Businesses require constant information to be processed and disseminated to the relevant stakeholders on time. To achieve this, they need Management Information systems.
A Management Information System is a set of connected apparatus, mostly computerized combinations that continuously acquire raw and needed data from within and outside a particular firm. Consequently, the data is processed and stored in a central place called database, where it is always updated and availed to those with authority to access it (Business Dictionary.com).
There are several applications that are described in the case study. In a community medical center known as Doylestown, an application, Meditech, is in place. In the same medical center, another application, titled Epocrates Essentials is described. Another application, which is ChainLinq Mobile application, is described as used in D.W. Morgan, being a supply chain, transportation and logistics service provider. Lastly, the iPhone camera is described in regards to a firm known as Aedas Sport.
Business Functions Supported
Meditech conveys data on crucial signs, drugs, lab results, aversions, notes by nurses, results from remedial treatment, as well as patient food straight to the doctors phone. Epocrates Essentials, an aesculapian reference tool is used to help doctors to decode laboratory outcomes and procure medical data.
ChainLinq assists in updating of shipment information, collection of signatures, as well as provision of global positioning system locations to each individual box delivered. It has afforded Morgan the ability to present an attestation of delivery promptly. The iPhone camera has been used by designers and architects to take pictures of designs, models, and construction sites which are in turn sent to prospective clients to Aedas Sport.
How do they Improve Operational Efficiency and Decision Making?
Meditech application enables doctors to be on call wherever they may be through sending them sensitive alerts through their emails from their work stations. This allows the doctors to make decisions quickly and long before they even get to the hospital.
ChainLinq application has reduced the time needed to provide proof of delivery from half a day to immediate. The iPhone camera has enabled Aedas Sports to productivity jump to 400 percent. In addition, iPhone has facilitated the building of a large chronicle of observable assets almost effortlessly.
Problems Solved.
First and foremost, the problem of mobility was solved for doctors in Doylestown meaning that doctors can still communicate even while not in the vicinity of the hospital. Thanks to ChainLinq, Morgan does not have to make numerous phone calls so as to track and proof deliveries. The customers as well are in a position to be aware of the status of their deliveries by logging in to the companys website which is updated by the servers throughout.
Businesses most likely to Benefit
Among other businesses, the following will likely benefit. The Health sector will benefit when their employees are equipped with mobile digital devices. This will assist them in keeping in touch with their employers as well as patients history whenever needed. They can make decisions and communicate immediately. In addition, they will be able to make accurate calculations on laboratory results using the devices.
Courier businesses are to benefit as well through tracking of their parcels as well as tracking the exact position of the mode of delivery, for example, trucks among others. In addition, these businesses will get proof of delivery in real time thus increasing efficiency and therefore, staying calm without having to make numerous phone calls to track the process of delivery.
Designers and architectural businesses also stand to benefit from mobile devices. The iPhone will especially make it possible to get clear and professional photo shots, compile them into journals and send them to potential and actual clients.
Supply store chains like Wal-Mart are likely to benefit, too. As soon as a customer buys a certain item, the supplier through the iPhone is alerted to ship replacement for the item. The supplier is able to know what quantity is needed as well.
The banks are the ones that get lot of beneficiaries. The managers get real-time data in regard to customer complaints, network performance and line outages.
The motor industry is set to benefit greatly too. For instance, Toyota uses Toyota Production System to achieve high levels of efficiency and quality. This gives them a competitive edge over their rivals. This arises from the fact that they charge less for superior products, as well as give better responses to suppliers and customers through the system.
The iPhone is an Industry Changer
This statement is about the change in communicating with suppliers and customers. The industry has changed through using iPhone since communication is conducted in real time. In the supply chain, transportation and logistics industry, where D.W. Morgan belongs, the firm is able to track every detail; it takes few minutes to do so. In other words, they make delivery in real time while it takes their competitors up to twelve hours to do the same task.
McGraw Hill founded in the year 1884 has established itself as one of the most reputable company whose headquarters are in New York. They have a long record of professional publications including books and are currently running major offices on several continents around the globe. McGraw Hill as a publisher has been instrumental in transforming published content to make it available online from the advent of the internet a few decades ago. This company has currently an online facility that supports the viewing and downloading of various published books from their e-bookstore. These e-books can be viewed and downloaded at a fee. Further still portions of such book which may include chapters can be downloaded in portable data formats (PDFs).
This has greatly revolutionized the education and academics fraternity since students, lecturers and other academicians are now able to access e-books online and download portable formats of the same at almost half the price.
Currently McGraw Hill publishers are using the Primis online system to utilize this feted process and the site remains active with prospective researchers, buyers, academicians accessing the resources continuously. Primis online now makes almost all McGraw Hill publications available to prospective customers worldwide
What is more is that this feature is available at almost half the price that one would spend on buying the printed edition of the book. It is highly likely that a need to expand their profits and ensure a competitive edge over other publishing companies, McGraw Hill foresaw an opportunity to make use of the internet infrastructure and integrate e-commerce features to achieve this highly innovative published content management system. In order to cut on shipment and production costs McGraw Hill realized the opportunity to use the digital divide to avail their products to their consumers and at an affordable price. Therefore one could be able to purchase a recent edition of any of McGraw Hill published e-books. The client can then pay through the electronic money transfer system and download the e-book as soft copy or better still print it out as hardcopy. The system is flexible because books can be accessed by the same at some stipulated fee. With this facility a student can download different chapters from different books hence ensuring that they study effectively.
This paper focuses on the analysis, design and system development elements applied by the Primis team in deployment of the online system at McGraw Hill.
Analysis
During system development one of the most important questions that a client asks the developer is to study the viability of a certain concept. This concept initially developed on the backdrop of a number of questions. Some of these questions included:
What is the need of the organization currently and in the future? All over organizations exist to make profit, expand and make more profit. McGraw Hill may have asked what value will the use of the Primis online system bring to the company.
Reduced costs as publications are reproduced and published electronically and hence the use of traditional paper and print press technology is not dependable. The cost would cut across reduced labour and raw materials as well as storage and shipment. This is based on the understanding that an e-book is less costly to ship or store as compared to a hard copy. This should also be true for the production cost of such products. Therefore McGraw Hill may have asked about the profitability of implementing and integrating the Primis system. Since McGraw Hill brings together diverse publishing content, the other likely question asked would be how usable or adaptable is the proposed system as far as McGraw Hill products are concerned.
How can the sales representatives at McGraw Hill utilize Primis system to uniquely identify with the organization and hence give them a competitive edge?
How adaptable can the lecturers and students use the e-books available through the Primis online system?
What features are supported by the Primis online system making it suitable for the current and future customers of the organizations products?
Addressing and answering some of these questions gave McGraw Hill and the Primis online system developers a chance to turn the concept into a realistic model that could then work according to their specifications. Book publishing remains a dynamic process and authors normally expand their work by reproducing editions of earlier works. This probably presented itself as the biggest obstacle to the development of the Primis online systems initial success. The more the newer edition manuscripts produced the more difficult it became to update the e-books.
The developers of the system had to separate the system where the application would run independent of the data. This meant that the underlying data could be changed without changing the operations of the front end operations. The organization had to develop and maintain a database as backend while Primis online system would run at the front end. This enabled the book revisions, newer releases and versions of the publications to be made available to the customer based on this arrangement of front and back end processing.
Initially whole books were available within this database. However, this meant that editions with varied sections of the same book required a total rework which was time and resource intensive. If the team developing the Primis online system identified the importance of breaking down the books into chapters, the rework to upload newer editions of the same book would have been much easier and less resource intensive.
This remains a general practice for the development of many systems today where the design and development of a system is carried out based on small sub system units that when finally integrated make up the whole system. This provides the advantage that less effort is spend on maintenance since only a unit of the system can be addressed. It is pertinent to realize that analysis as part of system development life cycle is one of the most crucial stages. It is at this point that the systems requirements are derived and thoroughly defined in order to clearly address the user needs (Hinton, 2005). Therefore having a broader perspective as far as the current needs are concerned helps the user and the system developer to incorporate futuristic components that can keep the system adaptable to the changing environment.
