forests causes the loss of biodiversity (Provost et al., 2016). Marine Protected Areas (MPA), which are the areas of the ocean set aside for long-term conservation aims, are a primary management tool for mitigating threats to marine biodiversity (Sala et al., 2018). The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction. It is intended to prove that MPAs help to protect important habitats, avoid degradation, and restore the productivity of the ocean.

The proposed study aims to contribute to the current research on the subject. The existing literature includes scholarly articles that analyze geographic variations in distribution and abundance of kelp forests (Marzinelli et al., 2015) and study marine biodiversity using Automated Underwater Vehicles (Ferrari et al., 2018). The research of MPA primarily studies the factors of success and/or failure of MPA effectiveness and their effects on people and the marine environment (France et al., 2016). The effectiveness of protected areas for kept forest recovery and urchin reduction has not yet been properly addressed in the literature.

Aims

Statement

The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction.

Question

The project proposes to use visual and quantitative data to answer two questions:

1. Are MPAs effective in restoring kelp populations and reducing sea urchins?
2. What differences exist between different protected areas?

Hypothesis

The research suggests using data from Australian coastal MPAs to investigate the following hypotheses:

1. MPAs are effective in kelp forest recovery.
2. MPAs are effective in urchin reduction.
3. MPAs effects vary in different areas.

Approach & Method

The suggested source of data for the research is the Squidle+ database (Web), a digital collection of Automated Underwater Vehicle images designed by Dr. Ariell Friedman. It allows users to select between different types of locations: Sanctuary Zones and General Use zones, and choose between various types of AUV deployments based on a range of filters. Each location provides a set of images that can be analyzed based on different parameters.

For the purpose of the research, 10 MDAs (Sanctuary Zones) located along the Australian coast should be selected. From each area, ten images should be taken randomly, constituting a total of 100 images saved as a separate collection. On each image, 20 random points will be generated and analyzed with the purpose of evaluating the presence and number of sea urchins and the state and presence of a kelp forest. The data will be presented in percentages in an Excel table together with the name, latitude, longitude, and depth of each location.

Significance & Innovation

The proposed research is intended to provide new data on the marine environments and the effectiveness of MDA for addressing global climate change. The results are anticipated to prove that MPAs help to protect important habitats, prevent degradation, and restore the productivity of the ocean. The data can be used for further research, including the setup of an extensive database covering MDAs in different regions of the world.

The project innovation lies in using digital materials and online resources for studying MDAs and the marine environment. It goes in line with the recent technological developments that provide the researchers with tools and methods that help to study underwater ecosystems more profoundly. The study based on interactive data offers multiple opportunities for further research, development, and verification. The research is intended to facilitate the use of new technologies in environmental studies and provide new instruments for handling and analyzing digital data.

Logistics & Personnel

The research will be conducted by a team of four members, each responsible for a separate stage of the project and participating in collaborative decision making. Effective allocation of responsibilities between team members allows each of them to focus on a particular task and facilitate the development of common goals. In order to achieve the desired results, each team member has to possess the skills and experience relevant to the project and the task they are assigned to. Prior to the research, guidelines for research and result evaluation should be developed collaboratively by team members and approved by the research supervisor.

The most experienced member of the team should be appointed as the head of the project, coordinating and managing other members activities. He/she should be responsible for time management, task allocation, adherence to guidelines, and research outcomes. He/she should have sufficient technical and academic expertise to solve potential issues. The image collection and analysis work should be distributed between the three other members of the team, with each of them also focusing on a specific field of work. One of the members should be responsible for evaluating kept forest data, the other should interpret urchin data, and the third member should compare the data obtained from different locations. This way, the collection of images will be put together by all members of the team, and each member will have a specific question to focus on during the research. The results of each field of study should be initially analyzed by one researcher, followed by group discussion, verification, and evaluation. Each member of the team is encouraged to contribute their ideas to the research process, which are discussed and approved or rejected by other team members.

The exact timeline for the project should be established at the initial stage of project development. The preliminary dates are estimated to be two weeks for the preparation stage, two months for the actual research, and two months for data interpretation and final paper preparation. The exact dates of project commencement and conclusion should be discussed at a team meeting and approved by the research supervisor.

Acknowledgments & Permits

No special permits are required to start the research.

References

Ferrari, R., Marzinelli, E., Ayroza, C., Jordan, W., Figueira, W., Byrne, M., Malcolm, H., Williams, S., & Steinberg, P. (2018). Large-scale assessment of benthic communities across multiple marine protected areas using an autonomous underwater vehicle.PLoS One. Web.

