Category: Manufacturing

The fissile properties of Plutonium-239

Plutonium-239 is an isotope of plutonium commonly used in nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons. The atoms of Plutonium-239 primarily disintegrate to release energy and gamma radiation when bombarded with slow-moving neutrons and are said to be a fissile isotope. Because of its fissile properties, plutonium-239 is used as a nuclear fuel in reactors to produce energy. It is also the major isotope used in the production of nuclear weapons alongside Uranium-238. It has an estimated half-life of 24,200 years; however, it undergoes fission when bombarded with neutrons to release energy, more neutrons, and radiations such as beta rays and gamma radiations.

Manufacture of Plutonium-239

Plutonium-239 is one of the primary fuels of nuclear reactors. It is generated through a fusion process involving Uranium-238 isotope (U-238) present in the nuclear fuel rods. The process involves exposing the Uranium-238 isotopes to a stream of neutrons, whereby the U-238 atoms capture the neutrons and transform them to Uranium- 239 (U-239). The U-239 formed undergoes beta decay by first releasing beta radiation to form Neptunium-239 followed by second beta decay to form plutonium-239 (Benedict & Thomas, 1981, p.81). The plutonium produced, however, is not pure and requires exposure into the air in the reactors to isolate pure plutonium-239 from the rest of the materials and make it an effective fissile material for use in nuclear reactors. However, the plutonium produced this way contains some contaminants notably plutonium-240. The formation of plutonium-240 is due to the tendency of Uranium-238 to take up an extra neutron during its formation.

Much of the plutonium-239 is manufactured in nuclear reactors called breeder reactors using fast-moving neutrons. They utilize less uranium-238 fuel but produce more plutonium-239 hence an efficient method of generating plutonium-239 from uranium fuel. However, the purity of plutonium-239 produced varies depending on the amount of the plutonium-240 present and the intended purpose. Plutonium-239 intended for the production of weapons contains a less percentage of plutonium-240, of up to 7% while plutonium-239 used as fuel in reactors contains 18% of the contaminant, plutonium-240.

Nuclear Power Reactors

In nuclear power reactors, uranium-238 is used as fuel alongside plutonium-239, which accumulates in the nuclear fuel. Plutonium-239 absorbs neutrons, which initiate a sustained chain-fission reaction. In the reactor core, plutonium-239 is constantly recycled thus eliminating any need for new fuel rods. During the fission process, large amounts of heat energy and radiations such as beta particles and gamma-ray are released (Hala & James, 2003, p. 102). The energy produced makes the reactor core very hot and requires a constant cooling system. In the Chernobyl nuclear accident, plutonium-239 was used as the fissile material for the nuclear reactors. The failure of the cooling system caused the nuclear core to become so hot leading to an explosion. The Chernobyl accident released major radioactive elements such as iodine-131 isotope, cesium-134 cesium-137, and plutonium-239. These elements are radioactive hence emit dangerous radiations such as gamma radiations into the environment.

Plutonium produced from the breeder reactors is not appropriate for use in nuclear reactors and in the production of nuclear weapons because of a significant amount of the contaminant plutonium-240 that it contains (The Institute for Energy and Environmental Research (IEER), 1992, p.11). In addition, plutonium-240 undergoes spontaneous fission producing harmful nuclear radiation making handling it difficult. The presence of plutonium-240 in the fuel rods used in reactors can cause a small explosion that affects the nuclear reactor core.

Reference List

Benedict, M., & Thomas, P. (1981). Nuclear Chemical Engineering. New York: McGrawHill.

Hala, J., & James, D. (2003). Radioactivity, Ionizing Radiation, and Nuclear Energy. London: Oxford Press.

IEER. (1992). Plutonium, Deadly Gold of the Nuclear Age. Massachusetts: International Physicians Press.

Introduction

Riordan Manufacturing, a plastics producer with great developmental potential and ambitions, has launched the management restructuring initiative and its IT department has supported it by designing four Web sites. The major issue of uncertainty for the company is thus the probability of each of the four sites to become the most popular among the customers. This issue can be solved using one of the best statistical methods that allow retrieving objective findings from subjective data, i. e. Baye’s Theorem. The calculations this theorem implies reveal that Web sites 1 and 3 have the highest probability for becoming popular, while site 2 has the lowest probability of the kind. These findings allow recommending that Riordan Manufacturing should pay more attention to the development of the sites with the lowest probability of success.

Process Description

Riordan Manufacturing, one of the leaders of the global plastics production industry, has recently developed the strategic idea of a management restructuring. One of the pillars of this idea is the so-called Web-based knowledge management system, for which the IT department of the company has designed four prototypes of Web sites. Every plant of Riordan Manufacturing was provided the access to all the four Web sites, and now the company must identify the most effective Web site design, i. e. the site attended by visitors most often (Riordan Manufacturing, 2010).

Problem and Uncertainty

Thus, the major problem that the current assessment is designed to solve is the uncertainty of Riordan Manufacturing regarding two major factors. First of all, the company needs more specific information about the success of its management restructuring initiative.

Second, Riordan Manufacturing requires specific data regarding the performance of its IT department. Both these factors can be partly examined through the analysis of the attendance of the new Web sites that the IT department of the company has launched in pursuit of the above-mentioned management restructuring initiative.

The four Web site prototypes are designed to serve various aspects of Riordan Manufacturing’s performance including sales, production process, advertising, and customer relations. Therefore, the uncertainty that Riordan Manufacturing faces is all about the aspects of its work that require improvements. Accordingly, the identification of the most popular Web site will allow finding out the most properly developed aspect of the company’s performance, as well as the three problematic aspects of its work (Gilboa, 2009, p. 76).

Research

To operate with the specific data while making any recommendations to Riordan Manufacturing, it is first of all necessary to research the attendance statistics for all the four Web sites in question. For the better convenience of this process, the sites are labeled as follows:

• Site 1 (sales) = S1;
• Site 2 (production) = S2;
• Site 3 (advertising) = S3;
• Site 4 (customer relations) = S4.

The research proves that the probability of proper attendance of P(S1 and S3) =.93, while P(S2) =.56, and P(S4) =.75. At the same time, the probability that the largest number of “hits” per minute does mark the popularity of the site (if all “hits” are done by one or several IP addresses or an error is observed in the system) is referred to as M =.15.

Justification of Research Methods and Data Analysis: Baye’s Theorem

Thus, after the research on the uncertainty issue is done, it is now necessary to select the proper fitting statistical analysis model to be used in the given context. Baye’s Theorem can be considered as such a fitting model due to two major reasons. First, Baye’s Theorem allows making conclusions based on subjective opinions, and that is why this theorem is called the model of “subjective probability” (Anderson, 2007, p. 144). Second, Baye’s Theorem enables its users to derive objective probability data from subjective findings of the preliminary research. Accordingly, the use of Baye’s Theorem is the safest way to achieve objectively the inherently subjective results.

Thus, after the basic theoretical framework for the assessment is selected, it is necessary to summarize the currently obtained data and put them in the formula of Baye’s Theorem. So, the currently known information items include:

• The IT department of Riordan Manufacturing has launched for prototypes of Web sites (sales = S1, production = S2, advertising = S3, customer relations = S4);
• The probability of proper attendance of P(S1 and S3) =.93, while P(S2) =.56, and P(S4) =.75.;
• The probability that “hits” per minute do not mark the popularity of the sites is P(M/S1’, S2’, S3’, S4’)= 15% or.15;
• The probability that “hits” per minute do mark the popularity of the sites is P(M/S1, S2, S3, S4) = 85% or.85;

Based on these data, the posterior probability according to Baye’s Theorem can be calculated as follows:

P(S1 and S3/M) = P(S1 and S3) x P(M/S1, S2, S3, S4) / P(S1 and S3) x P(M/S1, S2, S3, S4) + P(M/S1’, S2’, S3’, S4’);

1. P(S1 and S3/M) = (.93 x.85) / (.93 x.85) +.15 =.7905 /.9405 =.84;
2. P(S2/M) = (.56 x.85) / (.56 x.85) +.15 =.4760 /.6260 =.76;
3. P(S4) = (.75 x.85) / (.75 x.85) +.15 =.6375 /.7875 =.81.

