Category: Management

Maturity in Information Technology (IT) entails the successful integration of application systems with intended users or production processes. It is common to find the systems attributed to high effectiveness during the developmental phase of a project. Ideally, it is inaccurate as the developers involved in transforming the requirements into practical features and functionalities are not the targeted end-users. It is vital to note that management capabilities in organizations determine the implementation success levels of an application or a system. This discussion, nevertheless, highlights the differences between institutional and process management as the most interesting aspect of the capabilities attributed to efficiency in IT application maturity.

Essentially, institutional management entails the optimal allocation of resources for enhanced profitability among organizations. This administrative practice indicates the implementation success of integrated applications and users required for IT application maturity. Fundamentally, technology innovation systems ensure progress in management efficiency as firms enhance the interaction between the stakeholders. However, it is fascinating to differentiate between institutional and process management practices. The latter entails the accurate integration of vital resources necessary for positive outcomes in a particular project. Technology implementation processes, as a result, depict unique attributes aimed at enhancing IT application maturity.

It is also exciting to realize that management attributes of an institution cannot be applied directly to the processes. Implementation phases of an application or a system are executed in the stages with well-defined steps. Failing to address vital elements in each procedure affects successful development and subsequent integration of applications within organizations. It is objective that management officials of business entities learn to differentiate attributes between the two administration capabilities for enhancing efficiency and effectiveness. Maintaining profitability requires operational relevance achieved by accurate institutional management practices describing a firms objectives. Most importantly, acquired knowledge in process management is essential in guiding similar implementation practices for optimal IT application maturity in contemporary organizations.

Abstract

In a global business environment, there is increasing competition. Hence, dynamic businesses are striving to be more agile and organized. Companies are seeking to formalize and improve how they conduct their projects. In this context, the Project Management Office (PMO) is obviously a very important structure. PMO is the organizational unit responsible for the integrated conduct of an organizations projects.

It is accountable for providing products and services to the ongoing projects. Project office deployment contributes to the alignment of project objectives with the strategic aims of an organization and streamlines the conduct of projects and senior management. An interface is a system by means of which a user can communicate with a machine such as a computer. It includes all points of contact between a user and a machine. It is usually easy to understand and operate. The basic user interfaces are those including elements such as menus, keyboard, mouse, beeps and some other sounds produced by a computer or any device of this sort.

Introduction

Both Project Management Office (PMO) and user interfaces are modern applications that businesses employ in their daily operations. There is a growing demand for companies to acquire knowledge on project management discipline as well as the formalization and standardization of processes that eventually result in the growth of required development parameters. The structures of most companies are bureaucratic and slow.

The latest facts show that the models fail to respond quickly to the constantly changing environment. Therefore, the traditional hierarchical structure should be replaced by a more robust project structure or other contemporary management structures that are capable of responding quickly to situations occurred inside and outside organizations (van der Linde & Steyn, 2016).

Literature Review

A project management office (PMO) can also be described as an organizational unit that centralizes and harmonizes project management at the workplace. A PMO ensures that organizational activities are executed in the most convenient possible way. The projects supported or administered by the PMO is to be related as being managed together (AbouRizk, 2010a). Some PMOs, however, do coordinate and manage related projects.

In some business units, such programs are classified and executed as a single unit depending on the preferred type of project management office to be used. The project management office is a set of design features that are in service of project managers fulfilling their duties. It allows routine project managers

to establish consistent and uniform practices of the functions performed. It can also serve as a central repository to align organizations (Müller, Glückler, & Aubry, 2013).

The responsibilities and objectives of the project office management, as well as the services and products supplied by the same department, may vary from one organization to another. Therefore, it is very important to align the project management office goals with the strategic objectives of the organization. Different types of PMOs serve various roles. For instance, a project management office structure enables the centralization of information and conduct of projects by facilitating the alignment of project objectives with the organizations goals as well as dissemination of information on these projects among senior management.

PMOs also build knowledge and skills to improve the capacity and quality of deliveries. The project office deployment enables greater efficiency in the planning and execution of projects through maintenance and control of databases containing information on the executed projects. PMOs also assist in estimating decisions concerning new projects and spreading information in various projects undertaken by organizations (van der Linde & Steyn, 2016).

PMOs are instrumental in collecting, analyzing and distributing information on the performance of projects. Collection and analysis of the organizations projects in order to identify drawbacks and best solutions, seeking decisions to eliminate these problems are among the key goals of the project management office.

Detecting and improving project management processes that are not efficient in the organizations projects. By having contact with various projects run by an organization, the project management office detects inefficiencies in processes and organizational project management methodology and eventually devises ways of their improvement. PMO enhances the training and development of project management skills. It maps and analyzes the skills and required knowledge present in projects and thus detects possible deficiencies. Implementation of support service in order to create knowledgeable users is a common function of different types of PMOs.

The creation of a project management office requires an awareness process and organizational acculturation. The latter must be planned and executed gradually. The following steps are necessary for the development and maturation of the project management office in an organization:

• Defining services to be provided by the project management office and obtaining the agreement of the project office manager and senior management of the company so that the project offices goals are aligned with the strategic aims of the company.
• Defining the roles and responsibilities of project office staff members because they determine the number of support actions to be provided.
• Determining and announcing the start of the project office. The management team should have a plan to achieve success as soon as possible.
• Aligning the development of projects in order to continuously meet the business needs.
• Refining and developing project office staff members skills and roles as required and accepted by the top management to sustain an ongoing internal growth of customers.
• To ensure that the quality and efficiency of delivered products and services to internal clients are of the best quality possible.

Owing to the need for companies to become more efficient and competitive as well as plan and execute their projects in a more assertive and professional way, business organizations should develop robust project management offices at any given time of their operation. The implementation and evolving of projects in organizations are crucial undertakings. The latter plays the role of an integrated project control and assists in the implementation and dissemination of project management tools as well as the developing and controlling methodologies and standards for management, storage and distribution of information and knowledge gained in the process of projects, etc. This requires the deployment of project management office.