Franco, A., Thiriet, P., Di Carlo, G., Dimitriadis, C., Francour, P., Gutierrez, N., Grissac, A., Koutsoubas, D., Milazzo, M., Otera, M., Piante, C., Plass-Johnson, J., Sainz-Trapaga, S., Santarossa, L., Tudela, S., & Guidetti, P. (2016). Five key attributes can increase marine protected areas performance for small-scale fisheries management.Scientific Reports, 6, 38135. Web.

Hamilton, S., & Caselle, J. (2015). Exploitation and recovery of a sea urchin predator has implications for the resilience of southern California kelp forests.Proceedings of the Royal Society B. Biological Sciences, 282(1799). Web.

Marzinelli, E., Williams, S., Babcock, R., Barrett, C., Johnson, C., Jordan, A., Kendrick, G., Pizarro, O., Smale, D., & Steinberg, P. (2015). Large-scale geographic variation in distribution and abundance of Australian deep-water kelp forests.PLoS ONE. Web.

Provost, E., Kelaher, B., Dworjanyn, S., Russell, B., Connell, S., Ghedini, G., Gillanders, B., Figueira, W., & Coleman, M. (2016). Climate-driven disparities among ecological interactions threaten kelp forest persistence.Global Change Biology, 23(1), 353361. Web.

Sala, E., Lubchenco, J., Grorud-Colvert, K., Novelli, C., Roberts, C., & Sumaila, R. (2018). Assessing real progress towards effective ocean protection.Marine Policy, 91, 1113. Web.

Description: Stunning drone images near Lendalfoot in South Ayrshire captured a glimpse of a mammoth whirlpool off the Scottish west coast. According to the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA), the phenomenon is linked to recent rainwater that came into contact with wastewater, forming leachate (as cited in Parsons, 2021). The wastewater is further confirmed to emanate from the Straid Farm landfill site pumped into the sea. With recent sustainable and heavy rains, the leachate increased in volume, creating a prolonged current and swirling the water. Besides, the whirlpool came after Dumfries locals evacuated the town, prompted by the burst of River Nith. Yellow warnings have since been issued across Wales and Scotland as more flooding is expected.

Geologic Significance: The Bermuda Triangle is prone to rogue whirlpools with incidents of lost vessels and aircraft. Other noticeable whirlpools include those of the Messina, Garofalo, and Hebrides islands. Studies imply that the swirling water, eddies, are subjected to a dragging effect and carry immense heat that affects climate, and thus, similar to ocean currents. Typically, ocean currents move heat from the equator towards the poles, which is critical in climate control.

Ocean currents also contribute to sea life by carrying food, nutrients, and reproductive cells to other places. In that view, researchers suggest that the Great Whirl is associated with Indias monsoon that drives the rainy season. Similarly, the eddies carry warm water that influences extreme weather conditions around Japan, exacerbated by the Kuroshio current. Researchers argue that whirlpools will help with forecasting tasks, particularly in predicting rainfall (Slezak, 2014).

References

Parsons, S. (2021). Whirlpool in the sea off the coast of Scotland near Ayrshire due to waste water. The Herald. Web.

Slezak, M. (2014). Huge whirlpools in the ocean are driving the weather. NewScientist. Web.

Marine pollution is a sad yet integral part of the 21^st century reality. A range of technological advances and solutions for economic issues pose a tangible threat to environment, and oceans are by far the most vulnerable element of the latter. A recent marine pollution issue shows in a very graphic way that the safety of the current technology should be definitely reconsidered (Lutgens and Tarbuck Oceans: The Last Frontier 314).

Though tourism is often blamed for increasing rates of marine pollution, the recent report has revealed that unregulated and destructive fishing poses the most tangible threat to the safety of the marine biodiversity at present (Nuclear Science and Ocean Acidification para. 4). Aquaculture practices, as the report shows, are the second most significant negative factor (Nuclear Science and Ocean Acidification para. 34).

A part of the Atlantic Ocean, including the Mediterranean Sea, particularly, the coastal area, has recently been subjected to the ocean acidification caused by the CO2 emissions from plants and the Monaco transport. As a result, not only the ocean species, but also the local people, who depend on these species as the basis for their income and diet (Nuclear Science and Ocean Acidification para. 13).

The effects of the aforementioned instance of ocean pollution are truly drastic. Not only do the emissions affect the biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea by changing the natural habitat of the species, but also the lives of people inhabiting the coast of Morocco, particularly, fishermen, slowly leading to poverty and desolation of the area. The given instance of ocean pollution, though clearly accidental, is very hard to deal with, since it will require that the plants in question should be either removed or reconstructed completely. At this point, the conflict between the necessity for sustainability and the needs of the state economy become painfully obvious (Lutgens and Tarbuck The Restless Ocean 349).