So, the probability for S1 and S3 to be the most popular is.84, which is smaller than the estimated figure of.93, while S2 and S4 have more chances for popularity than projected -.76 instead of expected.56 and.81 for.75 respectively. Thus, placing all the above-calculated meanings into a joint table will provide better visualization of the data retrieved during the research:

Table 1. Baye’s Theorem.

Thus, although the actual probabilities are lower than preliminary ones, S1 and S3 still have the highest probability of being the most popular among users.

Decisions and Recommendations

Thus, the above calculations and findings of the assessment allow deciding that the Web sites marked as S1 and S3 have the highest probability for being the most popular among Riordan Manufacturing. Accordingly, it is recommended that Riordan Manufacturing should pay more attention to the development and improvement of S2 and S4 as the Web site prototypes that have the lower probabilities of being popular among the customers. The Web site S2 displays the lowest probability according to the data retrieved through the use of Baye’s Theorem and the customization of this Web site is strongly recommended.

References

Anderson, D. (2007). Statistics for business and economics. Cengage Learning EMEA.

Gilboa, I. (2009). Theory of Decision under Uncertainty. Cambridge University Press.

Riordan Manufacturing. (2010). Official Corporate Web Site. Web.

Introduction

At first glance, it seems that polyethylene is a simple polymer structure. But the analysis of polyethylene is a complicated matter because of the wide range of types and different manufacturing processes associated with the said material. Experts are in agreement that there is no precise method that can be used to classify polyethylene. However, for the sake of simplicity, polyethylene can be classed as low, medium, or high density. The conventional classification system, therefore, uses the manufacturing process to categorize different variations of polyethylene correctly. For example, there are two ways to produce polyethylene, and these are called “high pressure” and “low pressure” operations. The subsequent byproduct of the said operations can be grouped into three and listed as follows:

1. Low-density polyethylene (“LDPE”);
2. High-density polyethylene (“HDPE”);
3. Linear low-density polyethylene (“LLDPE”).

The popularity of polyethylene is rooted in the fact that this polymer is cheap, flexible, durable, and chemically resistant It is important to take a closer look at the manufacturing process in order to develop innovative and sustainable ways to manufacture polyethylene.

It is interesting to note that polyethylene production started late as compared to other industrial materials. LDPE is used to make films and packaging materials. On the other hand, HDPE is often used in the manufacture of containers, plumbing, and automotive fittings. HDPE is associated with these types of products because of higher stiffness compared with LDPE and LLDPE.

It must be pointed out that extrusion coating of paper and paperboard is an application segment that proves to be a growth area for LDPE. The explanation for LDPE’s popularity is based on innovations in packaging technology for paperboard coating and paper and foil composite structures. Another reason is that LDPE is easier to process than LLDPE. At the same time LDPE has good strength and clarity.

Before going any further there is a need to clarify the difference between “low-density” and “high-density” polyethylene.

For example low-density polyethylene is ideal for products with demanding performance requirements. A good example would be stretch wrap, food packaging, and hygiene and medical applications. There is a high demand for packaging products that came from low-density polyethylene because it offers flexibility and flex crack resistance, particularly when it comes to liquids that move freely within a package.

However, if there is a need for a tougher packaging material, it can be argued that HDPE is more suited for the task. There are products that require puncture resistance. Others require tear resistance. In another application of for the polyethylene polymer, manufacturers developed the high-density polyethylene. The benefits of HDPE can be summed up in the following statement: “an excellent combination of stiffness and environmental stress crack resistance.” The high-molecular weight of an HDPE polymer provided the toughness required in pipe applications.

Background

Due to low price, processing ease and a variety of products that can be derived from it, polyethylene has become the most used plastic. Aside from chemical resistance polyethylene also exhibited another beneficial property and that is electrical resistance. This property led to the wide use of polyethylene in wire coatings and dielectrics. Polyethylene can be easily processed using all thermoplastic methods. Consider the following observation “Blow molded containers are seen in every supermarket … these containers replace heavier ones made of glass and metal. Therefore, aside from the cost and ease of use, polyethylene also offers lightweight materials and makes it easier to transport goods from source of origin to supermarkets or stores.

The commercial production of polyethylene started late. There were failed experiments in the 1920s that did not produce practical applications for the said material. However, there was a chance observation that was made in 1933 when an ICI research team discovered that traces of a waxy polymer could be formed when ethylene and benzaldehyde were subjected to high temperatures.

The most important implication of the said ICI research was the realization that the product exhibited partial crystallinity and as a result the measurement of the density of the byproduct was used to classify it into different types of polyethylene. The said research team also discovered that the polymerization of the material at high temperatures resulted in polymer chains that were branched and resulted in densities of 915-925 kg/m³. But twenty years later another group of researcher discovered that the use of a different catalyst and polymerization at low pressure and temperature produced HDPE.

The utilization of the Phillips and Ziegler catalysts produced HDPE products that were tough and chemically resistant. But the said industrial material is more expensive to produce. At the same time, an HDPE material is opaque and not transparent and therefore it is not an ideal packaging material.

In 1978 Union Carbide created the Unipol process that enabled the company to produce linear low-density polyethylene or LLDPE. The Unipol process is cheaper. But more importantly it enabled manufacturing firms to manipulate the molecular structure of the linear product. For example, manufacturing companies could produce tougher films that are stronger and yet flexible.

The functional value of polyethylene can be appreciated through the study of its chemical structure. It is an example of a polymer molecule. It must be pointed out that a polymer molecule is composed of a large number of repeating units joined together by covalent bonds. For instance, all plastics and rubbers are polymers. A better way to appreciate the importance of polyethylene when in the context of industrial use is to point out that a polyethylene like HDPE has the same chemical composition of a paraffin wax. However, the main difference is in their molecular size. Aside from the major difference when it comes to molecular size, polyethylene molecules like HDPE are much longer than those of the paraffin wax. Furthermore, the high strength of polymers comes from “the long-chain nature of polymer molecules.”

Table 1. Main Applications of Polyethylene.

When it comes to LDPE, the short-chain branches suppress crystallinity and explain why the density in the solid phase is low. The short-chain branches also explain why the material is highly flexible. As a result it is relatively easy to process this material in its molten state. However, the plastic material derived from this process is relatively soft and weak.

When it comes to HDPE, the process to produce this type of linear polymer was discovered in 1950. HDPE is produced through the use of reactors at pressures that are lower than those used for the production of LDPE. The said commercial process produced linear polyethylene with a higher crystallinity in the solid phase. In addition, the non-branching HDPE can form a dense mass. As a result the byproduct is harder and stronger.

When it comes to the production of LLDPE the plastics contain little chain branching. LLDPE is a tough material that possessed good clarity, high elongation, high hot tack and a low melting point. Thus, the plastics exhibit good flex life, low warpage, and improved stress-crack resistance. For example, films for ice, trash, garment and produce bags are durable as well as puncture and tear resistant.

Table 2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Polyethylene.

It can be argued that the advantages of using polyethylene far outweigh the disadvantages of using the same. There is a high demand for industrial products that can protect and secure important items and foodstuff. The contribution of polyethylene can be seen in cost-efficiency, use of lightweight materials and durability.

But, there is one aspect of the polyethylene manufacturing process that must be highlighted in order to address sustainability issues. It must be made clear that in order to produce polyethylene, manufacturing firms must use ethylene as a feedstock. The conventional method of production necessitates the use of natural gas and crude oil. These are examples of fossil fuels and are non-renewable sources of energy and organic compounds.

The sustainability issue that surrounds polyethylene production is linked to the fact that someday all fossil fuel reserves will be depleted. Therefore, the inability to acquire this particular feedstock means that the world will stop producing plastics. It is therefore important to investigate current technological breakthrough that addressed this particular problem.

State-of-the-Art

Companies that manufacture polyethylene rely on one important ingredient and that is ethylene. The application of specific pressure and temperature to ethylene will result in the production of polyethylene. But there is one major problem when viewed in the context of sustainability and environmental impact. The feedstock needed to produce ethylene is natural gas or crude oil. These are examples of fossil fuels.

There is no need to elaborate the fact that natural gas and crude oil are problematic source of energy and organic compounds because it will be depleted in the future. This particular resource is finite and therefore it is prudent to search for alternative feedstock for the production of ethylene.