During system development the user normally certifies that the initial requirements collected are sufficient enough to warrant a change of the system. Having investigated the current system and deriving the user requirements, a developer has a go or no go decision made by the sponsors or owners of the proposed system. It is this decision that leads to project initiation and commencement of the development process. At that time McGraw Hill publishers had a need and information gathered at that particular time may have been inadequate but was sufficient enough to warrant the development of the Primis online system. As such if I were the one in charge of the project at that time and armed with the information that was then, I would proceed with the implementation of the system. It was likely that the system would be able to address the needs of the organization at that particular time. However a change in technology would be tremendous adaptive requirements to the system.
Design
Mc Graw Hill is a business organization and therefore top among its list of requirements for the implementation of the Primis system was the competitive advantage for quality and service. This was most likely the driving force behind the development of the Primis online system. McGraw Hill needed an innovation that would integrate in their processing and enable their books to be accessed and purchased over the internet. This in itself was leading to improved services, speed and quality. In order to effectively compete with other publishing companies, McGraw Hill needed to start this innovative service using the Primis online system.
Process engineering is a system design process that enables the system analyst to closely work with the system user to identify the current business processes and model the proposed system (Boddy, Boonstra, & Kennedy, 2004). There are a number of system design tools that we used within this project at McGraw Hill to illustrate the functional requirements and the technical specification. During system design the developer has various available tools to assist their model at every aspect of the current and proposed system. Typical of the functional requirements is the data flow diagrams which are used to describe the entities and processes of a system. Similarly use cases are another tool mostly used to model functional requirements during the object oriented systems design. The Primis team may have used the deployment diagrams to draw up the technical specification of the system. These diagrams are hardware and software specific. Nodes in this case represent a host and can be a device like a computer connected by communication channels. These nodes would consist of artifacts which represent files and documents present on these nodes.
In order to ensure that the implemented Primis online system is a solution to McGraw Hills customers, an analysis had to be carried out and the user requirements that were derived from this exercise were used to establish the objective that guided the design of the Primis system so that it worked as a business solution for the problem the organization was facing then.
During the design of an information system, the developers will always work to have a system that is highly cohesive yet loosely coupled. While this is the case the system can easily be decomposed and the small units managed or maintained before being reassembled into the big system. Because technology keeps changing system developers will always design systems that are easily decomposed so that any of the system component that requires adaptive maintenance can be worked on without affecting other sub components of the system (Valverde, Toleman, & Cater-steel, 2010). Therefore it is likely that the team that developed the Primis online system for McGraw Hill publishers dealt with the inevitable change and uncertainty of the future in this manner. The system was designed in such a way as to allow components of it to be removed, modified and returned depending on the changing needs.
System development
Prototyping is a technique which involves the developer of the system coming up with a model of the proposed system at the onset in order to draw out user reaction and gather user requirements. Generally the prototyping as a technique would consist of a number of general steps. The establishment of the prototype objectives is a very crucial stage in the whole process. It is actually the prototyping plan that leads to an executable model (Sommerville, 2001).
Prototyping has a number of benefits some of which include the following:
Incomplete or inconsistent requirements can be identified as the prototype is developed during the iterations
Any missing user services can be detected.
Any misunderstandings between the users and the developers can be identified as the system functionality is demonstrable
Difficult to use or confusing user services may be identified and refined
Prototyping as a system development approach remains one of the most effective ways of rapid application development. This approach would have been applicable during the development of the Primis online system to help the Primis team and the proposed system user to model the requirements. The use of a model or prototype is what makes prototyping a very effective system development approach. During prototyping the end user of the modeled system will get a chance to work with the model and provide any feedback which then can be incorporated depending on whether the prototype is evolutionary or not. Among the change management techniques used to increase the chances of the Primis system success included:
Organizational planning
Motivation
Instilling belief in the proposed system
Exercising honesty.
It was necessary and important to consider the relationship of Primis to the back end systems at McGraw Hill in order to design a suitable and adaptable human computer interface. Considering that I was a project manager within this project, I would have adopted the technologies that allow the user to change their interaction environment.
Giving the user leeway increases usability especially for the advanced users. In this way the system would be adaptable to the different category of users at their respective levels of expertise whether they are students, teachers or researchers.
Illustrations form an important part of any study package and therefore the more representative they are in terms of color and design the better is their effect. Custom textbooks are more illustrative if they have color and therefore as a professor I would prefer a color e-book over the black and white print.
The Primis online system requires a very versatile content management system that can allow content to be added and edited as soon as it is available. It is likely that the database at McGraw Hill remains highly dynamic with additions made to the content therein depending on the launching of newer editions of books and other publications. This database is likely to be increasing in size as these additions are made to it.
Conclusion
The analysis, design and development of the Primis online system at McGraw Hill was one of the most innovative endeavors within the global information and educational content management. The success story is reflected in how the analysis, design, system development and maintenance of the system were carried on.
References
Boddy, D., Boonstra, A., & Kennedy, G. (2004).Management Information systems. Essex: Prentice Hall.
Hinton, M. (2005). Introducing Information Management: the business approach. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Sommerville, I. (2001). Software Engineering (6th ed.). London: Pearson Education.
Valverde, R., Toleman, M., & Cater-steel, A. (2010). A method for comparing traditional and component based models in information system re-engineering. Information systems and e-business management, 9(1), 89-107.
ABC, Inc. is a worldwide wholesale establishment, which deals in numerous chains of large discount departmental stores along with depository stores. Specifically, the corporation specialises in apparel, footwear specialty, cash and carry, warehouse clubs as well as discount stores and hypermarkets.
Besides, the establishment has expanded its product range including all manner of fashionable products, accessories, garments, ornaments and bouquet. Further, the firm has not only expanded in terms of product range but also in geographical coverage. Currently, the firm boasts of over 300 stores worldwide.
The business focus according to porters generic strategies
In order to participate successfully and gain competitive edge as well as outperform rivals in the market, ABC follows a number of tactics aimed at developing expertise, knowledge in addition to capabilities. Specifically, the corporation utilises cost-leadership, differentiation as well as focus cost-leadership strategies.
Cost-leadership
ABC utilises low-cost strategy to increase its client base. Actually, through the cost-leadership strategy, the firm is capable of serving as well as meeting the needs of clients residing in rural neighborhoods. In principle, other retailers often focus on urban clients ignoring the rural clientele. As such, ABC Inc. has developed low-cost management technology that is of great significance in its operations.
In this regard, the advancement of low-cost materials management is invaluable in enabling the establishment to procure, allocate and trade merchandise at lower prices compared to its rivals (Gamble and Strickland 57). In reality, the low-cost competence of ABC enables the wholesale store to attract customers from other competing firms thereby increasing proceeds.
Differentiation strategy
Actually, a number of retail stores majorly focus on wealthy clients who consider quality as core to their purchasing decisions. Conversely, ABC pursues a differentiation strategy that entails designing and offering products that meet the specifications of different consumers.
Based on the strategy, the firm provides designer clothes that are expensive, distinctive appliances as well as highly personalised services for the wealthy clients (Miller 38). On the other hand, ABC pursues the differentiation tactic to meet the requirements of clients through offering low-cost products.
Focus cost-leadership
The focus cost-leadership strategy is applied by ABC Company to increase its presence and compete effectively in the mass market. The major aim of the strategy is to increase the firms online stores as well as physical stores.
Increasing the presence of the firms products to specific segments of clients provides the customers with seamless shopping experience in the businesss physical and online stores (Porter 36). The online stores are designed to be accessed by the customers through mobile devices.
In essence, the business stores are capable of selling products locally to the esteemed customers. The strategy has increased the firms market share through increased customer base. In addition, the strategy has increased the businesss performance particularly in terms of increased sales.
Divisions in ABC Company
The main divisions in ABC Company include marketing, store operations and human relations along with information management systems. To begin with, the store operations division is responsible for sales, management, teller operations along with receiving and prevention of losses. Second, the marketing department ensures public relations, visual displays and promotion of the firms products.
Third, the merchandising division is responsible for planning, buying and controlling the organisations stock. Forth, the selection, recruitment, training and development of personnel are the obligations of human relations department.