Types of PMO

Despite lack of standardization, and controversy in the classification of types of Project Management Office (PMO), a simpler classification is highly preferred. PMO is composed of three basic types which differ in the level of control and impact they have on the operations of a firm. It is crucial for management teams to find out which type of PMO should be implemented in order to attain positive results. The basic types of project management are elucidated below:

Supportive PMO

As the name suggests, supportive PMO offers supportive services in an organization (van der Linde & Steyn, 2016). Some areas that require input of this type of project management office include expertise, management models, best practices, capacity building, access to information on other projects and so on. This type of PMO is prevalent in organizations where projects have already been successfully executed, but a greater extent of control is not necessary at all. Moreover, if the goal is to have a repository of information about project management that can be used freely by a companys respective managers, supportive PMO is by far the best option.

In cases where successful projects are completed on a regular basis, supportive PMO is highly recommended. In most instances, such projects are accomplished in a loosely controlled manner. Moreover, supportive PMO is also relevant when some form of clearinghouse is required as part of the objective.

Controlling PMO

There are organizations that require stringent management and control of activities which take place on a daily basis. Unless such activities are streamlined, the desired objectives can hardly be achieved. This type of project management office provides support just like the Supportive PMO (Kaleshovska, 2014). Therefore, it can be more helpful in project management.

Directive PMO

This type of PMO goes beyond control. It tends to dominate the project by providing project management expertise and resources that effectively manage projects at hand. As companies develop their projects, professional project managers are allocated to these projects (van der Linde & Steyn, 2016). A high dose of professionalism should be injected in a project when directive PMO is adopted. The PMO also ensures a high level of consistency in the practice of management between different projects.

This alternative has proved functional in well-established firms that generally embrace and utilize matrix support in different departments. It is worthy to reiterate that not all the organizational cultures would be compatible with this type of project management office. Other aspects that may affect the type of project management office to be used include the size of the organization, the available expertise and nature of operations. The past records of a firm may also be used to select the most appropriate project management office to use.

Regardless of the type of PMO embraced by an organization, the objectives do not significantly vary. For instance, PMOs assist introducing effective and repeatable processes, providing support tools and improving project success levels within an organization.

Understanding the various basic types of PMOs can help managers in any business organizations to determine the best suitable type of PMO and the most effective way of creating it.

Research objective

The main research objective of this paper is to elaborate on various types of interface. The User Interface is a key piece of software. It is the part which is visible to the users (Kaleshovska, 2014). It enables a way of communication between a user and a machine; with the help of interface we can control mechanisms in order to perform various tasks.

Current interfaces are designed to provide human-machine interaction in the most friendly and convenient manner as possible. Thus, it should be easy to use and offer simple and consistent interaction sequences clearly showing the available options in every step of the interaction without confusing or leaving the user insecure. These functions should be distinct and easy to master so that the user can fix only the problem he or she wants to solve using the system.

The main aim is to make the interaction more natural, intuitive and less user-hostile (Periyasamy & Perkinian, 2011). Currently, software systems are not used only for data processing. They are seen as complex messages sent from designers to users. Users not only send messages to the application programs, but also receive and interpret messages from or through the application.

Software interfaces are a great vehicle of communication through texts, articles, ideas and advertisements. The latter are transmitted daily to various users located all over the globe. This communication may be made in several ways, namely, texts, images, sounds, color combinations among others. Regardless of form, it should be guaranteed that the information transmitted is not incomplete, ambiguous or unintelligible.

Since color is a key element in any communication process, it deserves special attention. It is a component with great influence on the daily activities of an

individual because it interferes with senses, emotions and intellect. It can therefore be used deliberately to achieve specific goals. An interface designer must make use of this power of color and properly use them as one of most powerful components (AbouRizk, 2010b).

Each and every computer user has found it difficult to understand, assimilate and use interfaces. We are often forced to use interfaces of poor quality because we have no other option. Such interfaces have poor navigation. On the other hand, there are user-friendly interfaces where an individual can literally stroll through the software without a slightest difficulty. Examples of good interfaces include Windows operating system, Microsoft Office programs, Google Chrome Internet browser among others. Understanding users, their behavior, their likes and disapprovals, is an important step of ensuring that the interface something users are going to find easy and comfortable to use.

When we consider a software-based system, the expression Human Factors assumes a number of different meanings. Humans perceive the world through a sensory system which is reasonably well understood. When a human  computer interface is considered, predominantly visual, tactile senses and hearing come into play (Periyasamy & Perkinian, 2011).

Types of interface

Generally, there are three main classes of interfaces

• A hardware interface at the level of devices is used to access, process and deliver data, i.e. the basest means of input and output. Examples include keyboard, mouse and display screen.
• A software interface is intended to provide information about the processes and control tools regarding what the user can see on the screen.
• A Software-Hardware interface which provides a bridge between machine and people and allows the machine to understand instructions. On the other hand, the user understands the binary code translated into readable information.

Principal functions

Its main functions are:

• Startup and shutdown.
• Manipulate control device functions.
• Capability to control and edit archives and directories.
• Application development tools.
• Communication processes with other systems.
• Provision of status information.
• Creation of data exchange between applications.
• Facilitated access to control functions.

Interfaces can also be classified depending on how they ad users interact. These are listed below:

• Alphanumeric interfaces (command interpreters) that only recognizes text.
• Graphical user interfaces (GUI) which allow a computer to communicate very fast and intuitively by plotting the measurement and control elements.
• Touch interfaces which graphically represent a control panel in a sensitive screen that allows users to interact with a device by means of their fingers.

By construction, interfaces can be classified as either hardware or software as explained below:

• Hardware interfaces: These are kits of control devices that enable users to exchange data with the machine either by entering instructions or reading them.
• Software Interfaces: These are programs which allow information to be displayed on a screen, which, in turn, gives a user a possibility to control a computer processing this data.

Interface is a term derived from the English word Interface ( contact surface). In computer science, this notion is used with reference to the physical and functional connection between two systems or devices.

The interface is a connection between two machines of any kind thus providing them with communication between various levels. It is possible to understand the interface as a space (the place where the interaction and exchange take place), a tool (an extension mode of the human body, such as the mouse for interacting with a computer), or a surface (the object which provides information about its texture, shape or color).

It is also known as user interface since it is the medium that allows a person to communicate with a machine. The interface in this case is composed of contact points between the user and machine. In addition to the example mentioned above, the screen display or keyboard are also interfaces of the same type (Periyasamy & Perkinian, 2011).