The alternative source must be renewable. It must come from a crop produced by plants or a substance produced by living organisms. At the same time the feedstock that will be used to produce ethylene must be predictable and cost-effective. One of the alternative solutions suggested by experts in the field of polyethylene is to use ethanol instead of natural gas or crude oil.

Ethanol is a form of natural alcohol and it is derived from the fermentation of organic sources of energy such as grains and fruits. In recent years the production of ethanol was made possible through the use of sugar beets, sugarcane, sweet sorghum, corn, and wheat. But there is one major problem when it comes to the use of grains and fruits and it is the need for arable land that must be converted to farmlands that in turn must be planted with a single crop.

It must be pointed out that thousands of acres of farms planted with a single crop are capital and labour intensive. As a consequence scientists had to look for more radical solutions to the given problem. They turned their attention to genetically modified microorganisms also known as cyanobacteria.

The genetically modified cyanobacteria will be cultured in a bioreactor to produce a large mass of algae. The end result of the process is the production of ethanol. Therefore, ethanol as a form of energy source can be used as a feedstock to produce ethylene and afterwards ethylene will be used to produce polyethylene.

The first thing that has to be established is the viability of the said technology. Thus, it must be made clear that there is already a genetically modified microorganism that can produce ethanol. The most critical factor is the use of a genetically modified cyanobacteria strain. It is technically labelled as Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 strain. This particular strain of genetically modified organism can photoautotrophically convert carbon dioxide to bioethanol.

There is a need to clarify the fact that this particular strain enables the direct synthesis of ethanol. Nevertheless, a word of caution must be thrown out because the synthesis of ethanol is not guaranteed. It must be made clear that synthesis of ethanol does not occur naturally. Manufacturing companies that will utilize this technology must learn to manipulate cyanobacteria. The correct conditions must be met in order to create the optimum algal growth that will lead to the production of ethanol.

Scientists discovered that microalgae placed in a dark environment could survive even without light because the said microorganism utilized the glycogen stored in their bodies. In these conditions the microorganism produces no ethanol. But a different effect can be observed when cyanobacteria are placed in a dark and anaerobic environment. Due to the absence of oxygen “the oxidative reaction of starch to carbon dioxide does not proceed.” At the end, the culture can produce hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, lactic acid, formic acid, acetic acid, ethanol and other products. The behavior of microalgae under the said conditions was used as the basis for the genetic modification of cyanobacteria so that it can directly synthesize ethanol.

Manufacturing companies will not immediately embrace this technology until their respective corporate leaders are convinced that the new system is practical and cost-efficient. The theoretical framework outlined earlier is not enough to persuade these corporate leaders to invest in this new technology. They will not invest huge sums of money in order to construct a new facility that utilizes a radically different process without assurance that it is already a proven system. The new system must guarantee the delivery of ethanol on a large-scale basis. It is therefore important to point out that in 2012 a company called Algenol was able to prove that cyanobacteria can directly synthesize ethanol.

Algenol is a state-of-the-art industrial biotechnology company located in Florida, USA. The said research firm boasts of laboratories in Florida as well as in Berlin, Germany. Algenol made the assertion that their patented system was documented to have produced 6000 gallons of ethanol per acre of microalgae. In order to fully understand the importance of this claim it has to be highlighted that an acre of corn can only produce 400 gallons of ethanol. In the same manner an acre of sugarcane can only produce 1000 gallons of ethanol.

The next step is to verify if there is a way to convert ethanol to ethylene. Without ethylene there can be no production of polyethylene. According to experts in this field, the process of conversion calls for the dehydration of ethanol. Another advantage of this process is cost-efficiency because the conversion of ethylene from ethanol is simpler. For example, the end product that can be seen in the bioreactor is water and ethylene, some unreacted ethanol and trace amounts of other substances. Thus, there is no need for distillation equipment and therefore lower cost for the company.

The patented system can be characterized as an efficient system because it uses renewable materials. For instance, the direct synthesis of ethanol requires microorganisms, water, carbon dioxide and sunlight. Furthermore, the sustainability of the system was established when it was proven that the microalgae can replicate without the need to purchase new cultivars. In other words, once the manufacturing companies purchased the technology from companies like Algenol, they will be supplied with cultivars from where microorganisms grow and replicate. The replication process continues as longs as there is enough food and other critical ingredients needed by the cyanobacteria to synthesize ethanol.

Algenol also made the assertion that the 6000 gallons of ethanol per acre is within production range. The basis for this claim can be see in the fact that genetically modified cyanobacteria strain is a “fast growing photosynthetic prokaryote with high rates of photoconversion of carbon dioxide into photosynthate and biomass.” In other words there is evidence to show that ordinary cyanobacteria can produce higher yields of ethanol compared to feedstock like corn and sugarcane.

Therefore, genetically altered microorganisms are expected to produce a much higher yield. Even if biofuel companies used unenhanced microalgae the expected bioethanol yield is already higher than agricultural feedstock like corn and sugarcane. Thus, the genetically modified cyanobacteria strain is expected to generate more.

There is another reason why genetically modified cyanobacteria can be a reliable tool for the direct synthesis of ethanol. According to scientists, it has the “capacity for stable genetic enhancement and availability of molecular tools.” Thus, genetic engineers can further improved the performance of the said microorganism in order to produce better yields.

Another evidence that Algenol was able to develop a reliable system was the discovery that cyanobacteria can thrive in a “defined inorganic medium with no organic carbon source required.” Thus, manufacturing companies will not have to spend an additional amount with regards to maintaining the cultivar. In other words the system can thrive with minimal input from the company. For instance, Algenol said that there is no need for materials aside from water, sunlight and carbon dioxide. This system can be considered sustainable because all the needed ingredients are readily available and renewable.

There are other factors to consider, for instance, manufacturing companies will be required to purchase the technology from Algenol. At the same time these manufacturing companies are required to construct photobioreactors because it only through an enclosed and anaerobic environment that a cyanobacteria can be expected to synthesize ethanol.

Manufacturing companies should also take heed that there are at least three key aspects that must be considered prior to the construction of photobioreactors. There is a need for ample space to construct the bioreactor, there must be sunlight in the said area and there must be ready access to a water source.

Land is indeed important but there is no need for hundreds of acres of land to initiate this project. In fact, the bioreactor can be constructed in such a way that the microalgae mass is equivalent to several acres of cultivars. The location of the bioreactor must be established first because planners will be able to determine the type of water source that can be supplied to the bioreactor. There is a specific strain of cyanobacteria that can thrive on saltwater or freshwater.

Discussion

The proposed alternative solution will create a sustainable system that will insure the continuous production of polyethylene even after fossil fuels like natural gas and crude oil had been depleted. If one will consider the cost of fossil fuel as well as the sustainability of the process it is easy conclude that there is no other way other than to embrace this new technology. There are so many advantages to the use of renewable sources of energy and organic compounds that makes the cutting-edge technology attractive for investors. However, there are still various obstacles that can prevent the use of the technology espoused by Algenol.

The first problem is that the technological breakthrough claimed by Algenol was only publicized in 2012. In other words there are many businessmen that are not yet aware of the tremendous possibilities offered by the company. At the same time there is no successful model that manufacturing companies can emulate. It has to be made clear that Algenol is a research company not a manufacturing firm that produces polyethylene through the manipulation of ethylene. Algenol has the motivation to exaggerate their claims in order to entice companies to purchase their technology.

Another problem is that manufacturing companies will have to change their thinking process when it comes to a new way of producing polyethylene. There will be many changes that have to be made in order to initiate the process of using cyanobacteria instead of fossil fuels. One can just imagine the drastic changes in a system that relied on high temperature and high pressure to produce ethylene and then transition it to a system that uses microorganisms.

At the same time there is the problem of additional investment. Manufacturing companies will have to invest in new technology. A great deal of money will have to be invested in order to acquire the said technology. Thus, manufacturing companies must carefully evaluate the benefits and risk of adopting the Algenol technology. Furthermore, there is a need to invest in a company-sponsored study in order to verify the claims made by Algenol.

There are obstacles and challenges along the way. But an overview of the Algenol technology can easily convinced businessmen that it is practical to think about long-term growth. The depletion of fossil fuels will end the current manufacturing processes enjoyed by polyethylene production companies. There is therefore the need to think ahead. There are problems and risks involved, however, a sustainable mindset will help convince investors that there is no better way forward other than to use sustainable sources of energy and organic compounds.