Lastly, the firms information management systems department is responsible for redesigning the firms structure in order to support decision-making, alliance and leadership abilities of the organisation when the store experiences growth prospects.
The extent to which Management Information Systems (MIS) division generates business intelligence and achieves competitive advantage
The designs and machineries that transmute raw data within organisations into expedient gen are significant for business operations. In this regard, management information systems division enables firms to handle voluminous data that are capable of ascertaining, developing and generating prospects for businesses.
Actually, management information system is significant in augmenting as well as refining the firms response towards the competitors actions. In other words, MIS provides apposite and quick reactions to competition through the analysis and collation of relevant information significant to the operations of firms.
Besides, through the MIS segment, the firm is capable of improving its operational efficiency and flexibility by trimming down bureaucracy within the establishment thereby incurring reduced costs in operations. Moreover, MIS augments the levels of planning that leads to increased efficiency (Porter 58).
Porters value chain analysis and porters five forces
Value chain analysis
ABCs inbound and outbound logistic management, which are the firms primary activities entail fast and receptive delivery structure. The firm has a well-developed distribution channels that makes the transportation of the products to delivery centers be within the shortest time.
Besides, the firms private operations handbook is significant in ensuring that the organisations personnel adhere to codes of conduct. Based on the firms operations, the stores as well as the warehouse membership clubs augment the corporations proceeds (Wright 96).
Besides, ABCs low-cost strategy forms the core of sales and marketing approaches. Regarding support activities, ABCs procurement is anchored on the reduction of purchase costs to provide clients with low-priced goods.
Moreover, the corporation utilises numerous refined expertise including bar code, computer systems and RFID technologies that aid in securing an unswerving stream of ABCs merchandise. ABC utilises superior Information Communication Technology (ICT) systems including massive parallel processors that track the movement of the firms products in the delivery warehouses.
Porters five forces
Threat of new entry
Due to the exceptional trademark, delivery systems and locations as well as robust financial capital, ABC has the capability of discouraging rivals with intentions of entering the industry. Additionally, the outlays involved in erecting wholesale business such as ABC makes entry in the industry uninviting (Irwin 178).
Threat of substitutes
ABC offers convenience as well as low prices to its customers. In this regard, the industry in which ABC operates has higher threat of substitutes because other retail stores offer low prices on products.
Bargaining power of buyers
In the retail industry, buyers greatly determine the type of products and services to be offered. As such, buyers have greater degree of control in the industry. Besides, ABC has to provide quality products that meet the consumers requirements.
Bargaining power of suppliers
Companies within the retail chain trade control higher proportion of the market. As a result, ABC engages large number of suppliers. The control of larger segments of the market gives power to the firm since ABC can create scarce strategies to the suppliers by switching to other potential manufactures and wholesalers effortlessly and cheaply (Wernerfelt 175). In principle, the suppliers in the retail industry enjoy low bargaining power.
Competitive rivalry in the industry
Companies operating in retail industry are very aggressive. However, due to the market leadership capabilities of ABC, the establishment of its operations is uncomplicated. In other words, the firm utilises its technological advancements as well as financial strengths that offer increased competitive edge over rival firms. As such, the industry experiences high competition.
XYZ products definition and the business focus in terms porters three generic strategies
XYZ is one of the national Islamic banks in UAE and is fully owned by the government. XYZ offers various products to over 1.5 million esteemed clients across UAE. The banks main services include Islamic personal loans, corporate loans and investment advisory ventures.
In addition, the bank offers treasury and wholesale banking products. In fact, retail and wholesale services account for over ninety-seven percent while corporate services and products contribute over three percent. The bank is also one of the managing trustees of Equity Fund, which is the largest in UAE.
Close association with Shariah principle characterises Islamic banking operations. In other words, financial products and services provided by the Islamic banks are based on Shariah principles. The financial pillars include the asset backing principle, the loss and profit sharing principle, ban on certain financing economic sectors, ban on speculation, uncertainty and interest.
The associations of the firms products with the Islamic principles allow the firm to offer products at low prices compared with commercial banks. In fact, the cost-leadership strategy is achieved through evasion of any form of interest owing to the fact that interest is a prohibition in Islam.
In fact, XYZ reduces its costs through discount of overheads related to interest via creating profit and loss allotment banking system (Chan and Wong 570). Such a system is expected to allow XYZ share any accruing risks with the esteemed customers.
The low-cost strategies differentiate XYZ products particularly from the competing Islamic banks within the market. Besides, the differentiation and low-cost strategies have enabled the firm to operate favourably within the market segment. In other words, the firm has maintained its services delivery within the target market.
The firms main division
XYZ is divided in various departments that are coordinated through well-developed systems. However, the main divisions of the bank include promotion and development, management information systems, policy, Shariah and market analysis as well as research and development.
Business support unit utilises the management information system division to coordinate all the departments. Essentially, the management information system is critical in the information processing used to coordinate all the departments.
The management information system consists of processes that determine the nature of the banks capabilities towards service delivery to its customers. The most important function of the information system is the linkage the firm creates with the customers.
In fact, the processes are usually a combination of software that provides all customer interactions over the internet, linking people and providing exceptional handling of the situations that create customer relationship with the bank (Chan and Wong 577).
Value chain analysis of XYZ
The operations of XYZ are anchored on the provision of quality banking services to clients using sophisticated expertise. Specifically, the firm utilises modern expertise to save on outlays involved in logistics and inventory management.
Besides, the organisation also applies wire devices that are capable of loading large amounts of significant data. Moreover, XYZ has undertaken advancement of its e-business organisation. For instance, the firm has embarked on utilising eServer and z900 mainframes as well as Enterprise Storage Servers (ESS) that have been invaluable in data handling, resolution along with debit and credit communications.
Porters five forces analysis of the firm
Competitive rivalry
Like most firms in the industry, XYZ is influenced by the power of suppliers, threat of new entrants, and threat of substitutes, buyers power and the competitive rivalry. Competitive rivalry within the industry is very high and is determined by such factors including exit barriers, product differentiation, cost advantages and the brand identity.
Considering the exit barriers, the firm is well placed since various exit options are available. Besides, the firm has increased cost advantages given its decreased prices and reduced cost strategy. Moreover, the products and services of the firm are highly differentiated in order to increase the competitive advantage.
Given that most firms are offering the same prices, the rivalry within the industry is intense to the industry in which ABC operates (Murray 392). As such, firms have to differentiate their products and services and offer low prices in order to remain competitive.
Threat of substitutes
The changes made in the rival services and products can easily affect the low-cost strategy of the firm. In fact, the ability of XYZ to deal with cost constraints has increased its competitive advantage.
The threat of substitute products in the industry comes about due to possibility of price reduction strategies by the rival firms (Murray 394). Like the wholesale industry in which ABC is operating, the industry in which the XYZ is operating has increased threat of substitutes.
The bargaining power of buyers
The buyers bargaining power results from the capability of the buying process of the customers. Similar to retail industry, in the banking industry, buyers greatly determine the type of products and services to be offered. As such, buyers have greater degree of control in the industry.
Even though the firm targets specific clientele, the rival firms within the industry enable customers to have a greater say in terms of prices of products.
Bargaining power of suppliers
Even though the industry relies on suppliers for various materials critical in the operations, the suppliers have little influence on the determination of prices. The bargaining power of suppliers is low compared with other industries such as retail.
Threat of new entrants
Entering into the industry is difficult given the complexities in the operations of the firm and the specificities required in Islamic banking. Unlike conventional banks that few barriers to entry, Islamic banking have tight controls and religious regulatory framework that create increased barriers to entry (Murray 399). Just like retail stores such as ABC, XYZ have few competitors.
Recommendations
For ABC, the firm should continue to utilise product differentiation to remain competitive in the industry. In addition, the firm should apply technological prowess and its distribution network to increase its capabilities critical in augmenting competitive advantage.
On the other hand, XYZ should emphasise on the importance of technology in service delivery. Further, the firm should focus on cost reduction strategies, which form the core of its competitive edge in the industry. Generally, firms should focus on the capabilities and competencies that contribute to increased competitive advantage.