When interacting with a computer, it is possible to make the distinction between hardware interface (mouse, display, keyboard), the software interface (Windows, Linux) and hardware-software interface (that allows man to understand binary code and that the machine can read the human instruction).

The main objective of a user interface is to bridge the gap between human being and silicon chips using some sort of a device or system. The second major aim is to make sure that such communication can be developed in the easiest and most convenient possible for the user. However, the interfaces are not always intuitive, an instance of Interfaces Command Line (CLI) is a good example. The latter is found in some operating systems such as NOS routers, shell Unix, and DOS. These interfaces have been used since the advent of computers but are still preferred by some specialists because they have memorized commands and got accustomed to it.

It is also important to recognize the command line interfaces as the best means through which system administrators can use to accomplish complex tasks.

Attentive User Interface

This type of interface aims to meet the needs of users based on their deliberate abilities. The modern ubiquitous patterns can be swiftly avoided by the interface because it is capable of identifying individual needs of users. The everyday environment exposes individuals to a plethora of objects demanding their immediate attention. While all these objects may be useful in real life situations, some of them are of utmost importance.

In this case, the users attention is regarded as a scarce resource that must be handled with care. Therefore, a central interaction path in this case is the attention of users (Periyasamy & Perkinian, 2011). After this understanding overall amount and quality of effective communication methods can be developed. Foreground processing of vital data can also be conducted by a user through the process of turn-taking.

This type of interface narrows down to difference between the surrounding of users activities and foreground activities. Hence, it is possible for users to facilitate smooth interaction with objects.

Touch screen interface

In a touch screen interface, we can see what appears on the computer monitor or screen of any device. It is a technology that entails integration sensors into screens in order to grant user access to control objects he or she observes while looking upon the screen. Nowadays touch screens are manufactured using different technologies. The operating of touch screens is based on the use of sensors which detect any form of touch and transform it into a command. (Periyasamy & Perkinian, 2011).

The touch screen interface is gaining more popularity and replacing the old analogue keys which were present in all electronic devices a few years ago. Some of the devices using this technology include cell phones, video games gadgets, tablets, and bank ATMs among others. There are several different types of touch screens, but the main ones are resistive, capacitive, surface acoustic wave and those that use micro cameras instead of sensors (Yueqing, Nam, Shadden, & Johnson, 2011).

The resistive layer is separated from the conductive layer by spacers and an electrical current of low intensity passes through the two layers. When you tap the screen, the two layers respond and the sensors capture the change of electric field at that point. It immediately submits its coordinates to the computer using a specific program that translates and transforms the touch into a command.

Conclusion

In recap, it is evident that both project management office and user interfaces are vital in effective running of organizations and therefore cannot be ignored by any means. The various types of project management office fit different organizational needs. For example, a supportive project management office is highly recommended for all organizations so that the needs of clients can be catered for in a timely manner. In regards to user interfaces, it is up to management teams of organizations to understand how their daily operations are effected by certain interfaces and whether they really face the need for development in this field. For instance, the manner in which employees interact with machines, feedbacks and the expected feedbacks should be assessed regularly.

References

AbouRizk, S. (2010a). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (5th ed.). New York: Cengage Learning.

AbouRizk, S. (2010b). Role of Simulation in Construction Engineering and Management. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 136 (10), 1140-1153.

Kaleshovska, N. (2014). Adopting Project Management Offices to Exploit the True Benefits of Project Management. Economic Development, 1 (1), 151-165.

Müller, R., Glückler, J., & Aubry, M. (2013). A Relational Typology of Project Management Offices. Project Management Journal, 44(1), 59-76.

Periyasamy, K. p., & Perkinian, V. V. (2011). Reconfiguration of Graphical User Interface. Journal of Digital Information Management, 9(5), 203-218.

van der Linde, J., & Steyn, H. (2016). The Effect of a Project Management Office on Project and Organizational Performance: A Case Study. South African Journal of Industrial Engineering, 27(1), 151-161.

Yueqing, L., Nam, C., Shadden, B. B., & Johnson, S. L. (2011). A P300-Based Brain- Computer Interface: Effects of Interface Type and Screen Size. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 27(1), 52-68.

Abstract

Delivery models in the business context contribute to increased productivity and success of an organization. Models play an important role in building the skills and competencies of the employees. The models are designed to achieve customer satisfaction and increased competitiveness in the industry. An organizations ability to outmatch its rivals is determined by the ability of delivery models to provide value to customers. This study describes and justifies the delivery model of a project coordinator in the public sector.

Introduction

Project coordination is a vital element in the public sector. The activity should be created as a new job in the sector to enhance service delivery. The justification for the need of a project coordinator in the public sector is grounded on the need to ensure the effective utilization of public resources. Most projects in the public sector fail to achieve the intended goals and objectives due to poor coordination (Hays Kearney & Coggburn, 2009). There is a complete disconnect between the project managers and technical staff working on projects. Therefore, the role of the project coordinator is to create a link between the project managers and the technical staff working on the project. The coordinator must have the requisite skills and experience in project management. To deliver quality services in the public project management system, the project manager must ensure that the requirements of the project are attained (Elinson, 2008).

Customer and Operational Requirements

Customer service requirements in the public sector provide the key guidelines that should be used when developing job delivery. The members of the public expect the new job to enhance service delivery in project management and ensure the effective utilization of the public resources. The coordinator will be expected to have excellent communication skills as a first-class leader. The individual will also be expected to establish effective ways that can be used to ensure the delivery of value for money, which is the key expectation of the public members (Wirick, 2009). To achieve value for money, the project coordinator will ensure that the objectives and scope of the project meet the needs of the people. The coordinator is also expected to develop effective cost management strategies that are important in achieving commercial benefits. The project coordinator will be anticipated to improve the quality of services and reduce the delays, which interfere with project delivery (Klingner, Nalbandian & Llorens, 2009).

In addition to the aforementioned requirements, proper planning is another key element that will enable the project coordinator to ensure that the project objectives and scope are achieved. The coordinator is expected to review the scope and objectives on a regular basis (Lewis, 2000).