The main challenge is the need to prove that it is a profitable system. At this point there is a high demand for plastic products. Therefore, companies that produce polyethylene are expected to make money. There is a need to sustain the production processes 365 days a year. These companies cannot afford to slow down. But the shift to a new technology requires time to think and analyse the new system. The adoption of a new system may require the disruption of business operations. Thus, it is a challenge for corporate leaders to lose money in the first year of operation and consider the long-term impact of renewable systems.

Conclusion

There are different types of polyethylene. But the most popular types are HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE. The type of plastic produced through the utilization of polyethylene results in products that can protect and secure items and foodstuff. Chemical resistance and impact strength are just some of the advantages of polyethylene. Furthermore, the manipulation of the polymerization process enabled scientist to produce different types of plastics based on their densities. Thus, there are plastics that are durable but not flexible. There are plastics that are flexible and yet puncture resistant. It is therefore easy to understand why there is a growing demand for plastics. If compared to other materials like wood, metal and glass, the advantages of plastics can be seen in its low cost, weight, and durability.

One can just imagine the added cost of transporting products that are weighed down by heavy packaging material. It is also important to point out that polyethylene can be produced in mass quantities. In the case of glass and metal the time needed to process this type of packaging material takes much longer. It is therefore important to sustain this way of life. It is difficult to imagine a supermarket or store without plastics. Food will not be protected from various external forces if there is no plastic that can be used as a packaging material. In the same manner electrical appliances and other equipment can be damaged without the use of plastic components.

The use of plastics derived from polyethylene provides a way to increase the profitability of a business enterprise. Consider for instance the ability to transport clothes and bags with the assurance that it will reach its intended recipient without incurring damage. In the past businessmen used cloth, wood crates or bottles to transport liquids, foodstuffs and various items. There is a need to maintain the integrity of the said products. In other words companies are compelled to invest in packaging materials and other mechanisms to ensure the safe and reliable delivery of their finished products. Consider also for instance the safety issues surrounding electrical devices. Without the availability of polyethylene there is no cheap and reliable way to coat wires in order to protect the people that will use electrical equipment. Thus, the convenience of polyethylene-based products must be highlighted in order to understand the implication if polyethylene manufacturing firms can no longer produce plastics.

It is therefore critical to develop a sustainable system. But at the heart of the polyethylene production process is the feedstock taken from fossil fuel such as natural gas and crude oil. There will come a time when these sources of energy and organic compounds will be depleted. Thus, it is important to consider the alternative solution proposed by companies like Algenol. Manufacturing companies must invest in a company-sponsored study in order to determine the viability of the said alternative solution. The independent study will provide answers to questions posed by business leaders. The independent study will also determine if the new technology can be adopted successfully into the present system.

References

Abdel-Barry, Elsayed. Handbook of Plastic Films. UK: Rapra Technology, Ltd., 2003.

Algenol Biofuels. “Harnessing the Sun to Fuel the World.” Algenol Research. Chung, Chan. Extrusion of Polymers: Theory and Practice.

OH: Hanser Gardner Publications, 2000. Dealy, John and Ronald Larson. Structure and Rheology of Molten Polymers.

OH: Hanser Gardner Publications, 2006. Halford, N. (2011). Energy crops. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Khanal, Samir. Bioenergy and Biofuel from Biowastes and Biomass. Reston, VA: American, Society of Civil Engineers, 2010.

Kjellin, Mikael. Surfactants from Renewable Resources. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

Richardson, Terry and Eric Lokensgard, Industrial Plastics: Theory and Applications. New York: Delmar Learning, 2004.

Selke, Susan. Understanding Plastics Packaging Technology. OH: Hanser Gardner Publications, 1997.

Soroka, Walter. Illustrated Glossary of Packaging Terminology. IL: Institute of Packaging Professionals, 2008.

Vasile, Cornelia and Mihaela Pascu. Practical Guide to Polyethylene. UK: Rapra Technology Ltd., 2010.

Wang, Lawrence. Environmental Bioengineering. New York: Humana, 2010.

Introduction

Managers spend a lot of time making decisions about the operational performance of their companies. In psychology, the concept of decision-making refers to the process of understanding all cognitive processes that lead a person to select a specific course of action among a list of others (Newell, Lagnado & Shanks 2015; Betsch & Haberstroh 2014). The process is complex because it is based on a review of a person’s values, beliefs or preferences. This poster proposes ways to improve decision-making processes at a local manufacturing company.

Suggestions

1. Stay Open to all Alternatives
2. Create Rules

Evaluation of Suggestions

Option 1 (Staying Open to All Alternatives)

Often, quick thinking behaviours have made it difficult for managers to evaluate all relevant options when making important decisions in the workplace (Newell, Lagnado & Shanks 2015). Consequently, the motivation to be open to suggestions is informed by the need to evaluate all options before making a final decision. This way, the choice or course of action taken would be made from a point of knowledge. This recommendation stems from the field of cognitive psychology, which seeks to understand human thought processes in group settings (Airenti 2019). However, this approach to evaluating decision-making processes is contrary to the principles of behaviourism because proponents of the latter argue that it is difficult to understand internal thought processes because they are unseen and subjective (Xiong & Proctor 2018; Reese 2014).

Option 2 (Creating Rules)

According to Fedyk (2017), McLeod, Lawler and Schwalbe (2014), rules provide predictability and consistency in decision-making processes.

Rules should be instituted by the manufacturing company to guide future decision-making processes because the first suggestion highlighted above (staying open to alternatives) is a volatile concept that may not yield the desired outcomes if there are no rules to govern discussions (Nuzzolilli & Diller 2014). This suggestion was developed through an acknowledgement that different issues affect production outcomes, while the acceptability of these outcomes depends on their appeal to people (Nuzzolilli & Diller 2014).

This recommendation stems from the behaviourism theory highlighted by Malone (2014), which suggests that people’s behaviours and decisions are often influenced by external stimuli or internal factors that potentially stem from childhood. The efficacy of this theory in explaining the psychology of decision-making has been proven in organisational behaviour management studies (Nuzzolilli & Diller 2014).

Summary and Conclusion

Improving the quality of decisions made in a company is arguably the fastest way to initiate progress in it. However, the process of often marred by the influence of several internal and external factors affecting decision-makers. Consequently, it is difficult to make the right decision when there are several such variables. Nonetheless, it is recommended that managers should be open to all decision alternatives and take their time before choosing one. Furthermore, it is recommended that a set of rules should be created to guide the decision-making process. These recommendations are based on the ideals of the behaviourist and cognitive theories of psychology.

Reference List

Airenti, G 2019, ‘The place of development in the history of psychology and cognitive science’, Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 1, no. 10, pp. 895-902.

Betsch, T & Haberstroh, S (eds) 2014, The routines of decision making, Psychology Press, New York, NY.

Fedyk, M 2017, The social turn in moral psychology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Malone JC 2014, ‘Did John B. Watson really “found” behaviorism?’, The Behavior Analyst, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 1-12.

McLeod, JD, Lawler, EJ & Schwalbe, M 2014, Handbook of the social psychology of inequality, Springer, New York, NY.

Newell, BR, Lagnado, DA & Shanks, DR 2015, Straight choices: the psychology of decision making, 2nd edn, Psychology Press, New York, NY.

Nuzzolilli, AE & Diller, JW 2014, ‘How Hume’s philosophy informed radical behaviorism’, The Behavior Analyst, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 115-125.

Open University 2015, Investigating psychology 2, Book 1, Business Development Unit, Milton Keynes.

Reese HW 2014, ‘Commentary on Malone: who founded behaviorism?’, The Behavior Analyst, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 109-114.

Xiong, A & Proctor, RW 2018, ‘Information processing: the language and analytical tools for cognitive psychology in the information age’, Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1270-1298.

Introduction

The Sentimental Manufacturer poem was created in 1846, and its dedication says To The Factory Girl. The poem is presented from the manufacturer’s point of view and is dedicated to an employee of his factory.

Discussion

In it, he describes such qualities of a girl as beauty and fairness and affectionately addresses her “love” (“The sentimental,” 1846, line 5). However, more often, the narrator talks about his own money earned by the girl’s labor, saying that the employee herself should not want enrichment. While the poem is built as a declaration of love for a woman, it is designed to draw attention to the greed of 19th-century manufacturers and employees.