Works Cited
Chan, Rickey Yee-kyong and Yee H. Wong. Bank Generic Strategies: Does Porters Theory Apply in an International Banking Center. International Business Review, 8.5 (2009): 561590. Print.
Gamble, Arthur and John Strickland. Crafting and Executing Strategy: The Quest for Competitive Advantage: Concepts and Cases. Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2010. Print.
Irwin, Richard. Strategic cost management: The value chain perspective. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 37.16 (2003): 179-197. Print.
Miller, Danny. The generic strategy trap. Journal of Business Strategy 13.1 (2002):37-41. Print.
Murray, Alan. A Contingency View of Porters Generic Strategies. Academy of Management Review, 13.4 (2008): 390-400. Print.
Porter, Michael E. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. New York: The Free Press, 2000. Print.
Wernerfelt, Birger. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5.2 (2004): 171180. Print.
Wright, Peter. A refinement of Porters strategies. Strategic Management Journal, 8.3 (2007): 93-101. Print.
This article is a discussion of the results obtained by Mangiuc in an empirical study that involved both local and foreign companies in Romania. In this study, Mangiuc used literature review and action research to find out whether the market was ready for Enterprise 2.0 technologies. In addition, he also tried to explore whether these technologies came earlier than expected. Furthermore, this study is part of Mangiuc’s ongoing research in the field of cloud computing. The main goal of this study was to identify new areas where modern knowledge-based information technologies can be applied in the field of a financial audit.
Mangiuc used direct interviews and empirical study questionnaires to come up with the practitioners’ expectations. Furthermore, he validated this research’s conclusions using informal discussions with some of the practitioners. These practitioners were members of companies that had already shifted or were in the process of shifting to enterprise 2.0. However, some of the data in this study were based on secondary research. In this case, a literature review of earlier market research studies was conducted, credited and documented.
Mangiuc also cited numerous researches related to and supporting this study. For instance, Citing MenKen (2008), Mangiuc claims that “Software as a Service”, “Platform as a Service” and “Infrastructure as a Service” are some of the most popular enterprise 2.0 technologies. However, the most popular business model technology is Software as a Service (SaaS). SaaS is a software distribution model that assumes that software applications are stored and maintained by the seller. In this case, consumers are granted user access exclusively through the Internet. Referring to the work of Cusumano (2004), Mangiuc states that software applications are traditionally regarded as products. In this regard, a customer has the right to install and set up the software. These software applications are also downloadable from the seller’s website. However, they cannot be used in multiple operating systems or hardware. SaaS has, thus, been developed to counter the drawbacks associated with these applications. Summarizing an article by Blokdijk (2008), Mangiuc reiterates that SaaS success is credited to its compatibility with most enterprise 2.0 technologies. In addition, SaaS is associated with the popularity of Web 2.0 technologies. SaaS is, therefore, a new dawn in cloud computing.
In his discussion and conclusion, Mangiuc acknowledges that enterprise 2.0 technologies have culminated into new business models that effectively cater to information technology needs within an organization. The results of this study, therefore, provide an insight into the general attitude of potential customers towards shifting to cloud computing. The general conclusion drawn from the results of this study indicates that the majority of potential customers are ready to implement cloud-based technologies. However, there should be a well-planned and detailed strategy to migrate these customers to cloud-based technologies. Nonetheless, there are many challenges associated with these technologies that are a headache to both the vendor and the consumer. However, Mangiuc argues that SaaS is an efficient software distribution model. Some of its advantages include minimal infrastructure expenses and instant access to an updated version of software applications. Nevertheless, Mangiuc study failed to highlight the disadvantages of enterprise 2.0 technologies. One of these disadvantages is that technologies such as Saas reduce productivity. Saas leads to little work being done and too much socialization. Additionally, an organization using SaaS is likely to lose Professionalism since all employees become buddies despite their ranks.
Reference
Mangiuc, D. M. (2011). Enterprise 2.0 – is the market-ready? Accounting and management information systems, 10 (4), 516-534. Web.
The modern digitalized society offers multiple opportunities to improve existing practices and achieve better outcomes by implementing innovative solutions. For this reason, today, there are significant shifts in all spheres of human activity aimed at integrating technologies. The sphere of management is not an exclusion and the methods used there are also reconsidered in terms of new digital technologies. Management Information Systems (MIS) also experiences substantial changes under the impact of recent advances in science and technology.
There are various definitions of the term. The generalized one states that MIS is the field of knowledge presupposing the investigation of people, technology, organizations, and their interactions (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). The main goal of this science is the alignment of the cooperation between individuals and computers, and the realization of maximum benefit from investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). Today, MIS focuses on people and the improvement of their functioning via the use of different technologies.
Speaking about MIS, it is essential to outline the five eras or five phases of computing technology’s development. These include mainframe and minicomputer computing, personal computers, client/server networks, enterprise computing, and, finally, cloud computing (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). The advances in the evolution of devices and the achievement of a new stage of development critically impacts MIS and creates the basis for the emergence of multiple changes towards the achievement of better outcomes and maximization of output along with the reduction of input, resources, and effort (Laudon & Laudon, 2017).
Today, MIS benefits from the existence of cloud services; however, one should remember that MIS managed to make substantial progress and evolve from the punch card system. It presupposed using a piece of paper to contain digital data by adding holes in special positions (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). This sort of information could be used by specific devices to process information and provide it to people (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). The emergence of this system contributed to the correct understanding of the importance of this technology and its ability to promote the further evolution of MIS. The emergence of computers in the 1940s and 1950s introduced a new era in the development of the framework as new devices, such as hard disk drives, to store and process data were created (Laudon & Laudon, 2017). The emergence of MIS in computers opened the door to multiple benefits and increased the speed of technology rise. At the end of the 20th century, MIS transformed into one of the digitalized areas of knowledge that provide multiple benefits to managers and specialists.
Today, MIS remains a critically important field for different spheres of human activity. The high level of demand for this method preconditioned the emergence of multiple career opportunities for software engineers, system analysts, and Networks administrators. Today their effective functioning is viewed as one of the major determinants of success of any organization or company as they can create the environment promoting the improved cooperation between specialists, reduce management costs, and improve outcomes.
Under these conditions, MIS is a potent tool that can be used in various organizations today. Being focused on people and their cooperation with technologies, it helps companies to acquire a competitive advantage by maximizing results and reducing effort and costs needed to attain success. For this reason, people working in a given field, such as software engineers, have outstanding career opportunities and become important actors preconditioning the success of different projects.
Reference
Laudon, K., & Laudon, J. (2017). Management Information Systems: Managing the digital firm (16th ed.). Pearson.
A management information system (MIS) is a business tool that integrates technology, information, and people. It differs from other types of information systems in that it can be used to evaluate an organization’s operational activities.
An MIS is tailored to be used alongside human decision-making. There are different types of management information system notably Transaction processing system (TPS), Management information system (MIS), Decision support system (DSS), Expert System (ES), and Enterprise resource planning systems (ERP).
This essay seeks to compare these five different types of management information system in terms of their functions and importance.
Transaction Processing System Functions and Importance
A Transaction Processing System (TPS) is a type of information system that collects, stores, retrieves, and modifies data transaction procedures in an organization. In this process, transaction passes through an AICD test where data is generated or modified before it is stored in the information system.
Transaction processing systems serve three functional areas: system routine functions, system administration functions, and application development functions. System routine functions entail the provision of an execution environment where integrity, availability, and security of data are enhanced. It also guarantees fast response time and high transaction throughout the process.
The system administrative functions of the transaction processing system include provision of administrative support that enables users to configure, monitor, and manage their transaction systems. Application development functions encapsulate the provision of functions for use in custom business applications like access to data, intercomputer communications, and design and management of user interface.
Transaction processing systems help in scheduling and loading by controlling the rate and order at which processing of tasks take place. High priority is given to tasks with the best response times and with respect to the availability of application servers and other system resources. A TPS is vital in managing the system resources as it maintains a pool of operating resources that are used in transaction processing, application program loading, and acquiring and releasing storage.
A transaction processing system helps in monitoring the progress of tasks and can suspend tasks waiting for input while also adjusting task priorities. It ultimately resolves any problem encountered during processing. TPS also help in managing data. It obtains data to be used in performance of tasks, coordinates resource managers, locks the data for update, and records logging changes.