Skills

To attain customer and operational requirements, project coordination in the public sector requires an individual who is highly skilled. For instance, a project coordinator should have good communication skills. The coordinator should be able to communicate effectively with the technical staff and managers. The individual should be able to express the project requirements and objectives (Elinson, 2008). Project coordination in the public sector also requires the coordinator to provide regular updates to the senior managers and the various stakeholders of the project. The individual should also have the ability to organize and hold meetings with staff members (Lewis, 2000).

Conflict management skills are very important for a project coordinator. As a new model in the public sector, the project coordinator will be expected to solve rampant disagreements between various parties involved in project management. The individual is expected to be a good problem. The coordinator should be able to identify and eliminate the causes of disagreements in the public sector (Hays Kearney & Coggburn, 2009).

Proper management of time is a major requirement in public project administration. The project coordinator should have time management skills to ensure that the project schedule is protected from any form of interruption. A project coordinator should program the project activities in an organized manner through effective utilization of time (Wirick, 2009).

Project coordination in the public sector also requires effective team building. The coordinator is expected to initiate team building and group dynamics in project management. The individual must have good interpersonal skills and ensure cooperation between the different parties involved in project management. The coordinator should be able to highlight the benefits of team building in the public sector.

Knowledge is an important aspect of designing the delivery model of a project coordinator. The coordinator should have the right knowledge that is important in project management. For instance, the individual will be expected to have knowledge of the management of public funds for the effective utilization of public resources (Lewis, 2000).

Knowledge and skills determine the ability of the project coordinator to meet the task requirements. In this case, the individual should have the abilities that are important for the task. A project coordinator in the public sector should have the ability to engage other people. The project coordinator should apply good leadership and communication skills to enhance the involvement of the project participants. The coordinator should not only engage people to increase their participation, but also enhance the achievement of the targeted results (Klingner, Nalbandian & Llorens, 2009).

As a leader, the project coordinator should set a direction for the staff members. The leader should cooperate with senior managers of the project to determine the project goals and make effective and reliable decisions. Moreover, the ability to manage change is another vital requirement in project coordination. The project coordinator should be able to predict and manage change. The individual should establish effective change management and implementation strategies (Klingner, Nalbandian & Llorens, 2009).

Human Resource Requirements

To achieve the effectiveness of the delivery model, the human resource requirements and functions should be assessed. In this case, the project coordinator should be hired according to the best human resources practices in the public sector. The recruitment process should adhere to the ethics of the public sector and the provisions of the labor laws. The coordinator will be compensated according to the standards in the market. Moreover, the qualification, experience, and the nature of the job will greatly determine the rates of compensation (Lewis, 2000).

Performance evaluation for the project coordinator in the public sector will be based on performance reviews. The reviews will be designed according to the project goals and the terms of the contract. In addition to these requirements, the project coordinator will be expected to meet the following qualifications (Elinson, 2008).

Educational Background and Experience

• A masters degree in project management
• Experience in public administration
• Knowledge of practical and theoretical elements in project management
• Knowledge in strategic planning

Specific Responsibilities and Tasks

• Execution of the project budget
• Managing project resources
• Regular project scheduling
• Monitoring of the project
• Management of project resources
• Develop project plans

Conclusion

Delivery of the model of a project coordinator in the public sector is important for the quality of services. The model is a new role in the public sector that should be implemented to ensure that project management in the public sector improves customer value and satisfaction.

References

Elinson, L. (2008). Evaluation of customized employment in building the capacity of the workforce development system. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 28(1), 141- 158.

Hays, S.W., Kearney, R.C & Coggburn, J. D. (2009). Public human resource management: Problems and prospects. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Klingner, D.E, Nalbandian, j., & Llorens, J. (2009). Public personnel management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Lewis, P. (2000).The project managers desk reference: A comprehensive guide to project planning, scheduling, evaluation, and control systems. New York: McGraw Hill.

Wirick. W.D. (2009). Public-sector project management. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley &Sons.

Security information incident (SII) management is an aspect of security management that is aimed at tracking, reporting, investigating, and dealing with vulnerabilities, issues, and security incidents (Rhodes-Ousley, 2013, p. 59). Incident responses are a part of SII management, and they involve particular actions of a response team that consists of a number of internal and external professionals (in various fields) who cooperate to handle various emergencies or incidents (Rhodes-Ousley, 2013, p. 158). The latter can be defined as unexpected and potentially threatening events in information security (Tøndel, Line, & Jaatun, 2014).

SII management is of paramount importance for information security because it is not always possible to prevent emergencies, which means that the latter need to be managed to avoid grave consequences. In this paper, a case study of SII management is going to be provided.

The article by Bartnes-Line, Tøndel, and Jaatun (2016) is devoted to modern SII management practices, and it singles out several self-reported cases of SII that were experienced by Norwegian distribution system operators (DSOs) in the field of the electric power industry. Bartnes-Line et al. (2016) discover that serious SIIs are not reported by the DSOs studied, but there occur less significant SIIs that are usually related to vulnerabilities in software that required patches, malware infections, breaches of procedures, certain unintentional mishaps, and technical failures (p. 19). The authors choose not to name the DSOs, but they cite one case that was encountered by the second DSO that they investigated. It involved the control system being infected by a virus, the source of which was never identified. The SII did not cause any direct damage, but it reduced the efficiency of the work of the system. It is noteworthy that there was no active antivirus software at the time. The DSO handled the issue by organizing clean-up efforts that were very resource-consuming and extensive.

The DSO reported being 100% dependent on its control systems (Bartnes-Line et al., 2016, pp. 15, 17), which highlights the fact that a more serious SII of a similar type could paralyze its work and result in noticeable damage. Apart from that, both at the time of the incident and the investigation by Bartnes-Line et al. (2016), the DSO did not have a well-defined response team with strictly determined responsibilities. The interviewee pointed out that no issues occurred because of it, but they admitted that in a worst-case scenario, problems would probably arise (p. 20).

Bartnes-Line et al. (2016) point out that the majority of investigated DSOs, including the DSO from the case, demonstrated the lack of experience and preparedness for SII even though their dependence on IT was very significant. Also, the authors point out that DSO security training rarely focuses on SII. The described DSO did not report particular lessons learned that were used to improve its preparedness; it can be explained by the fact that the incident was regarded as a minor one.