Though, luckily enough, I have not yet witnessed any of the weather events of epic proportions (as far as the history records show, these usually do not have many survivors), there have been a few weather events that have left quite a tangible trace on my life. The most memorable one, however, concerns a rapid and quite explicit temperature change in 20002010; nearly every year over this decade, summer was very hot. According to the official records, in the summer of

2008, the temperature went above the 20^th century average (60.1° F) by 0.85° F and made 60.95° F (2008 Temperature Summaries and Spin para. 3).

The unexplainably hot temperature had mostly negative effects on me. Though my type of skin does not allow me to get sunburns easily, this summer, I had to be especially careful about staying under the sun for long. In addition, the quality of my nutrition dropped impressively, since a number of fruits and vegetables were unavailable due to inordinately hot conditions for their growth.

It should be noted, though, that the increase in temperature also had a little of positive impact on my life. First and most important, sun baths were available in the morning. After a short period of an exposure to sunlight, I refilled my reserves of Vitamin D; as a result, there was no need to take medications for maintaining the proper rates of Vitamin D that summer. Apart from that, though, the increase in temperature had no positive effects on my body.

Works Cited

2008 Temperature Summaries and Spin.

Lutgens, Frederick K. and Edward J.Tarbuck. Oceans: The Last Frontier. Foundations of Earth Science. 7th ed. 2014. Harlow, UK: Pearson. 2014. 311-338. Print.

. The Restless Ocean. Foundations of Earth Science. 7th ed. 2014. Harlow, UK: Pearson. 2014. 339-372. Print.

Nuclear Science and Ocean Acidification. One Planet, One Ocean  Together, We Must Protect Them, Urges UN on World Oceans Day. UK News Centre. 2014.

One of the important aspects of marine biology is the study of how marine organisms exhibit a variety of physiologic adaptation that makes them suitable for the marine environment and particularly successful in a particular ecological niche within the overall marine environment.

Phylum Porifera

Phylum Porifera or Sponges are aquatic organisms, mainly marine, lead a stationary lifestyle. Unlike a colony of protozoa, consisting of more or less monotonous and independent cells, in the body of multicellular animals, cells are always differentiated both in terms of structure and function performed by them. The cells here lose their independence and are only parts of a single complex organism. Some serve for breathing, and others complete the process of digestion, others provide isolation. Nutrition is due to the filtration of water that passes through the aquifer system located inside the sponge. Reproduction occurs asexually and sexually. Phylum Porifera adapt to carrying a large volume through themselves. They can narrow the pores to control the volume of water. Sponges can regenerate as they are relatively simple organisms.

Phylum Cnidaria

Phylum Cnidaria is an intestinal-cavity animal similar to jellyfish. A characteristic feature of ctenophores is the presence of stinging cells on the body. These cells help the animal to inject poison into the victims body when extracting food. Cnidarians reproduce in most cases by budding. The habitat of animals of this type is very different. Some live at a depth where almost no sunlight penetrates, while others live near the surface. Jellyfish catch food particles floating by, polyps filter them out of seawater. The adaptation of jellyfish is that they have a particular part of the body that helps jellyfish eat and play a protective role. When a predator touches a jellyfish, this part of the body is activated and releases a particular killing toxin.

Phylum Mollusca

Mollusks are a relatively diverse type of invertebrates. The body of mollusks is divided into three sections: the head, trunk, and leg. Mollusks live in the seas, fresh waters, on land, and some parasitize other animals. The digestive system depends on the type of nutrition of mollusks. The ducts of the digestive gland flow into it. Undigested food residues are thrown out through the anal opening. Breathing in mollusks living in water is carried out by gills and in terrestrial ones  with the help of a lung. Shellfish reproduce only sexually, and most of them are segregated. The ability to think belongs to the adaptation of mollusks; they can learn and react to the environment in ways superior only to vertebrates.

Phylum Arthropoda

Arthropods are the largest group of animals that inhabit the planet. They are found everywhere, that is, in the land-air environment, in all seas and oceans, in freshwater bodies. The digestive system in arthropods consists of the intestines anterior, middle, and posterior parts, ending with the anal opening. From fertilized eggs laid by females, larvae develop, which grow, develop and turn into adults. Some arthropods, such as spiders, develop without the larval stage. The adaptation of arthropods is a solid, strong exoskeleton. It helps arthropods to defend themselves from predators.