This IS tool manages communication by monitoring communication with users and servers, ensuring that communication sessions are initiated appropriately and manages data handling and conversion processes. Finally, it routes data to the intended destination (Weikum and Vossen, 2002, pp. 67). TPS aids time management efforts as it manages transaction processing in relation to the passage of time.
It ensures that tasks are started at predefined times. The dates and time when events started are logged onto disk. In general, A TPS controls part of business system to provide a certain degree of automation to otherwise manual processes.
Diagram of TPS System
Management information system functions and importance
A management information system is very pivotal in effective and efficient management of organizations. It makes use of technology, information, and people as its primary resources. It is often used in analysis of operational activities within an organization and serves myriad functions within an organization.
For MIS to effectively serve its functions, people with both software and hardware installation skills have to be engaged. Employees within the organization must also have people skills. The MIS systems can be used in controlling tax and finance within an organization (O’Brien, 1999, pp. 12).
Management information system functions can be classified into help desk, support team, service and support, training, networking, purchasing, installations, research and development, operations, planning, and budget. At the help desk MIS can be used to aid in solving problems.
Calls that stream to the help desk telephone can be entered into database where they can be quickly retrieved and updated. At the support team level, an MIS helps teams assigned to different departments and projects to offer their ongoing knowledge and progress in areas where they operate in an improved manner.
MIS can also be used by service and support teams like those engaged in hardware repair, software support, and warranty services to provide onsite services. The support team will be capable of providing phone support within an organization thereby acting like liaisons between the department head and other support teams.
With MIS, employees can be trained on computer basics, office productivity software, and use of specialized software in every department. MIS can be used in networking an entire organization. It can be used in designing both local and wide area network, their implementation and support.
It can also be used in enhancing server support, backing up, and anti-virus server support. MIS can also be used in Ethernet and fiber optic support. With regard to purchasing, MIS can aid in specifying the specifications ofb hardware and software systems to be purchased thereby maintaining standards for purchases.
It assists in maintenance of fixed assets and grant proposals. With regard to research and development, MIS helps in review of current trends in the industry. After the review, an organization can opt to introduce new technology while evaluating new systems.
With MIS, an organization is capable of doing light data entry and modifications. It can also aid in budgeting and planning where a relationship is maintained between different departments within an organization with respect to areas they deem as priority areas. Planning can be done for long and short-term projects.
Functions and importance of DSS
Decision support systems (DSS), similar to other ISs, aid managers in their day-to-day decision making processes without requiring the presence of computer experts (Laudon & Laudon, 1991, pp. 122). DSSs transform data in such a way that they become useful and quality decisions can be made from them.
DSS serves three main functions: information management, data quantification, and model manipulation. With respect to information management, information is stored, retrieved, and reported in a structured format that is convenient for the user. In the perspective of data quantification, large amount of information is condensed and manipulated analytically into core indicators that reflect the essence of the data.
Model manipulation implies construction and resolution of different scenarios to respond to what if questions. Modules are formulated, alternatives generated, and solutions to proposed models arrived at. It is incumbent that owners of established enterprises become certain that businesses need DSS before buying computer systems and software to initiate it.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) functions
ERP solutions are used by organizations to streamline and integrate operation processes and flow of information. This procedure helps in synergizing the organization’s resources like men, material, money, and machine through information. ERP was initially recommended for larger enterprises such as multinational companies due to the costs incurred in its implementation.
However, non-multinational companies have so far gone ahead and implemented its usage so that they have competitive advantage over their competitors. Some of the notable functions of ERP include helping improve information access throughout an organization. The system helps in routine business processes like tax structures, invoicing systems, and provides a cohesive clientele database that can be accessed by all departments within the organization.
With respect to improved business processes, an enterprise can have a competitive advantage over its competitors when it integrates ERP. With the implementation of an ERP system, the use of paper records becomes limited because of availability of online formats where data can be stored and retrieved easily. It facilitates better monitoring and faster resolution of queries (Sheilds, 2001, pp.9).
Functions of Expert Systems
Expert systems are computer applications that integrate computer equipment, software, and specialized information to imitate expert human reasoning and advice. An ES system provides discipline specific advice to their users. Their usage is restricted to commercial and industrial setups.
It has a searching program known as an inference engine which contains all systematic processing rules and logic associated with them. It also consists of a knowledge database that stores necessary factual, procedural, and experiential information that represents expert knowledge (Turban and Jay, 1998, pp. 51).
Through knowledge transfer, expertise is normally passed from human to knowledge engineer who creates and structures the knowledge database through completion of logical, physical, and psychological tasks. This is why expert systems are fondly referred to as knowledge based information systems. Human expertise is widely distributed through the expert system thereby making businesses to realize the benefits of consistency, accuracy, and reliability as pertains problem solving.
Reference List
Laudon, K.C., and Laudon, J.P. (1991). Management Information Systems: A Contemporary Perspective. New York: Macmillan.
O’Brien, J. (1999). Management Information Systems – Managing Information Technology in the Internetworked Enterprise. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill.
Sheilds, M.G. (2001). E-Business and ERP: Rapid Implementation and Project Planning. London: John Wiley and Sons.
Turban, E., and Jay, E. A. (1998). Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Weikum, G., and Vossen, G. (2002). Transactional information systems: theory, algorithms, and the practice of concurrency control and recovery, New York: Morgan Kaufmann.
List the 5 Components of MIS and briefly describe how each relates to the study and optimization of systems in companies
A standard MIS is composed of these five components:
Hardware: This constitutes all the computers, machines, nets, and wires involved in the creation of a unified MIS. Optimizing hardware usually involves improving the capabilities of one or several components of the net to improve its overall output.
Software: This component stands for programs that are used to operate the MIS, manage data, search and cipher through logs, and other related activities. Optimization of software typically involves adding features and functionality required to perform specific tasks while at the same time getting rid of unnecessary ones.
Data: This component stands for the information introduced into the system. Optimization of data input usually involves making data more informative while at the same time excluding bits of information not necessary to perform a certain task.
Procedures: Documentation and development. Procedural optimization typically touches information storage and the process of information being introduced into the database.
People: The end users of the MIS. This component may describe individual users, groups of users, or entire organizations. Optimizing this component involves training the personnel in using and analyzing data.
To the best of your knowledge, define TPS and describe some examples where Batch Processing is used and other cases where Real-Time Processing is implemented in today’s world. Besides, how has the implementation of TPS allowed companies and banks to save money?
TPS stands for Transaction Processing Systems. These are systems used for managing, collecting, storing, and retrieving information. There are two most common types of TPS. These are:
Real-Time Processing. This type of TPS suggests that the information about transactions and any other data is processed and modified immediately. This model is widely used in e-commerce, booking flights, automatic payments, ATMs, and other areas. It is the preferable choice of TPS where the speed of managing data is paramount.
Batch Processing. This type of TPS involves collecting data over a certain period and sending it in batches. This type of payment is often used when the number of micro-transactions is too big to pay individually for every single one. Instead, batch processing involves calculating the expenses and putting out a bill at the end of a designated interval.
Using TPS allows companies and banks to save money in numerous ways. The ATMs allow foregoing the cashier, as they are more economically efficient than having a person stand in a booth at the same location for an entire day. TPS systems allow for streamlining and simplifying MIS and saving money from it.
MIS is defined as systems that are designed with a ‘socio-technical’ point of view in mind. What does this term refer to? Furthermore, by outlining the key areas addressed in the socio-technical model, describe how each one relates to the subject of MIS
The socio-technical model is a kind of organizational development that acknowledges and focuses on the interactions between customers, employees, and technology. MIS is built within the parameters of the socio-technical model in the sense that all MIS are the intermediaries between humans and various technological processes. The model suggests four key areas that the MIS needs to address:
Autonomy: The system must allow the user to perform the actions autonomously, without having to rely on another intermediary outside of the MIS.
Adaptability: The MIS must be able to adapt to a plethora of constant and ever-changing demands from the users, employees, and customers. It must allow customization to represent the needs of the users more accurately.