In general, the case appears to demonstrate a rather flawed SII management. Even though the direct response can probably be described as appropriate (the problem was detected and successfully eliminated), the fact that no attempts to improve preparedness were made does not seem to be acceptable. Planning, strategy construction, development and implementation of particular procedures, training, and the establishment of a response team with clearly defined responsibilities are important parts of SII management (Ahmad, Maynard, & Park, 2012; Bartnes-Line et al., 2016; Cichonski, Millar, Grance, & Scarfone, 2012). The present case study indicates incomplete and inappropriate planning (the lack of active antivirus software in an IT system that is crucial for the companys functioning), potentially deficient training and procedures, and the lack of a response team, which are weaknesses that should be eliminated. Also, more attention should be paid to considering lessons learned and using the experience in SII to improve the system (Bartnes-Line et al., 2016; Tøndel et al., 2014). Finally, it may be necessary to raise the DSOs awareness of the importance of SII management, which will naturally result in greater interest in this area of security.

References

Ahmad, A., Maynard, S., & Park, S. (2012). Information security strategies: towards an organizational multi-strategy perspective. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 25(2), 357-370.

Bartnes-Line, M., Tøndel, I., & Jaatun, M. (2016). Current practices and challenges in industrial control organizations regarding information security incident management  Does size matter? Information security incident management in large and small industrial control organizations. International Journal Of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 12, 12-26. Web.

Cichonski, P., Millar, T., Grance, T., & Scarfone, K. (2012). Computer security incident handling guide. NIST Special Publication.

Rhodes-Ousley, M. (2013). Information security: The complete reference, second edition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Tøndel, I., Line, M., & Jaatun, M. (2014). Information security incident management: Current practice as reported in the literature. Computers & Security, 45, 42-57.

Introduction

There is a tremendous number (more than a million) of officially certified PMPs (project management professional) all over the planet. One-fourth of these specialists work and locate in the territory of the United States of America. Unfortunately, the majority of various projects these people perform appear to fail. The following paper is intended to discuss and identify the main reasons why many projects under the control of PMPs fail and what ethical issues influence this situation.

Discussion

To begin with, it would be proper to mention that various issues related to Cultural or Ethical Misalignment are claimed to be the most important reasons why innovative projects managed by PMPs fail (Mir & Pinnington, 2014). Moreover, approximately 70 percent of all new businesses or other beginner organizations cannot become independent and successful (Mir & Pinnington, 2014). This happens because they do not strive to meet particular cost requirements, their clients needs, and other goals that their employees set at the beginning of their activities.

The first question that will be addressed and answered in the given paper is intended to determine why an enormous number of projects fail regularly, even though there are many PMPs involved in their promotion, along with other issues necessary for any company. Considering the fact of ethical issues in beginner organizations that cannot become successful, it is essential to state that this problem might be based on peoples unscrupulous approach to their work (Mir & Pinnington, 2014). For instance, PMPs are required to be responsible for any job they do and meet all the needs of their employers. Perhaps, the root of the problem is that PMPs seek high profits, instead of other opportunities in their careers. It appears that when a person is not motivated to achieve a particular goal, he or she does not have enough interest to be interested in ones profession (Bredillet, 2014). As they do not have any desire to work and develop various products or services that they are supposed to elaborate on, their contribution seems to be useless. To eliminate this ethical issue, PMPs are recommended to have their interests in activities that they are expected to accomplish by their employers.

There is another side of the problem regarding multiple projects failures. There are several professional standards that PMPs are supposed to follow to be efficient and beneficial for their partners. These standards include PMI (professional management institute) rules, PgMP (program management professional), and PRINCE2 (projects in controlled environments) (Bredillet, 2014). These are considered to be the best practices that one can implement to increase any projects productivity rate or contribute to other factors that might make these beginner businesses successful.

According to the Code of Ethics and professional conduct offered by PMI, the main requirements to project managers imply being honest to their colleagues, responsible for their actions, and fair with their partners. If projects fail, then these rules are disregarded, whereas PMPs might not always be honest and fair with people they collaborate with for a certain period (Kerzner, 2017). As any firm has to be based on trustworthy relationships among its workers, these projects cannot last longer than several months. It appears that honesty becomes critical when some financial or organizational operations are performed without superiors awareness of that (or contradicts their vision). The context presented in the given paragraph was intended to answer the question of why ethical issues remain a major cause of multiple projects failures if PMPs are expected to follow their Code of Ethics.

Proposed Changes

Sometimes, beginner projects lack organization. When PMs do not meet the Code of Ethics requirements (that they are supposed to adhere to regularly), it is necessary to implement certain actions to increase an organizations probability to become successful. In turn, the PMI Code of Ethics mentioned above has to be revised to make PMPs more competent in what they do and help them avoid simple issues that lead to failures (Bredillet, 2014). Also, all the rules listed in the Code must become more meaningful and impactful.

To begin with, it is necessary to mention that some PMs may violate different rules, regardless of whether or not they are listed in the PMI Code of Ethics. It is all dependent on a person and his or her attitude towards ones professional responsibilities (Bredillet, 2014). Nevertheless, an appropriate decision would be to add the following considerations to make PMPs more competent workers, and hence prevent various failures of projects that they can initiate:

• All tasks that were taken by a project manager must demonstrate this persons professionalism and high competency. This issue is essential for anyone who strives to become a concise PMP. Unfortunately, many problems in the discussed industry occur because there are many people certified by PMI. Any competition would make these individuals more responsible for their actions (Pinto, 2017).
• Learning how to make appropriate decisions regarding colleagues, clients, various resources available, and the environment PMs work in daily. Indeed, not all beginner projects have many resources (Hornstein, 2015). Nevertheless, a project manager must find different methods to understand how all the available resources can be engaged for everyones benefit. If one disregards certain resources or possibilities that can be used at the present moment to improve a particular situation, this worker can be claimed unprofessional and not trustworthy. All PMPs must seek their interests in what they do (even if these are not obvious at first glance).
• Another important rule that can be added to the given list is the identification of objectives (Hornstein, 2015). It appears that many companies and project managers do not pay enough attention to this responsibility of theirs. When a person or a group of people do not understand their primary goals, all the actions they perform are useless. Although this is rather an organizational problem, it remains one of the most common reasons for failures.