Analysis of the poem demonstrates that its theme is the greed of manufacturers, which deprived its employees in the 19th century. At the same time, the theme is masked by the poem’s tone since the author uses affectionate addresses and descriptions. They make the tone more romantic, which resembles the lyrics. The author predominantly uses alternate rhyme in the poem. It also includes such a device as images representing a girl and a factory.

The poem’s theme is better revealed in the context of its creation. In particular, the Victorian era was characterized by the rapid development of the industry (“Victorian industry,” n.d.). Manufacturers made significant profits thanks to new work technologies. In the poem, they are described through images – the author mentions the noise and operation of mechanisms.

Conclusion

However, like the poem’s character, factory workers received only a tiny part of the profit gained by business owners. As a result, the poem draws attention to this problem, presenting the greed of the manufacturer in a negative way.

References

The sentimental manufacturer: To the factory girl. (1846). Ann Arbor District Library. Web.

Victorian industry. (n.d.). The History Press. Web.

Reflection paper

In their editorial, White, Aarons, and Chapman refer to the European Commission’s decision to investigate the claim that there is very little anti-trust integrity left in what accounts for the contractual relationships between online retailers and manufacturers. If this claim proves legitimate, it will most likely result in the Commission’s sub-sequential decision to impose additional anti-trust regulations in the domain of web-commerce: “It may become necessary for the commission to scrutinize certain clauses restricting online sales” (par. 2).

The purpose of such a hypothetical development would be to undermine the bargaining power of manufacturers. In its turn, this is expected to ensure the continued transparency of the competitive dynamics in the European online-market of goods and services – hence, benefiting price-sensitive consumers in Europe.

Before proceeding to discuss the actual effects of the initiative’s implementation on the fashion industry in the West, we need to highlight the discursive significance of some of the issue’s qualitative aspects.

One of them is that nowadays, manufacturers strive to charge ever-higher prices for their products and discourage retailers from selling these products online – the trend that appears dialectically/objectively predetermined. The logic behind this suggestion has to do with both: the fact the overwhelming majority of apparel manufacturers have their production lines operating in China, and the fact that the standards of living in this country continue to improve rather rapidly.¹

Whereas, as recent as twenty years ago, a Chinese worker would be more than happy being paid $1 per day for slaving in some ‘sweatshop’, he or she will now demand a much higher daily salary. What it means is that, as time goes on, the feasibility of the ‘outsourcing’ practice will continue being reduced. One of the strategies, deployed by the Chinese-based (but Western-owned) manufacturers to cope with this issue, is trying to prevent retailers from becoming a little too competitive and consequently capable of applying too much bargaining pressure on suppliers.

In other words, the concerned strategy, on the part of manufacturers, is fully consistent with the main principles of how the ‘free-market’ economy operates. Therefore, the Commission’s decision to interfere may only have a temporary effect, in the sense of disenfranchising manufacturers. The reason for this is that, despite the seemingly libertarian essence of the Commission’s initiative, it is politically driven and ultimately protectionist.

To illustrate the validity of this suggestion, one will need to refer to what has always been considered the societal role of fashion – to serve as the medium through which people channel their domination-seeking anxieties. As Hemphill and Suk noted:

Fashion is adopted by social elites for the purpose of demarcating themselves as a group from the lower classes. The lower classes inevitably admire and emulate the upper classes… Change in fashion is thus endlessly propelled by the drive to social stratification on the one hand and to social mobility on the other (1156).

In this respect, we will also need to mention yet another noteworthy trend that used to define the dynamics in the domain of fashion since the 20^th century’s early nineties until comparatively recent times – the growing popularity of the simultaneously ‘luxurious’ and ‘affordable’ fashion brands/clothing retailers, such as Zara, for example (Haejung, Soo-Kyung, and Forney 3).

The concerned development came about as a result of the fact that throughout the historical period in question, most Western countries were able to approach the point of being considered true ‘welfare-states’, which take pride in having most of their citizens belonging to the ‘middle class’. Those citizens who belong to the ‘underprivileged classes’ in these countries are also far from being required to struggle hard, in order to be able to survive physically.

After all, it is not a secret that even today, for as long as one is considered the EU subject, he or she does not have to work to be able to meet ends. While qualified to receive as much as 900 Euros a month in various ‘welfare payments’, an individual will be naturally prompted to indulge in bellyful idleness – especially if he or she happened to be a newly arrived immigrant from the Third World.

Such a situation, of course, created the objective preconditions for the boundary between the ‘high end’ and ‘low end’ trends/styles in fashion to grow increasingly blurred.² In its turn, the rise of the Internet contributed towards empowering Europeans (Westerners) as consumers, because it provided them with a number of the previously unknown bargaining opportunities (such as being able to shop online).

Nevertheless, the financial crisis of 2008, followed by the economic recession (which gains momentum, as we speak), and the process of Western countries continuing to weaken geopolitically, presupposes that the earlier described state of social affairs in the West is about to end. The reason for this has to do with the well-established fact that, to be sustainable, the Capitalist (free-trade) economy may never cease expanding territorially (Kiely 29). For example, the sharp rise of the ‘middle class’ in Western countries, which took place in the nineties, was made possible by the collapse of the USSR in 1991 – the occurrence that allowed the West to ‘devour’ most of the formerly Soviet markets.

As of today, however, there are no objective prerequisites to believe that the West will be able to maintain its socio-economic dominance in the world for much longer. America’s recent ‘successes’ in confronting Russia prove the validity of this suggestion. Consequently, this implies that there may soon be no ‘middle class’ left in the EU, to speak of. This, of course, presupposes a) The decline of the middle-class oriented fashion brands, b) The drastic reduction in the number of those Europeans who can afford to spend time hunting for fashion-bargains online, instead of indulging in heavy physical labor to make a daily living. After all, there is a good reason to think of one’s addiction to online shopping as being reflective of the clearly decadent workings of his or her psyche. As Fogel and Schneider pointed out:

Use of the Consumer Decision Making Styles Inventory (CDMSI) for online apparel purchases showed that recreational consciousness, impulsiveness, and decreased price-value consciousness were associated with the frequency of online shopping (369).

As time goes on, however, there will be fewer reasons for Europeans to be endowed with ‘recreational consciousness’.

Therefore, the European Commission’s anti-trust initiative, intended to bring more transparency to the functioning of the fashion market in Europe, and to reduce the severity of social tensions within the EU, is doomed to prove utterly ineffective. The reason for this is quite apparent – the Commission’s authority does extend to the countries where most manufacturers operate. If any restrictive measures are to be taken against manufacturers by the EU bureaucrats, the former will switch to targeting other markets – pure and simple. What it means is that the Commission’s initiative is purely declarative and that it cannot have any real effect on how manufacturers and retailers go about trying to remain competitive. However, the quoted editorial and the earlier deployed of the line of reasoning, on our part, do contain certain insights into what are going to become the fashion industry’s main operational principles in the future.

The most easily identifiable of them is that those fashion brands that specialize in providing consumers with ‘fashionable casual wear’ are going to fall out of favor with consumers. Such an eventual development is predetermined by the ongoing corporatization/privatization of the public sphere in the West – something that will inevitably contribute to the widening of a gap between the rich and poor. In its turn, this will deprive fashion of its current ability to serve as the instrument of social uplifting (even if purely imaginary) for the poor. Instead, fashion will become solely concerned with helping the rich to emphasize that they are much different from their impoverished co-citizens, even if this is being done in a clearly degenerative manner.³

The foremost effect of such a course of events on the online shoppers in Europe will be concerned with preventing these people from being able to purchase a low-priced and yet highly fashionable clothing item on the web. In fact, the prices will rise much higher even for the presumably unfashionable lines of clothing. This once again confirms the validity of the earlier suggestion that there can be very little factual significance to the European Commission’s anti-trust initiative, mentioned in the editorial.

Endnotes

Works Cited

Fogel, Joshua, and Mayer Schneider. “Understanding Designer Clothing Purchases over the Internet.” Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 14.3 (2010): 367-96. Print.

Hemphill, Clark, and Jeannie Suk. “The Law, Culture, and Economics of Fashion.” Stanford Law Review 61.5 (2009): 1147-1199. Print.