Whole tasks: The MIS must allow completing the tasks entirely by using the same system and not having to rely on any systems outside of it.
Meaningfulness of tasks: The MIS must not obligate its users to perform tasks unnecessary for the performance of the required operations.
Briefly explain the difference between data and information and describe how the stages of the MIS process work in terms of INPUT-PROCESSING-OUTPUT- FEEDBACK
Data stands for unprocessed information – a set of words and numbers that did not undergo any analysis or structuration. Information is processed data, organized for easier use and assessment.
Most MIS function in terms of the Input-Processing-Output-Feedback loop:
Input: The data is introduced into the system either automatically or from user input from the external environment.
Processing: The data is converted into information via software processing or some other means, to enable the users to make decisions based on said information.
Output: The MIS transfers the information to managers, customers, and other decision-makers to be used in their activities.
Feedback: Input received from various members of the process to improve the functioning of the MIS at its various stages.
What is referred to by DSS and ESS? What level of management is each system intended for? Furthermore, what are some cases where DSS has proven to improve a company’s performance, specifically in the area of retail?
DSS stands for Decision Support System. This system offers information required to make decisions, where the outcome of the decision itself is not always apparent. The MIS provides the manager with the information, such as competitor prices, stock prices, schedule optimization patterns, etc. Said information might come from the MIS itself or the outside sources. The DDS is typically used by middle managers.
ESS, on the other hand, is the Executive Support System. Unlike the DDS, this system provides information that allows making long-term strategic decisions that have the potential to affect the entire company and not just one single operation. Typically, this system is used by senior managers, CEOs, and company directors.
One particular example of DSS use in stores allows predicting customer response to increased or decreased prices on various products, based on analysis of historical data. This allows the managers to plan their pricing strategies when approaching high and low seasons.
What does EAI refer to and what are some key objectives it hopes to achieve? Also, what are the two primary types of EAI networks?
EAI stands for Enterprise Application Integration, and it serves for integrating the components of numerous enterprises into one interconnected web. This ensures that the manager receives a full report of the situation within a single document and from a single outlet, rather than several reports received individually from independent systems. There are two types of EAI networks:
Mesh Networks: In this system, every enterprise is connected. This allows for data and information to be interchanged between every member of the system.
Hub Networks: While achieving the same goals as mesh networks, all enterprises are connected to a hub, from which the information is processed and distributed to the members of the network, on-demand.
Outline the 4 methods of MIS implementation and describe how each way carries its risks and costs
There are four methods of MIS implementation:
Direct approach – this approach involves the installation of a new MIS and complete removal of the old one. While this method of implementation is the quickest, it also means that the users will have a hard time adjusting and relearning the system.
Parallel approach – the new MIS is implemented while the old one stays in place. This allows for the harmonious integration of the new MIS. However, the process may take time.
Modular approach – the new MIS is implemented piece-meal, while other enterprises continue using the old system. While it allows for any potential incidents to be localized, this method causes plenty of confusion when integrating both systems.
Phase-in approach – very similar to the modular approach, but allows for better integration between old and new systems. This approach allows for a more seamless transition but is slow and costly.
Outline and describe the 4 main types of Enterprise Applications Systems
Four main types of EAS:
ERP. Stands for Enterprise Resource Planning. It allows collecting information about the day-to-day operations of the business and gives a clear and concise view of the processes.
SCM. Stands for Supply Chain Management systems. Allows following trade routes, deliveries, orders, production, inventory levels, and the like. Is predominantly used in production and warehousing.
CRM. Stands for Customer Relationship Management Systems. This system is used in marketing and customer management. It displays all the relevant information about customers, their attendance rates, preferences, distribution, support, service improvement, and the like.
KMS. Stands for Knowledge Management Systems. Is primarily used for integrating, sharing, and distributing information acquired through various external sources.
Describe some examples of malware and spyware. How are they different. Besides, what are some other forms of ‘ware’ in today’s IT systems industries?
Malware stands for “Malicious Software,” which is a term used to describe programs that may cause potential harm to the computer’s software or hardware. An example of Malware is the famous Chernobyl virus that damages computer hardware by overloading it. Spyware, on the other hand, wants to steal important information about the user’s passwords, as well as personal data. An example of Spyware is CoolWebSearch – a group of programs that exploit the weaknesses of the Internet Explorer Browser. Other forms of “ware” present in the modern IT industry is Adware, Ransomware, and Scareware.
How might MIS Specialists be able to save a company or firm in terms of infrastructure costs?
MIS specialists could save the company some infrastructure costs through analyzing its current MIS, and the internal processes within the enterprise, and conduct necessary optimizations. Introducing new technologies, streamlining the processes, making the MIS less cumbersome and prone to redundancy, and cutting down on unnecessary employees by replacing them with TPS, which customers and employees could operate. For example, the introduction of ATMs in banks helped significantly reduce the number of cashiers required to perform the operations a customer could do on their own using an ATM.
This is a network or sub-network with a high speed that interconnects different types of data storage devices that have associated data servers on behalf of a larger network of users. It is part of a larger network of a set of computing resources. This system is used for the storage of data. The storage area network is important for keeping backups of data in a company. Sharing of data is easier to facilitate in this setup.
Examples include backup associated SNAs, data sharing associated SNAs, system integrator SNAs among others according to where they are applied.
Data Virtualization
This is a descriptive and informal term used to describe an abstract/wide/general view of some data. It is simply that data can be accessed through the data service. Data virtualization is used in data service documentation and majorly helps to explain and describe data which is in abstract forms. Statistical data can easily be modified using this tool so that they can easily be understood by the management.
Radio-Frequency Identification (Rfid)
Transponders are the main electronic gadgets that are used in frequency identification. RFID facilitates automatic and ready identification of different channels of frequency so that the receivers can channel the right frequency to the right persons. RFID tags are very mobile and can facilitate dynamism. This is because they can be placed anywhere from which they help to track the location using radio waves.
These gadgets can be used in a wide range of applications including supermarkets where they help to check the inventory and thus create efficiency. Some examples include modulating and demodulating radio frequency signals and other chipless RFID which furthers the identification process.
Cloud Computing
This is a style in computer technology that provides information technology capabilities that allow users to access technology-enabled services from the internet without knowing, having the expertise, or control over the technology infrastructure that supports them. A lot of networking is embraced in this setup. A variety of devices, software, and services are connected over a powerful network and the final array of networks is called the cloud.
It helps users to rely on the internet to have their needs satisfied. An example of its implementation is Google applications which store various software and data in a server to be accessed by users online.
Client-Server Computing
Client-server computing: is a form of distributed computing. The two main components of this system are the client and the server. These two parts work together towards exchanging the data between them through the available network. It consists of the superior machine (server) which is the information reservoir and the requesting/ less superior machines (clients) The client sends the request to the server, waits for the server’s response, translates the response into “human-readable” results, presents the results to the user while the server listens for a client’s query, processes that query and returns the results to the client.
Service-Oriented Architecture (Soa)
SOA is a technique that is used to develop systems whose functionality is grouped around business processes. Through this, data can be exchanged from one gadget to another in the event of transactions. This architecture is normally developed using the distributed computing and modular programming technologies.
Peer to Peer Networks
This is a network computing technique in which two or more Personal Computers are connected and share resources without relying on or passing through a server. Here, for instance, there is no single source of information (superior computer) to other computers in the network. These computers can be connected through a Universal Serial Bus for file transfer or can be in a grand scale network in which various protocols and applications are used to relate users over the network.
Public Key Infrastructure/Encryption
This refers to an array of cryptography that binds public keys with relevant unique user identities in the course of a certificate authority. This enables computer users without prior contacts to be authenticated to each other and uses their public key information to encrypt messages to each other. It enables those communicating to establish confidentiality, message integrity, and user authentication without prior revealing of secret messages between them.
Sources
O’Brien, J. Maraka, G. (2006). Management Information Systems. Boston: McGraw Ltd.
Tomasi, M. (2000). Advanced electronic telecommunication. London: Oxford Ltd.