It is necessary to mention that the Code of Ethics may always contain imperfections. Nevertheless, it is not always essential to stick to its prescriptions when working on serious projects. Instead, any manager has to demonstrate ones best professional qualities and do everything possible to make their companies successful. Moreover, the Code of Ethics might be disregarded by the majority of certified PMs (Hornstein, 2015). Therefore, their work loses value. Every person must show that he or she is interested in certain work or ideas. Otherwise, their intentions to stay parts of a new project team might become useless.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is necessary to emphasize the fact that the majority of new projects fail because of ethical considerations disregarded by their managers. To improve the situation, it would be advantageous to revise the PMI Code of Ethics and persuade PMs to contribute to their activities as much as possible. They must seek benefits from all the available resources and implement their best skills to succeed.

References

Bredillet, C. (2014). Ethics in project management: Some Aristotelian insights. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 7(4), 548-565. Web.

Hornstein, H. A. (2015). The integration of project management and organizational change management is now a necessity. International Journal of Project Management, 33(2), 291-298. Web.

Kerzner, H. R. (2017). Project management a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling (12th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Mir, F. A., & Pinnington, A. H. (2014). Exploring the value of project management: Linking project management performance and project success. International Journal of Project Management, 32(2), 202-217. Web.

Pinto, J. K. (2017). Project management: Achieving competitive advantage. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson.

The life cycle of an object is one of the essential concepts in modern business management. Although some companies continue to release products without caring about, for example, their future recycling, more organizations are starting to implement product lifecycle management or PLM. The application of this method allows to obtain more efficient products at the output and maximize the use of available resources. Even though this process involves the interaction of many departments simultaneously, such additional costs are often quite quickly recouped. The active diffusion of technologies and innovations makes this process even more profitable and accessible. This essay aims to analyze the impact of innovative technologies at various stages of the PLM process.

While maintaining a product throughout its entire lifespan is challenging, it can be simplified by breaking its lifecycle into several key stages. The average consumer is often confronted with only the last stages of PLM: Production, Operate, and Recycling. However, despite the length and scope of these phases, initial phases such as Product Planning and Development are also important. It is necessary to consider all possible controversial points even at the development stage to ensure an effective product life cycle, such as a disposal. However, for the business management process and the product itself to be as successful as possible, cooperation between all seven elements of PLM is necessary. Innovative technologies are a significant help in improving this cooperation and increasing the efficiency of the process as a whole.

Modern achievements of science and technology find their application in almost all stages of production. At the same time, innovations are also actively built into the development cycle itself, gradually changing it. For example, the introduced innovations allow to include the future customers in the creation process. Consequently, the company faces additional tasks of organizing contacts with the target audience, which can be used both as a resource and co-developer. In addition, with the frequent use of various outsourcing firms, the task of synchronizing development appears. Therefore, innovative technologies simplify the development process and change the challenges it faces, forcing it to take into account technological development and the interaction of the opportunities they create.

Many of these processes are closely related to the computerization and proliferation of various computing devices. During the industrial revolution, the development of steam engines allowed manufacturing to take a giant leap forward, and now the introduction of industrial computers plays the same role. Most notable in this context are various industrial robots. The use of robotics technologies makes it possible to replace a person in hazardous operations, speed up the production process, and reduce downtime. In addition, they can be used for quality control and, finally, to perform various logistics operations. The use of interconnected computer networks, for example, also reduces communication times, which can significantly speed up production, especially in the context of remote offices.

Most of the latest innovations to shorten production times and get goods to market faster can be seen in the context of Industry 4.0 or the fourth industrial revolution. Within the framework of this phenomenon, active digitalization of the entire production process is being carried out and integrated into a single information network. Following this, companies gain access to vast amounts of data that can be processed quickly and efficiently using big data technologies. 3D printing made it possible to obtain complex, multi-component objects reasonably quickly. Finally, the Internet of Things allows physical objects to be interconnected and to implement massive autonomous networks. In addition, large-scale integration of objects allows companies to get constant access to information about them, making the quality control process easier and more efficient. Finally, the tasks of optimizing and responding to innovations and trends are also greatly facilitated, allowing Industry 4.0 to grow at an almost exponential pace.

Such systems have several advantages from a wide variety of perspectives. First of all, computerization allows making calculations at speeds that a person is not physically capable of. Accordingly, the efficiency of using the equipment is significantly increased. Eliminating humans from the system and delegating authority to computers enhance safety, reliability, and production quality. Finally, costs are also significantly reduced due to the absence of the need to pay salaries and the use of cheap computer resources. However, as noted above, the use of such systems creates several new tasks that require close attention. One of the most important of these is cybersecurity associated with the increase in the number of computers in use. Although the use of linked systems speeds up access to information, the resulting instability will be much greater if such a system is hacked. If one machine breaks down in a standard plant, production will not be stopped, but if the control system of a high-tech factory is hacked, the consequences can be much more severe. The proliferation of computerization creates the need for appropriately qualified specialists, which gives rise to many problems.

Thus, innovative technologies every year more and more change the production process, making changes to existing systems and in some cases even replacing them with new ones. Such trends can significantly increase the efficiency, safety, and quality of manufactured products at all stages of PLM. Computerization allows both to reduce product development time and bring customers closer to the production process, using them as consultants and resources. However, the widespread introduction of such technologies creates a significant security threat caused by the scale of the possible consequences of a compromised system. This problem is one of the most significant obstacles to the fourth industrial revolution. All its benefits in reduced costs and increased efficiency must be treated with caution.

Executive Summary

This project aims to create a business case for establishing a Dundee tram system. The city is planning to develop a new tram system and it is necessary to come up with a project plan that will ensure that this objective is achieved within the set timeline and with the available resources. In this plan, the individual activities in the project have been identified and the time within which they should be completed is specified. The plan has also specified how risks and constraints should be dealt with to ensure that the desired success is achieved.