Kiely, Ray. “Capitalist Expansion and the Imperialism-Globalization Debate: Contemporary Marxist Explanations.” Journal of International Relations and Development 8.1 (2005): 27-57. Print.

Haejung, Kim, Ahn Soo-kyoung, and Judith Forney. “Shifting Paradigms for Fashion: From Total to Global to Smart Consumer Experience.” Fashion and Textiles 1.1 (2014): 1-16. Print.

White, Aoife, Anthony Aarons, and Peter Chapman. Online Retailers Thwarted by Manufacturers’ Curbs, EU Says. 2016. Web.

Introduction

The activity of medical institutions is impossible without appropriate equipment with special tools. Insurance of the functioning of the presented organizations requires various types of medical facilities. Some kinds of durable material are used for diagnostic procedures, therapeutic needs, and for many small daily activities in the hospital or patient’s accommodation. The production of high-tech equipment requires highly qualified specialists, free access to resources and medical databases, as well as guaranteed financing since this industry is considerably expensive.

Main body

Medical equipment is intended for different purposes and according to this criterion is divided as follows:

• Diagnostic equipment includes devices such as x-rays, tomographs, ultrasound machines, and electrocardiographs. These facilities are used to identify symptoms of the disease and take various signs from the patient;
• Therapeutic equipment is phonendoscopes, tonometers, and other instruments that are designed for initial examination and diagnosis;
• Surgical equipment is the entire extensive set of tools for surgical intervention, as well as machines for maintaining vital functions during operations;
• Laboratory facilities are all sorts of analyzers and consumables for them, dishes and other laboratory supplies;
• Transport equipment includes stretchers, wheelchairs, and incubators for newborns.

Since the production of complex electronic machines can be difficult for a start-up factory, the creation of transport equipment (wheelchairs), non-electronic therapeutic (phonendoscopes, enemas, etc.) or surgical (sterile needles, droppers, catheters, etc.) devices and laboratory glassware (test tubes, syringes, Petri dishes) will be most profitable and rational. The therapeutic stage is one of the most valuable in the process of examination and diagnosis. Different equipment is used for various diseases, for example, a phonendoscope and a stethoscope are applied during the primary analysis or in the diagnosis of diseases of the upper respiratory tract. Non-electronic blood pressure monitor is utilized in the investigation of cardiovascular diseases or pressure problems associated with stress. Enemas are medical instruments that are designed to treat gastroenterological conditions or to prepare for many biopsies and operations.

Disposable consumables play an essential role in the functioning of the surgical department. For example, during operations, a large number of syringes, droppers, or disposable surgical instruments (catheters, tweezers) are applied. Laboratories also use a large amount of equipment in addition to the analyzers themselves. For instance, laboratory glassware is utilized for analysis, syringes, and needles for sampling, as well as a large number of containers for storing materials. Moreover, a large number of different wheelchairs and gurneys are used to move around the hospital.

The production of the presented goods will be beneficial for the medical sector, and the development of small businesses is valuable for the advancement of the economy. Moreover, in the composition of such materials, it is possible to arrange the processing of waste, which will help the environmental reconstruction (Ordway et al. 22). Base healthcare products are one of the most expensive parts of the medical area; still, such a fabric is a competitive industry.

Production Line and Manufacturing Processes Used

A wheelchair is one of the most used aids to increase personal mobility, which is the primary condition for the realization of human rights and the preservation of their dignity, contributing to the transformation of people with disabilities into productive members of society. For many people, an equipped, well-designed, and adequately fitted wheelchair is the first step towards inclusion and active participation in society. About 10% of the world population, which is about 650 million people, are people with disabilities, and 10% of them need a wheelchair. Thus, it turns out that about 1% of the total population of the planet needs wheelchairs, which is about 65 million people (Bronzino 43-5). Wheelchairs are a prevalent means of medical support because they are used not only by disabled people but also by patients in hospitals with the temporary impossibility to move.

Such a demand creates a tremendous competitive advantage for small companies in the medical products market. As consumers often face financial difficulties, and the inability to use electronic chairs, the production of low-cost products will be beneficial for a start-up factory. There are three main types of these seats, such as for temporary use, for permanent use, and a chair with support for the body posture. It is also convenient to produce folding wheelchairs as this will provide the consumer with the opportunity for free movement.

Manufacturers must never compromise on the health and safety of users to lower production costs. Although it may seem that any wheelchair is better than its complete absence, it is not so if the wheelchair causes harm to health contributes to injuries or other threats to human health and life. The wheelchair must be designed in such a way as to ensure the safety and health of the user; otherwise, they may be injured as a result of using inappropriate equipment. Thus, the ideal wheelchair is a chair adapted to the individual needs of the patient. So, chairs for temporary use without the possibility of folding and not designed for street use will be serviceable in hospitals. Chairs for constant use adapted to patients’ problems and with the option of folding and attending the street will be popular among disabled people.

Moreover, the production of additional goods may also be part of the product line. For example, in the attachment to wheelchairs, the factory can offer interchangeable wheels, cushions for patient convenience, and other accessories. Moreover, the continuous production of stretchers and gurneys will be advantageous for long-term cooperation with many hospitals. The output of cots from durable materials will be useful for emergency services, and convenient maneuverable gurneys will support the establishment of collaboration within the hospital. While organizing green production, inevitably, multiple non-processed wastes occur. So, from the excesses after the creation of chairs and stretchers, as the mainline, it is possible to develop various disposable consumables. For instance, disposable syringes used in laboratory work and treatment in various medical institutions can be designed and released. Furthermore, medical plaits, enemas, and droppers from rubber waste can be put up for sale. The factory may consider the production of laboratory glassware and diagnostic tools as an additional line in a state of increased demand.

The primary production process is the method of creation of the fundamental goods, which includes natural processes, technological and working processes. The natural process is a way that leads to a change in the properties and composition of the subject of labor but proceeds without human intervention (for example, in the manufacture of certain types of chemical products). Natural production processes can be considered as necessary technological breaks between operations (cooling, drying, and ageing). The technical method is a set of procedures, as a result of which all the necessary changes in the subject of labor occur, thus it turns into finished products. Ancillary operations contribute to the implementation of basic services (transportation, control, and sorting of products). Workflow is the totality of all labor processes primary and secondary operations included. The structure of the production process changes under the influence of the technology, equipment used, the division of labor, and the organization of production.

Researches distinguish continuous and periodic production processes according to the type of production flow. In continuous processes, there are no interruptions in the making process, and production maintenance operations are performed simultaneously or in parallel with the primary activities. In periodic processes, the implementation of the principal and servicing procedures occurs sequentially, as a result of which the primary production process is interrupted in time (Koç 149). The principle of automatism is to upgrade production processes, which leads to an increase in production volume, a reduction in living labor costs, an increase in the quality of work, and the replacement of workers with machining centers and robots. Of course, a continuous automated process will be the fastest and most efficient production method.

Nevertheless, full automation can cause production errors and is also one of the most expensive manufacturing methods. The ideal factory model is a continuous production process with semi-automatic work support. Therefore, specialized machines must do most of the work under the control of operators, who also do the tasks required. The factory must also be flexible in the production method, that is, adapt to the needs of the market, but still leave its main products a priority. This model is an abstract design for the production of medical equipment, which can be applied in practice with minor transformations.

References

Bronzino, Joseph, and Donald Peterson. Medical Devices and Human Engineering. Amsterdam University Press, 2018.

Koç, Muammer, and Tugrul Özel. Modern Manufacturing Processes. John Wiley & Sons, 2019.

Ordway, Anne, et al. “Durable Medical Equipment Reuse and Recycling: Uncovering Hidden Opportunities for Reducing Medical Waste.” Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, vol. 15, no. 1, 2018, pp. 21–28.

Executive Summary

The waste assessment was conducted to identify the waste generating processes and how to minimize waste at Nowra Chemical Manufacturers. The assessment indicates that wastes are mainly generated during the production of various chemicals. Specifically, wastewater is produced in the process of cleaning the manufacturing facilities. The wastewater is collected in a single waste tank where the chemicals in it mix to form solid waste (sludge).