Businesses require constant information to be processed and disseminated to the relevant stakeholders on time. To achieve this, they need Management Information systems. A Management Information System is a set of connected apparatus, mostly computerized combinations that continuously acquire raw and needed data from within and outside a firm. Consequently, the data is processed and stored in a central place called database where it is always updated and availed to those with authority to access it.
There are several applications that are described in the case study. They are known as the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. The disseminate information relating to financials, inventories, manufacturing, sales and marketing, as well as order management and procurement. The systems also assist in project management documentation as well s post-implementation performance measurement.
El Alamein is faced by various challenges as they seek to implement the Enterprise Resource Planning systems. First and foremost, some heads of department have been resistant to change. They are used to relying on separate computers which were fitted with custom excel sheets so as to facilitate the operations.
The second challenge was high staff turnover during implementation. It is clear from the case study that El-Alamein suffered loss of six crucial people in a period of six months only. High staff turnover is hurting for business because a corporation has already invested a lot in those people in training as well as other resources offered to them during their stay in the organization.
In addition to heavy investment in the staff who left, their departure led to delay in the areas they were in charge of as well as repeating some of the steps already done during the analysis and set up stages.
To mitigate the resistance to change, El-Alamein took drastic steps. Firstly, the company identified crucial persons from all major departments to act as agents of change. These agents were to take up the role of convincing the other employees on the need to embrace the system.
Secondly, El-Alamein took it upon themselves to train users for the new system so that they understand how the new system will affect business operations. Lastly, the company took a step further by fostering participation by end users through inclusion of more employees than just the senior management when it came to decision making, analysis and implementation.
In my opinion, the three steps taken to mitigate resistance to change are so bright. When you involve people and especially the junior staff in decision making, analysis and implementation, the process is bound to be smooth because the feeling of imposition and ambush is expunged. They feel part of the process and as such, they own it and would not wish to see it fail.
Over and above, change agents, if well trained on their critical role can influence the viewpoint of other employees. They are trained to believe in the system/process first. Consequently, what they pass on to their colleagues is deep conviction from within them. This becomes easy to convince others in various departments.
The Enterprise Resource Planning systems helped El-Alamein to reduce investment risks. In addition, the company has strengthened the process of integration as well as improving the rate of production. The efficiency in regard to handling of inventory is now rated highly. The IT investments have helped El-Alamein to initiate connections with multinational corporations.
The definition of e-government has been given as government practices that take place through electronic communications in all government levels, citizens as well as business fraternity.
Such like practices include: acquisition along with the provision of services and products; placement and reception of orders; information provision and obtainment; and financial completion and transactions. In wider terms, “e-government is the application of information and communications technologies (ICTs) to enhance the performance of government functions and services.” (Adb.org, 2010).
Taking e-government as business as usual is wrong, but it needs to be considered as a focus on the usage of digital technologies in the transformation of government’s; structures, maneuvers, and most significantly the government culture. Its operation in most cases is value driven other that technology driven.
The advantages of e-government do not arise just because of information digitalization and online placement, in its place, they arise due to new ICT tools leveraging in the provision of good services to citizens, as well as making the government least responsive and effectives.
E-government need not to be taken as a single event, or even as a project that is short lived, rather as a long term project that can be applied in the transformation of the government concentration on the citizen services. As a result, it is much necessary to come up with a roadmap of high-level e-government. Such a roadmap, need to be bottom-up with a very detailed plan of implementation.
In case the design is top-down, the roadmap need to include strategic plans that are long-term, along with corresponding annual plans. On the other hand, the bottom-up strategic plan has to concentrate on the service delivery based on the citizens along with business needs. “It is necessary that the services are prioritized and included in the roadmap tasks,” (Adb.org, 2010) for instance, income tax payment, companies’ registration, personal document application like passports.
Failures and success of E-government
Though different studies have indicated that e-government usage results to greater impacts, but it needs a mass of citizens and business fraternity that are acquainted with e-communication knowledge. This will assist in the realization of sustainable effects which might be above internal efficiency and government transparency.
The failure or success of e-government implementation relays on the strength of demand a long with support from the population. First of all, demand strength will arise from the opportunity awareness that is offered through government online service delivery that is much efficient. In addition, there need to be motivation on the side of both citizens as well as the business fraternity on the e-government service usage via relevant, compelling and reachable digital content.
There have been many e-government initiative models that have been researched on and introduced globally, however, most of the studies have not included strategies as well as politics that have been implemented by the government already, along with those that ought to be implemented in future. The resistance to change is just as a result of inadequate education among government workers, in the information and technology usage.
Different studies have shown that, transition stage, is the most important one. This is based on the fact that, it comprises the major objective that has lead to the establishment of e-government. As an effect, most failures occur at this stage. The process of uncovering and challenges and problems at this stage, the organization change and innovation has been a complex phenomenon which needs to be identified for adoption and growth of e-government.
For the ICT implementation plan to succeed, it needs to be “the best method of achieving maximum advantages for the ICT implementation is to have all success factors without the occurrence of failure factors” (Al-Rashid, 2010). On the other hand, this can’t be the case in the real world.
Under such conditions, actions of increasing the success opportunities are much needed. It has been suggested that, e-government adoption and implementation might end up having some impacts by social network. As an effect, particularly in the Middle East, more studies need to be carried out.
There are different goals and degrees that the implementation of e-government in the public service transformation might imply. The barriers to e-government in most carries tend to be both technical as well as non-technical.
Research by Al-Rashid, has shown that, “successful e-government is at most 20 percent technology and at least 80% about people, process and organizations” (Al-Rashid, 2010). Among the numerous researches that have been done in the last few decades, only a few have addressed the barriers which have been affecting the implementation of e-government in the developing world.
Failure of E-Government Implementation
In the developing countries, it has been of much surprise to notice that, the failures of e-government project, is a problem that is real and much practical. The first reason that has led to this failure is the opportunity cost of the investment. This is so especially the outlay of scarce skilled labor and capital resources. Another reason has been due to the instances where the international funding institutions advocates for the information systems as being part of public sector reform plan.
Due to this, either total failure or partial failure in one way or the other affects the entire plan, due to the negative impacts on the picture of the government implementing the project. “There accreditation rate with the international financing institutions might be affected adversely, along with their reputations for good governance might diminish.” (Al-Rashid, 2010) As a result, it is much significant to look at the failure reasons as well as e-government success initiatives in developing states.
Discussions of failure reasons for e-government implementation have just been placed as a theme in the literature of the information system. The major reason that has been placed on the failure of such projects concentrates more on the “interplay between people and technology” (Stanforth, 2011). Other than just concentrating on messy issues, this emphasis concentrates social technical issues affecting the implementation of information management in e-governments, especially in developing nations.
For instance, the discussion has been based on the interplay between technology and individuals, through e-government definitions. Though e-government has been given several definitions, they all provide the insights “into the limited sense in which the public sector reform objectives of E-government are conceived by several stakeholders” (Stanforth, 2011).
Due to summary database that has been provided, this kind of reiteration on public sector reforms and its connection to the ICTs for good governance got lost in the process. Such matters have been sidelined in most of the conferences. This is due to the fact that, conference delegates have been concentrating more on lengthy discussions that concerns technology in put, as well as the e-government program output.
At these times, the program is being regarded by the parties involved in the e-government program enactment like the concerned ministries, as technological attainment other than the function and application. Currently, “they are only development planners as well as the theorists who are voicing their concern that, the concentration should be based more on the public value along with returns that are provided by these technological investments” (Stanforth, 2011).
This idea has supported the fact that, some socio-technological point of views has been much appropriate for the analysis of information management implementation in e-government in developing nations. On the other hand, there are these which have been of great help in knowing the exact interplay that exist between social and technical factors and how it takes place. In addition to this, they also show what ought to be implemented practically when designing and implementing e-government processes to ensure failure factors are reduced.
Implementation of E-Government Capabilities
Different departments have implemented the information management in e-government capabilities across their core functional areas, with the aim of improving the department’s capability in the fulfillment of its missions. Some of these departments include the Department of Justice in the United States. This department has implemented the e-government program in the following ways;
Fighting Crime and Terrorism
The department has implemented e-government abilities in different ways upon which it helps fighting terrorism and other criminal practices. The cornerstone of this form of transformation is “the Law Enforcement Information Sharing programs, (LEISP)” (justice.gov, 2011). This has been the strategy of justice department to share information routinely, with all degrees of law enforcement fraternity. It has also used this strategy to guide the resource investment in the systems of information that will further the previous objective.