Introduction

The tram system is one of the transport systems that are growing in popularity not only in Europe but other developed and fast-developing economies around the world. This transport system is considered efficient in eliminating traffic jams on our roads and lowering the overall cost of transport. The City of Dundee is one of the fastest developing cities in Scotland and its population has been rising consistently over the past few decades (Barker & Cole 2012). As such, it requires an effective transport system that will enhance the speedy movement of people and goods from one point to the other.

In 2013, the top officials of Dundee City Council rejected a £20 million project proposal to construct a new tram system citing the high cost of the project and the low income that would be expected. However, recent developments clearly show that time has come for the city officials to reconsider their position and commission a new project that will improve transportation in this city.

The proposed tram system will focus on improving the existing system and introducing new routes to increase the connectivity of the entire system. In this proposal, emphasis will be laid on performance management, constraints and risks, resource management, and factors that may lead to either success or failure of the project.

Project Objectives

According to Kerzner (2013), when developing a plan for a project, one of the most important issues that must be taken into consideration at the initial stages is the definition of project objectives. Project objectives help in defining the path, deliverables, and any possible challenges expected when implementing a project. In this project, the following are the project objectives that will guide the entire process of developing the plan.

The main objective will be to develop an effective project plan for a new Dundee City tram system

• To ensure that the above main objective is achieved, the following goals will have to be realised.
• To define the resources and time needed to undertake the project successfully.
• To identify specific stakeholders that will be involved in the project, clearly defining the roles they shall play.
• To identify challenges and possible factors that may lead to failure, and discuss how they can be managed.
• To identify factors that may improve the chances of achieving greater success in this project.

Performance Measurements

The planned project is very critical to the development of Dundee City and the leaders of the city are committing a lot of resources to ensure that it achieves the desired result. As such, it will be necessary to come up with an effective performance measurement strategy that will help in determining if the progress made in the project is leading to the desired outcome.

As Snyder (2013) says, several instruments can be used to assess the performance of a project. In this case, the researcher proposes the use of Key Performance Indicators to assess the performance of the project when it is finally initiated. The figure below shows the KPI model that will be appropriate in measuring the performance of this project.

As shown in the above model, there are four main areas of interest when conducting performance measurement of a given project. The first area is the cost. It is estimated that the project will be worth about £25 million after factoring in the expected inflation. This money will be allocated to specific activities in this project, from the planning to initiation and finally evaluation stages of the project.

The project should be completed using the allocated resources. The project management team will be keen to avoid the mistakes made during the construction of Edinburghs tram system where the cost of the project doubled more than three times of the planned budget. To manage the cost, the project management unit will need to ensure that each activity is completed as per the set guidelines and with the resources set for the activity.

The second parameter is the accuracy in meeting the set goals and objectives. The overall objective of the project is to develop a city tram system that will improve the ease of movement of people and goods from one part of the city to the other. When this project is completed, this objective should be achieved. However, this can only be possible if each activity within the project is completed successfully and within the set timeline and with the use of the set resources.

The entire project will be broken down to individual activities as discussed in the section below. Each activity will be monitored by various supervisors specialised in different areas in the entire construction process. The project manager will be receiving a regular briefing from the supervisors about the progress of the project. Any delays must be avoided and mistakes identified and corrected before they can have any significant impact on the overall success of the project.

Speed is another parameter of the performance measurement that will be given serious consideration in the project. According to Barker and Cole (2012), mega projects such as the construction of roads and rails should often be completed in time to ensure that the returns are generated within the specified period. In this project, taxpayers money will be committed to the project, and it is expected that the return on investment will be fully made after a specified period.

If any delays are encountered, then it may take long before the city can recover the investment made in this project. Each of the activities in this project, discussed below, has a specific timeline, and the supervisors will be responsible for ensuring that everything is completed in time. All the people involved in this project should be ready to work for extra hours in case it is determined that a delay may arise in a given activity. Teamwork is particularly very important in ensuring that the project is completed within the set deadline.

The final parameter is the completeness of the project as per the set goals and objectives. According to Kerzner (2013), when all the individual activities in the project have been completed, the project manager and the entire team must take time to evaluate the entire project to determine that there is nothing more to be delivered as per the desires of the client.

Completeness means that the project has been accomplished and that all the stakeholders involved, especially the client, is satisfied with the work done based on the initial agreement. The project manager will need to have a team of specialists specifically responsible for measuring the performance of every activity in the project and ensuring that the entire project becomes a success.

Stakeholder Analysis

The proposed development of Dundee tram system will affect several stakeholders in various ways hence the project management team will need to know how to classify these stakeholders. Each of the classes will have different interest and power in the project. They must, therefore, be treated differently to ensure that they remain satisfied and supportive of the project.

The first category of the stakeholders is those with high interest and high power to influence the project in terms of financing or regulating. In this project, the officials of Dundee City Council fall in this category. The council approves the budget for the project and has the power to halt it both as the only donor and as a government responsible for regulatory issues. As shown in the above grid, they are at the top of the priority list and they must be managed very closely. Their expectations and demands must be adequately met.

The second category of the stakeholders is with high power but low interest in the project. Members of the public in Dundee may not have a high interest in the project given the fact that they are getting quality service from the currently available transport infrastructure. However, they have high power because they can force the government to bring the project to a stop if they feel that their interests will not be taken care of by the project. These stakeholders should always be kept satisfied by ensuring that the project objectives are in line with what they expect of their transport system.

The third category includes the stakeholders with high interest but low power in terms of their influence on the project. A typical example of stakeholders falling in this category is business people who are highly interested in having improved transport network in this city to help them move their products from one location to the other with ease. They lack the power to influence the project, but they have a huge interest in the project. As shown in the grid above, they should always be informed of the developments in the project.

The last category includes those with low power and low interest in the project. These are stakeholders with limited power in the project and are not concerned much about the project. A good example may be religious leaders within the city of Dundee. They may not be much interested in the project as long as their faithful are not directly put to harm by the activities in the project. The project manager should put minimal effort into pleasing this category of stakeholders because they are inconsequential to the project.

Activities and Scheduling

The specific activities that will be carried out in this project will determine how well the project will be. These activities are summarised in the Gantt chart below.