Phylum Echinodermata

Echinoderms are a type of exclusively marine bottom animals, mostly free-living, less often sessile, found at any depths of the World Ocean. The needles perform a protective function, and they are often mobile. Some sea urchins point their needles towards the approaching danger. The main adaptation of echinoderms is the ability to regenerate some parts of the body. This helps them survive in a dangerous marine environment.

Phylum Chordata

Chordates are a type of animal that includes vertebrates, larval chordates, and crustaceans. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fish are the best-known and subtype of animals to which humans also belong. All chordates have a chord that is present for some or all of their life cycle. The chord (or dorsal string) is a semi-flexible rod to which the large muscles of the animal are attached. It also plays an essential role in signaling and coordinating development. Adaptation involves an increased level of activity and strengthening of the skeleton and protective coating.

Phylum Heterokontophyta

Stramenopila is unicellular, living mainly in the aquatic environment, but there are also terrestrial species. The group includes algae, flagellates, opaline and others. This species can feed through photosynthesis.

Marine pollution is among the most prominent concerns of scientists and environmental activists. Due to the development of technologies, the expansion of maritime transportation hubs and routes, and the increase in waste volume, human impact on the environment has become drastic. According to Arias and Marcovecchio (2017), changes in marine and ocean conditions can directly affect the global climate because of their close connection to the planets energy fluxes and biogeochemical cycles. Furthermore, marine pollution affects natural ecosystems, marine and coastal animal life, and human well-being and health. This paper examines the causes of this environmental problem, primarily related to anthropogenic factors, and considers its consequences. It also discusses global responses and solutions adopted at the level of governments and international organizations, designed to mitigate and prevent adverse impacts.

Causes of Pollution

The primary cause of marine pollution is global human industrial activity, which has reached tremendous proportions in the 21st century. The most dramatic cases of ocean pollution are related to the emission of fossil fuels into water areas due to accidents or improper manufacturing. According to Arias and Marcovecchio (2017), oil provides about 40% of all energy used by modern civilization, making it a major natural resource and a severe threat to the environment. Vessel crashes or accidents can result in the emission of large amounts of oil into the sea and contamination of bottom sediments with oil products. Researchers state that in the present years, the average number of oil spills above 700 tonnes is about 3.7 per year (Karim, 2016, p. 44). The effects of such large spills are long-lasting, especially in northern climates, and can potentially disrupt the ecosystem in the region.

An additional pollution factor is climate change caused by excessive CO‚ emissions into the atmosphere, primarily due to oil and coal combustion. Arias and Marcovecchio (2017) state that the oceans health is threatened by the resulting temperature increase and acidification of oceanic waters (p. 95). An abnormal change in the biochemical indicators of marine waters can be considered a significant pollution factor that endangers flora, fauna, and humans.

Other types of anthropogenic pollution also contribute to the environmental problems in the worlds oceans. According to Xanthos and Walker (2017), 5.25 trillion plastic particles (weighing 269,000 tons) are floating in the sea, and plastic debris accounts for 6080% of marine litter (p. 17). It is stated that plastic is resistant to moisture and has a very long service time, and therefore its lifespan in natural conditions can reach hundreds and thousands of years (Xanthos & Walker, 2017). Therefore, plastic does not dissolve in the ocean but forms vast accumulations generated by special currents. There are currently five large concentrations of garbage patches  two each in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, and one in the Indian Ocean (Xanthos & Walker, 2017). They mainly consist of plastic waste generated by dumping from the densely populated coastal zones of the continents. These garbage patches are highly dangerous for marine and some other animals and cause pollution in coastal areas. Besides, microplastics, whareh is increasing abundantly in both the aquatic environment and animal organisms, may subsequently have an adverse impact on human health.

Over the past decades, there has been an increase in the number of hazardous chemicals in the marine environment, including heavy metals and pesticides, which can disrupt the ecological balance. According to Arias and Marcovecchio (2017), the emissions of contaminant sources reach the ocean through the atmosphere and watersheds, and human-built structures such as pipelines and outfalls (p. 99). Generally, they are highly toxic to various animal species, and can even cause abnormal mutations.

Environmental Consequences

Each type of anthropogenic marine pollution is disastrous to the health of living organisms. Heavy metals, hazardous chemicals, and microplastics, for example, can reduce life expectancy and even kill marine flora and fauna (Mearns et al., 2018). They can also cause adverse mutations, intoxications, and infections in living species. Researchers also revealed that pollution stressors affect lifestyle patterns of organisms, including metabolism, nutritional status, population density, reproductive and developmental peculiarities, and others (Mearns et al., 2018). For instance, global garbage patches in the worlds oceans interfere with the usual routes of fish and marine mammals and cause the death of many of them. According to Xanthos and Walker (2017), entanglement of species by marine debris can cause starvation, suffocation, laceration, infection, reduced reproductive success and mortality (p. 18). As a result, animals are forced to change their typical routes, disrupting well-established ecosystem processes.