Thus, the main waste minimization opportunity is to eliminate the formation of sludge. This can be achieved by installing at least three different waste tanks to collect wastewater. Wastewater that contains a specific chemical will be collected in a particular tank to prevent sludge formation. This strategy will enable the company to reduce the cost of waste management significantly.

Description of the Facility

Nowra Chemical Manufacturers (NCM) is a medium sized producer of various chemical products in Australia. The company has employed 45 people who are specialized in various disciplines such as chemical engineering. The company produces “over 200 specialty chemicals, which include various detergents, cleaning products, and disinfectants” (NCM 2014). These products are manufactured in the company’s production facility that covers 5 acres of land.

The company’s production site is located in Nowra, New South Wales. The site has three sections, which include the administration block, the storage area, and the factory. The factory area has 24 reactor tanks that are used for various chemical processes (NCM 2014). It also has 38 mixing vessels that are used to blend various chemicals and raw materials. The capacities of the vessels vary from 200 to 20,000 liters. The factory has 20 tanks that are used for bulk storage of raw materials and finished products that are in liquid form.

Currently, the company’s waste management practices focus on reducing discharge of effluent into the ambient environment. In this regard, the company has built bund walls to prevent spillage of wastewater and chemicals. The company also recycles wastes and steam to reduce pollution. Moreover, it strives to reduce the wash down water that it uses to dispose wastes from 50KL to 30 KL per week. These practices cost the company $60,000 annually (NCM 2014).

Rationale for Waste Assessment

The reasons for conducting the waste assessment include the following. First, it will help the company to comply with the regulations in its industry. The government of Australia requires all manufacturers to submit annual reports on the amount of wastes that they discharge into the environment (Chauhan 2008, p. 57).

Manufacturers are also required to report on the actions that they have taken to reduce pollution. Second, the assessment will enable the company to achieve its desire to reduce wastes. The assessment has identified the areas that require improvement in terms of reduction in waste production. It has also recommended strategies for reducing the wastes. Third, implementation of the recommended waste reduction measures will enable the company to reduce its operating costs.

Methodology

Waste Assessment and Data Collection

Site visits were conducted in order to collect the data that was required for the assessment. The first visit focused on collection of firsthand information concerning the operations at the manufacturing site.

Specifically, the aim of the visit was to identify the sources of the wastes, the disposal routes, waste generation rates, and the composition of the wastes. Subsequent visits were conducted in order to review the company’s waste management system. The main objective of the subsequent visits was to identify opportunities for waste minimization and safe disposal of wastes.

The data used for the assessment was collected through the following strategies. First, interviews were conducted during the site visits to collect information concerning the waste generation processes. The interviewees included the company’s technical manager, production engineer, and the general manager. Second, observations were made during the site visits to identify the waste disposal routes and the composition of the wastes generated by the company.

Finally, data was collected by reviewing relevant documents such as the company’s environmental sustainability reports, financial statements, and strategic plans for waste management. These documents provided important information such as the amount of waste generated per year, the cost of disposing the wastes, and the strategies being used by the company to minimize waste.

Waste Generating Processes

The company’s wastes mainly consist of solid and liquid materials. Sludge is the main solid waste produced by the company. The liquid waste mainly consists of used water and toxic liquid chemicals. The liquid waste is often treated before being discharged into the ambient environment. This helps in reducing the environmental effects of various toxicants in the liquid wastes (Kumar 2007, p. 78).

NCM produces a large number of chemicals on a regular basis to meet the needs of its customers. As a result, it uses a wash down approach to clean vital facilities such as reactors and mixing vessels after every operation. This process generates large volumes of wastewater that is contaminated with various chemicals (NCM 2014).

The wastewater and toxic liquid chemicals are collected in a waste tank where they are treated before being discharged into the environment. However, mixing the liquid wastes in the tank leads to formation of large quantities of solid wastes in the form of sludge. Overall, the company produces 25 tons of solid waste (sludge) and 2,400 KL of wastewater annually (NCM 2014).

The disposal route begins at the waste tank where the liquid wastes are collected. The sludge produced in this tank is transferred to another tank where it is diluted and discharged into the company’s sewer. The sludge that remains in the tank is shoveled into filter bags to separate water from any solid wastes (NCM 2014). The sludge is then disposed in landfills that have been hired by the company.

The cost of disposing the wastes is very high due to the inefficiencies in the company’s waste management system (Australian Government 2008). In particular, the waste management system is labor intensive since most of the processes such as shoveling sludge is done manual. Additionally, the solid wastes have to be transported by trucks to landfills where they are disposed. Overall, the company spends approximately $60,000 annually to dispose its wastes.

Results from the Waste Assessment

Solid Wastes Analysis

Sludge formation in the company’s waste stream is mainly caused by 41 chemical products that are regularly produced (NCM 2014). The 41 chemicals are categorized into three groups namely, anions, nonions, and others (disinfectants, emulsions, and oils). These chemicals react differently when mixed in wastewater as shown in table 1.

Table 1

The production rate of each of the three categories of chemicals that produce sludge is summarized in table 2.

Table 2

Waste Management Costs

Table 3 presents a detailed analysis of the cost of managing the company’s solid and liquid wastes.

Figure 1: comparison of waste management cost items

Figure 2: Six-year waste management costs

Analyses of Results

Waste Generation

Table 1 indicates that solid waste (sludge) is generated when wastewater that contains different categories of chemicals mix. In addition, sludge is produced when wastewater that contains disinfectants, emulsions, and oils mix.

Table 2 shows that anions form the largest share (40.94%) of the chemicals that cause sludge formation. Thus, much of the sludge formation can be attributed to wastewater that contains anions. The data presented in table 1 and 2 means that generation of solid waste can be reduced if the company avoids mixing wastewater that contains different chemicals.

Table 3 and figure 1 indicate that labor is the major cost item in the company’s waste management budget. This is attributed to the fact that the waste management system is labor intensive. Figure 2, shows that the waste management costs have been increasing in the last six years. Thus, the company has to minimize its wastes in order to reduce its operating costs.

Waste Minimization Opportunities

The alternatives that the company can adopt to minimize waste include reduction of wastewater and solid wastes. Reduction of wastewater is likely to reduce the costs associated with treating wastes and discharging them into the ambient environment (Anand 2010, p. 89).

However, achieving significant wastewater reduction will be difficult since future increase in production will lead to increased water intake. However, the company can achieve significant reduction in solid waste generation if it integrates clean production principles in its operations (Berkel 2000).

In particular, the formation of sludge can be eliminated if the wastewater is discharged according to the chemicals that it contains. This means that the wastewater that contains each chemical will be discharged in a separate tank, thereby eliminating the formation of sludge (solid waste).

Cost Benefit Analysis

The costs associated with implementing clean production principles in order to reduce solid wastes include the following. First, the company will incur the costs associated with modifying its waste disposal system in order to prevent wastewater with different chemicals from mixing. Second, the company will incur the costs associated with conducting chemical mixing trails in order to identify more chemicals that are likely to form sludge when mixed.

Finally, the company will have to train its employees on how to implement the new waste disposal system. In this case, the company will have to pay for the training if it is outsourced.

The benefits of implementing the new waste disposal system include the following. First, the volume of solid waste (sludge) will reduce considerably. As a result, the cost of disposing wastes will reduce significantly. Second, the company will not be required to change its production system by eliminating some products or using alternative raw materials (Australian Government 2008).

Thus, the company will improve its competitiveness by reducing its waste management costs without changing its product range. Third, reducing sludge formation will reduce labor costs significantly. Labor costs will reduce because disposal of sludge is labor intensive. Finally, the storage space that is currently being used to store large filter bags that are used in the solid waste disposal system will be available for storing other items.

Savings Analysis

The new waste management system will enable the company to realize cost reductions as shown in table 4. Cost reduction will be achieved in water intake, labor, warehousing, and transportation.

Table 4

Recommendations for Waste Minimization

Objectives

The aims of future waste minimization include the following. The first objective is to reduce the volume of solid waste (sludge) by 60% in the next two years. The second objective is to reduce the volume of wastewater from 2,400KL to 1,200 KL (50%) in the next two years. The final objective is to train all the five employees who are working in the technical department on the new waste management system.