Some of the examples that have been incorporated in LEISP include; the system of tracking bomb and arsons, that was launched 2004, by the Tobacco, Alcohol, firearms and the explosive Bureau. This program is an internet accessible system that gives room to local, states, as well as the federal Law enforcing agencies to share all kinds of information concerning bombs and arson incidences and cases.
This bureau has been charged with the responsibility of all explosive incidences and cases information maintenance. It has been used as a library local, states and federal; law enforcing agencies can use and manage information.
The FBI has also developed a “robust intelligence production and sharing processes that is enabled by technologies and operated by the criminal justice information systems, (CJIS) Division” (justice.gov, 2011). For instance, the FBI intelligence web page came into being with the objective of making security information accessed by the FBI partners who have been given their own class referred to as the unclassified category, at different levels of law enforcing organs.
Around 30, 000 law enforcing personnel have participated in law enforcement online. On the other hand, the system is been accessed over 670,000 times every year. On top of all this, the FBI department has a plan of starting the collection of criminal investigation tips, or any other suspicious practices over the internet.
The implementation of the Joint Automated Book Keeping System has also strengthened the homeland securities and law enforcement practices. The move has automated the processes of booking and provision of rapid and positive mechanism of individual identification, by the use of fingerprint submission to the “FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System” (justice.gov, 2011).
However, the program has not been limited to the justice department clients alone, but is much open to homeland securities, health, defense department, as well as the human services. The implementation of this program resulted to a reasonable government savings.
The Improvement in the Capability of U.S Representation in Court
The justice department has also been transforming on how to litigate through two initiative participation. One of them is through the electronic case filling. This has involved “electronic exchange of the litigation and is based on the implementation of the administration documents with the federal courts, and is based on the implementation of administrative office of the U.S courts (AOUSC) case management system, or the system of electronic case filling” (justice.gov, 2011)
The records of attorneys in the systems of federal courts, has been using this two way systems of web based communication for electronic formation, filling as well as the exchange and access of litigation papers. “There are 57 district courts that have implemented case management and electronic case filling; others include 79 bankruptcies, international trade courts as well as the courts of federal claims” (justice.gov, 2011). In addition, there are over sixteen million cases that are either in case management or electronic case filling systems.
As if that is not enough, around 13,000 attorneys have filled papers over the net. The departmental elements that have been affected by this implementation include the; U.S attorneys, the Trustee Program of the U.S, and the litigation sub-divisions. “The business processes and reengineering studies are planning to absorb the dramatic alterations at the justice department in an effective manner” (justice.gov, 2011)
Another application has found its way in the case management line of business, (CMLB), under the department leadership. The implementation objective include; the development of common solutions architecture, that has enabled the case management information be efficiently shared both within and without the agencies.
The second goal is the improvement of effective and efficient law enforcing, investigating, as well as the civil and criminal litigation case management in business processes. The third goal is the identification of common case management processes across all elements and agencies that have been driving the system and function consolidation.
The fourth aim is addressing both immediate and long-term case management requirements in the federal case management fraternity. The last but not least objective “is the provision of guidance for future CM investments across the federal agencies” (justice.gov, 2011). By the year 2005, the target architectures were developed to litigate the administrative and investigative business functions.
Ensuring Cost-Effective Regulatory Processes
The justice department has also used the e-government information management system for the transformation of the performance of our regulatory duties as follows; this has been achieved through the firearms integrated technology (FIT) initiative. The target of integrated regulatory and enforcing strategy is the provision of electronic filling abilities 600,000 “members of ATF industries, agencies of law enforcements, as well as the public in general.” (justice.gov, 2011)
The FIT objective is the elimination of standalone, as well as the isolation of applications to ensure that, all systems of firearms and arson interface and effectively communicate with other systems of AFT. FIT has been consolidating systems that have been considered as being stand-alone, that provides support to the tracing of guns; information analysis; information storage, like the on-line lead. For instance in 2004, “the system of new e-trace, dealt with over 14,000 enquiries from around 800 law enforcing personnel.” (justice.gov, 2011)
On the other hand, Drug Enforcing Administration, (DEA), has been developing two main systems; one of them being the “electronic prescription for controlled substances (EPCS), along with the controlled substance ordering system (CSOS).” (justice.gov, 2011)
This kind of initiative in one way develops the framework that allows electronic transfer of prescribed data to the pharmacy from the prescriber, while on the other hand; it involves the framework development that allows the electronic style of “DEA 222 order form industrial handling supply chain of substances that are controlled.” (justice.gov, 2011)
As an effect, in future, DEA has to standards of performances via its regulations. In addition, it has to build a public key infrastructure that will be in a position of issuing digital certificates that allows such like organizations as well as vendors serving them to transform their way of from paper transmission. Under this project, around one million medical personnel will take part.
Another application has found its way in “National Instant Criminal Background Check System.” (justice.gov, 2011)This system has been utilized by Federal Firearms Licensees when carrying out background checks on purchases termed as potential, or even those under possession of firearms. The descriptive information that is tabled by the purchasers and possessors is always searched and verification done against NCIC contained records.
The Implementation of Information Management of E-Government in Kuwait
Kuwait and Singapore signed a memorandum of understanding on undertaking co-operation e-government in 2004. The intention of this MOU was the identification of different ways of accelerating the implementation of e-government in Kuwait. In 2005, Kuwait signed another MOU with the Microsoft Corporation.
The main objective of this agreement was the expansion of information and communication technology usage and the provision its support in the state of Kuwait. As a result, Kuwait has become the highly ranked ICT knowledge based society in the Arabic nations as indicated in table 1 bellow.
Table 1, e-government ranking for the GCC countries
The issues concerning technology are neither technical or means to an end, however, it needs to be considered that, the technology essence is to reveal the challenges that are facing the world, by its ordering along with the creation of concrete infrastructures. This framework can be applied well when discussing the information management in e-government implementation in developing nations. This is based on the fact that, the technology ordering concentrates relation between the admin and the citizens.
This is so particularly “in setting the boundary between the state and the market, along with ensuring greater transparency and accountability” (Danish, 2006). This has been stated as the as the as the main reason for developing nations to implement e-government plans. They do believe that, with such a project in place, it is enough to equate good governance along with increased development models. As an effect, it ends up affecting levels of international aids that they do receive from donor countries.
It has been stated that, the main reasons that contributes to the failure of e-government in most countries is “the mismatch between present realities and the future e-government system design” (Al-Rashid, 2010) the probability of failure increases, as the gap grows. The figure 1 in the appendix section has been used in the explanation of condition.
The problem that has been arising with most nations in the implementation of e-government is that, there are several mismatches between the present systems and the future systems. As an effect, there exist a lager gap between “the physical, economical well as several other contexts, between the software designers and the location in which the system is implemented” (Al-Rashid, 2010)
On the other hand, there are nations which have already implemented the information management in their e-government systems. For instance, the United State has implemented this system in the Justice department very well. Also Kuwait has signed different MOUs to ensure the success of this project.
References
Adb.org. (2010). The e-Government Applications. Retrieved from www.adb.org/Documents/Papers/E-Government/egov-techgov.pdf
Al-Rashid, H. (2010). Examining Internal Challenges to E-Government Implementation from System Perspective. Retrieved from www.iseing.org/emcis/EMCIS2010/Proceedings/…/C65.pdf
Danish, D. (2006). “The Failure of E-Government in Developing Countries: A Literature Review”. EJISDC. 26(7), 1-10. Retrieved from www.ejisdc.org/ojs2/index.php/ejisdc/article/view/277/176
Justice. gov. (2011). The Department Of Justice E–Government Act Implementation Update Budget Data Request No. 05-08. Retrieved from www.justice.gov/jmd/ocio/egovactreport2004.pdf
Stanforth, C. (2011). Using Actor-Network Theory to Analyze E-Government Implementation in Developing Countries .Retrieved from itidjournal.org/itid/article/viewFile/229/99