Furthermore, marine pollution causes alterations in the temperature and biochemical composition of water. Numerous studies have confirmed that the amount of anomalous micromaterials and harmful and toxic substances in sea and ocean water, including arsenic, lead, mercury, chromium, insecticides, and pesticides, has increased significantly in recent decades (Mearns et al., 2018). This leads to many negative consequences, some of which may be irreversible by a certain point. First, the state of the ocean affects climate conditions, and its pollution, among other things, leads to climate change, which is also a global environmental problem. Second, the biochemical changes in the marine areas lead to specific issues, such as water blooms, negatively affecting its suitability for living organisms (Arias & Marcovecchio, 2017). Thus, marine pollution has adverse effects on the entire global ecosystem.

Influence on Humanity

The consequences of marine pollution on flora and fauna unavoidably affect people whose health and life are closely connected with nature. When animals consume and retain anthropogenic pollutants and toxins that they cannot digest or excrete, they accumulate these substances in the organism. The number of accrued contaminants increases as species move up through the food chain. Accordingly, the highest concentrations of toxic substances are found in the bodies of major marine predators. This process is referred to as biomagnification and primarily threatens human health, as people are at the top of the food chain (Mearns et al., 2018). Marine food products may be harmful to health even after heating.

In addition to food problems, contaminated water also causes many other threats to human health. It can cause or exacerbate various infectious and oncological diseases and lead to deterioration of the human body through excess toxins or parasitic bacteria (Arias & Marcovecchio, 2017; Mearns et al., 2018). Marine pollution also has detrimental effects on the human economy and the condition of inhabited areas. For instance, according to Xanthos and Walker (2017), stranded plastic along shorelines creates an aesthetic issue, which has negative impacts for tourism, and adversely affects shipping, energy production, fi,shing and aquaculture resources (p. 18). Thus, this environmental problem affects the most vital areas of human existence.

Effective Responses and Solutions

Marine pollution is recognized as one of the most significant environmental concerns and is addressed by a range of policies at the level of governments and international organizations. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea defines as pollution any substances that result or are likely to result in detrimental effects on marine life (Arias & Marcovecchio, 2017). The principle of likelihood prevents possible contamination even in the absence of scientific data. A specialized agency named International Maritime Organisation (IMO) was also established within the UN to monitor, assess, and regulate marine pollution issues, including through international agreements. For instance, it provides machinery for co-operation among governments for the prevention and control of pollution of the marine environment from vessels (Karim, 2016, p. 1). International maritime law and related agreements allow states to agree on rules and penalties for accidents, shipwrecks, and waste emissions into the marine environment.

Furthermore, states establish similar norms and standards in national law. Domestic legislation generally sets quotas and limits on the discharge of waste into the water for any industrial facility. Numerous non-governmental organizations are conducting research on marine pollution and carrying out social activities to raise public awareness in this regard (Xanthos & Walker, 2017). They are also making considerable efforts to organize coastal and marine clean-up activities with the help of volunteers and government support. Thus, various endeavors are being made at all social levels. Nevertheless, the situation continues to deteriorate, and humanity needs more consolidated and proactive measures to confront marine pollution.

Conclusion

It may be concluded that the leading cause of marine pollution is anthropogenic factors, including vessel wrecks and accidents, and excessive emissions of industrial waste into the marine environment. The problem is fraught with disastrous consequences for entire marine ecosystems composed of different species of flora and fauna and has adverse implications for human health and other areas of life. Despite international regulations and organizations, national laws and measures, and the efforts of non-governmental organizations, the problem requires higher priority.

References

Arias, A. H., & Marcovecchio, J. E. (Eds.). (2017). Marine pollution and climate change. CRC Press.

Karim, M. S. (2016). Prevention of pollution of the marine environment from vessels. Springer International Publishing.

Mearns, A. J., Reish, D. J., Bissell, M., Morrison, A. M., RempelHester, M. A., Arthur, C., Rutherford, N., & Pryor, R. (2018). Effects of pollution on marine organisms. Water Environment Research, 90(10), 1206-1300.

Xanthos, D., & Walker, T. R. (2017). International policies to reduce plastic marine pollution from single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads): a review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 118(1-2), 17-26.