The waste minimization strategy is to prevent sludge formation at the disposal point. In this regard, the waste disposal system will be modified by installing different waste tanks to collect wastewater that contains each of the major chemicals that produce sludge. The reduction in sludge formation will lead to reduction of wastewater since little water will be required to dilute solid wastes at the treatment plant (Berkel 2000).

Implementing the Recommendations

The first stage should focus on conducting chemical mixing trials to identify all the chemicals that are likely to form sludge when mixed. This will enable the company to determine the number of waste tanks that it should install to dispose wastewater that contains various types of chemicals.

The second stage should focus on training the employees on the new waste management system. The training should focus on improving environmental conservation awareness among the employees, cleaning procedures, installing waste disposal facilities, and effluent management.

In the last stage, the company should modify the effluent stream by installing at least three waste tanks to collect wastewater that contains each of the three types of chemicals that have already been identified as major causes of sludge formation. Each tank should have a unique color to prevent confusion during disposal of wastewater.

Timeframe for the Implementation

References

Anand, S 2010, Solid Waste Management, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Australian Government 2008, Cleaner Production Demonstration Project at Nowra Chemical Manufacturers,. Web.

Berkel, R 2000, Cleaner Production for Process Industries. Web.

Chauhan, B 2008, Environmental Studies, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Kumar, A 2007, Environmental Studies, John Wiley and Sons, New Delhi.

NCM 2014, About Us: Sustainability. Web.

Introduction

Factories are governed by the duty of care to ensure that they undertake waste management practices during the production process. In order for an organization to ensure that the wastes produced are managed correctly, Cooks (2012) has recommended five major steps that should be taken by factories. These steps include: (1) monitoring; (2) collection; (3) transportation, (4) processing; and (5) disposal / recycle. The first step according to Cooks (2012) ensures that waste management needs have been identified, measures to minimize waste outputs and recycling are noted, and that waste minimization progress has been reviewed. In the second step, measures are taken to ensure that the process of waste collection from bin containers has been organized well. For example, it is important to ensure the correct collection bin sizes are provided at the desired frequency (Cooks, 2012). Moreover, it is also important to ensure that all the bins have labels and stickers in order to differentiate the waste products being discarded. This helps to keep biodegradable wastes away from the non-biodegradable wastes. Under this step, it is important to make sure that the bins can be easily accessed by the truck drivers.

Analysis

In the third step (transportation), Cooks (2012) argues that waste products and waste vehicles should be organized in such a way as to ensure that the waste collected is transported from the factory to the waste processing plant and landfills (Cooks, 2012). It is also important to ensure that different types of wastes are transported using designated vehicles. For example, corrosive factory wastes should be transported in vehicles equipped with thicker and compacted walls to prevent corrosion (Cooks, 2012). Before transporting the waste, it is important to ensure that the company, drivers, and vehicles have been licensed by the local municipal council. Also, the EPA and safety standards for hazardous factory waste products must be upheld to avoid human and environmental effects (CYEN 2010).

Cooks 2012) also proposes that during processing, the wastes collected from the factory should undergo a separation process for purposes of identifying recyclable and non-recycled wastes. While the non-recyclable wastes have to be delivered to landfills, the recyclable wastes need to be treated and packaged for reuse or recycling (CYEN 2010). The recyclable wastes are classified as raw materials and should thus be sent to recycling plants. On the other hand, liquid and hazardous wastes from the factories should be delivered to the treatment plants to make them less hazardous to both the environment and humans (Cooks, 2012).

The last step proposed by Cooks (2012) is the recycling or disposal of the collected and processed factory wastes. Cooks argues that this step has to adhere to the EPA regulations governing industrial wastes. For example, it is the responsibility of the relevant environmental management authorities to ensure that certain non-recyclable wastes have been buried in suitable depths to avoid contaminating the water systems (CYEN 2010). Recyclable waste materials are sold to other recycling plants from the production of new products. The cycle for waste management is completed at this stage.

In waste management, it is important to consider what wastes need to be prioritized. This is normally done by the identification and classification of hazardous wastes in line with the EPA’s recommendations. The easy explores the steps used to determine which wastes are more important than others during waste reduction.

The first step taken to identify hazardous waste is to determine the category of the wastes in terms of their effects on humans and the environment, its recyclability, and reuse (EPA, 2005). Under this stage, the volatility and toxicity levels of the wastes are identified. The next step is to determine the wastes that have been excluded as hazardous to humans and the environment. Next, wastes that have been classified by the EPA as being hazardous are determined, along with the effects that they pose to both humans and the environment. In the third step, one has to determine the characteristics of hazardous waste (White & Heckenberg, 2011). After determining the level of toxicity in terms of chemical components, effects to humans and the environment, and the cost of waste management, we then determine if the waste is regulated under the Environmental Protection Regulation 2008 (White & Heckenberg, 2011). A chemical assessment test is also conducted to measure waste properties before classifying them. Moreover, measurable properties of hazardous wastes are also determined to facilitate classification.

Conclusion

The CDPHE (2008) proposes that the next step involves current available waste management standards evaluation before going aboard to the process of hazardous waste classification (CDPHE 2008). Once the current waste management standards have been evaluated, one should then determine the effects of the waste on the environment and people before. This is an important step in order to decide on whether to reduce waste or not. Thereafter, we need to prioritize the wastes that are to be reduced by the government based on the listed process and procedures.

Reference List

CDPHE (Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment) 2008, Hazardous Waste Identification Guidance Document. Web.

Cooks, J 2014, 5 Steps to effective waste management 2012. Web.

CYEN 2010, Solid waste management. Web.

EPA, 2005, Introduction to United States Environmental Protection Agency Hazardous Waste Identification (40 CFR Parts 261). Web.

White, R & Heckenberg, D 2005, What is hazardous waste and what makes IT hazardous? Web.

There is no use denying the fact that alternative sources of energy can become the best solution to the question of energy security. It is evident that traditional authorities are efficient, and their manufacturing process is aligned, though they are limited, and that is why new ways should be found. With this in mind, it is possible to draw peoples attention to ethanol. Being not a new source of energy, it still should be investigated in order to understand some central aspects of its usage and manufacturing.

First of all, it is possible to start an analysis underlining its main and incontestable advantage. Ethanol is cleaner than all other sources of energy. Under current conditions, it is essential. There is a significant number of problems connected with ecology nowadays. That is why it is vital to introduce some new kind of fuel which will be able to reduce the level of emissions (Ethanol, n.d.). Resting on this fact, ethanol seems to be the best choice under current conditions.

Additionally, this kind of fuel is rich in O2, which means that ethanol can also be taken as one of the most efficient powers among other alternative sources of energy. Additionally, there is one more fact which can be taken as a great advantage of this kind of fuel. It is connected with the process of its manufacturing. Traditional fuels are made of oil, which is very difficult to obtain. Giant platforms should be created in order to extract oil from underground layers.

Being a very complicated process, it can often lead to some accidents, which can result in peoples death. However, the production of ethanol is secure, and there is no need for some strict security measures. Nevertheless, ethanol can be produced from different kinds of substances which are usually used in the food industry. That is why it is possible to say that ethanol is an almost inexhaustible source of energy (Ethanol Fuel Basics, n.d.) as it just needs some products created by farmers.

However, easiness of its production is not the only advantage of this kind of fuel. Taking into account the great significance of the issue of poverty nowadays, it is possible to say that the low price of ethanol can be taken as another evidence of its advanced character. The thing is that ethanol is cheaper than gasoline. It is determined by a significant number of different factors. It has already been stated that the process of manufacturing ethanol is less complicated than the method of manufacturing gasoline.

That is why its price becomes lower. Additionally, there are some countries that are known to be the leading manufacturers of gasoline, and fuel should be transported from these states, while ethanol can be produced everywhere, and a country will not spend some money on its transportation. That is why ethanol becomes cheaper than traditional gasoline, and, moreover, it is much less expensive and more efficient than some other alternative sources of energy.

Resting on these facts, it is possible to say that ethanol can be taken as an excellent alternative to some traditional fuels and, additionally, to alternative sources of energy. It can be easily manufactured, and this process is secure. Also, there is no need for its transportation as it can be produced in every state. Taking all these facts into account, it is possible to describe ethanol as the fuel of the next generation.

References

Ethanol. (n.d.). fueleconomy.gov. Web.

Ethanol Fuel Basics. (n.d.). Alternative fuels data center. Web.