Resources

As mentioned in the section above, this project will need several resources to ensure that it is completed as per the expectation of the stakeholders. It has been estimated that the project will cost about £25 million. This money should be made available when it is needed. The project will also need a human resource, especially architects, engineers, surveyors, financial experts, masons, carpenters, welders, among others who will work in various sections of the project. Given the technology and number of people who will be involved in the project, it is estimated that it will take about 400 days to complete the project.

Constraints and Risks

It is important to appreciate that during the stage of project implementation, several constraints and risks may be encountered and they may affect the progress of the project in different ways. According to Kerzner (2013), being able to identify these constraints early enough is very important. Natural disasters, terror attacks, pilferages, and inflation are some of the real threats that the team must be prepared to face. Using the Theory of Constraints, the team will be able to deal with these forces. The figure below shows the model.

The theory proposes a cyclic process of dealing with the risks in the project. It starts by identifying the risks and constraints. The team will then be expected to exploit various options of dealing with the risks. The risks should be ranked so that the most urgent and significant ones are dealt with first before those considered to be subordinate. The model emphasises on maintaining a cyclic evaluation so that risks may be identified as soon as they pose risk to the project.

Communication

According to Kerzner (2013), communication is a critical tool in the successful implementation of a project. The project manager must establish an effective communication system that shall be used in the project.

Information from and to the sponsors, regulators, and all other stakeholders who are not members of the project team must be done by the project manager. The project manager will need to use various communication approaches such as memos, conferences, and letters to communicate with the project members. Junior employees will be allowed to use their supervisors or contact top managers directly when they have information to share with the management.

Possible success/ failure factors

This project is going to succeed if all the planned activities are done as planned. Teamwork, commitment towards various assignments in the project, use of emerging technologies, effective time management, and availing of the resources at the right time are all factors that would lead to success. However, issues such as leadership wrangles, poor resource allocation, and poor communication may lead to failure. These negative factors should be avoided at all cost.

Consideration concerning future operations

The moment this project is operationalized, the project management unit should give serious consideration to the issue of effective communication and close coordination of activities. This way, it will be easy to know when something is going contrary to the expectations. Finding a solution to such issues will be easy when communication is left open.

Conclusion

The planned Dundee city tram system is a very ambitious project that will transform the transport system in the city. It will enhance the movement of people and goods from one part of the city to the other. To ensure that the project is a success, the project sponsor must ensure that all the resources are availed to the team at the right time. The project manager and the entire team must commit themselves to achieving the set targets within the set time and with the assigned resources.

List of References

Barker, S & Cole, R 2012, Brilliant project management: What the best project managers know, do and say, Pearson, London.

Kerzner, H 2013, Project management: A systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.

Snyder, C 2013, A project managers book of forms: A companion to the PMBOK Guide, fifth edition, Wiley, Hoboken.

Case Study Analysis: A Day in the Life

Rachels Schedule Efficacy

Being a project manager means addressing a range of issues related to planning, communication, and problem solving, which Rachels case is a graphic example of. A single look at Rachels schedule will show that she plans her day in a very reasonable manner, making sure that she has enough time to handle the emerging issues. For instance, the fact that she comes to work early to get ready for the day displays that she intends to use the time that she has in an adequate and reasonable manner (Clay & Larson, 2014).

In addition, the way, in which she avoids numerous distractions and uses the existing opportunities to her advantage, is quite impressive. For instance, after being distracted by one of the staff members, Rachel makes up for the time lost in the conversation by reducing her report to her boss to a total of thirty minutes.

Art and Science of Project Management

The issues that Rachel has at work point clearly to the fact that being a project manager means not only planning the oncoming projects adequately but also creating a proper communication pattern and designing a good conflict management strategy. Particularly, Rachels experience shows that a project manager must be persistent and able to cut the number of unrelated conversations to a minimum without causing workplace conflicts. In other words, the art of project management is primarily the art of communication. In addition, the ability to plan the working day carefully should be deemed as an essential quality of a project manager as well.

Project Examples

Type 1: Must-Do

The projects that are defined as must-do imply the necessity to complete them as soon as possible. Therefore, the specified type of projects can be considered urgent. As a rule, the must-do projects include the goals that define the companys further course of actions and often turn out to be crucial to the overall wellbeing of the organization. However, the projects that fall under the category of must-dos traditionally have a temporary effect on the project. The location of a logistics strategy, which will help improve the quality of the firms performance and increase the rates of customer satisfaction, can be viewed as a must-do (Laufer, 2012).

Type 2: Operational

Seeing that must-dos are usually viewed as the urgent projects, the operational ones might be considered the second most important steps to be taken. However, the give assumption is often erroneous. While operational projects are a part and parcel of the projects taxonomy, they tend to be focused on the actual performance rather than the result or the objectives that need to be accomplished to attain the required outcomes. The design of a brand product based on the needs of the target customers and the unique characteristics of the organization can be considered as an example of an operational project, as it cannot be deemed as urgent yet is an important part of the firms operation (Muller, 2012).

Type 3: Strategic

Last but definitely not least, the specified type of projects presupposes careful planning as the key means of reaching the required outcome. Strategic planning is crucial for developing complex approaches that may presumably take a considerable amount of time and effort, affecting the company in a very direct manner. The change in the leadership strategy, which will help a company advance in the environment of the global economy, is an example of strategic planning.

Reference List

Clay, C. F., & Larson, E. (2014). Project management: The managerial process. London, UK: McGraw Hill.

Laufer, A. (2012). Mastering the leadership role in project management: Practices that deliver remarkable results. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT Press.

Muller, R. (2012). Project governance. Burlington, VT: Gower Publishing, Ltd.

Project Summary

When it comes to saltwater tank installation, the project is in the execution stage. Up to now, the initially established goal has been met. It is worth admitting that the project was completed a week ahead of schedule and within the stipulated budget.

Deliverables

The project execution produced three significant deliverables that deserve attention. Firstly, the milestone report is essential because it helps project managers and other stakeholders understand when and what activities should be implemented to ensure that the project is properly implemented. Secondly, an established budget plan is important to know what financial resources are available and how it is reasonable to use them. Thirdly, a communication matrix is necessary for emphasizing the flow of communication among project stakeholders.

Project Baselines and EVM Calculations

The project baselines are established when managers understand what critical processes should be performed. After that, they create these baselines, or milestones, indicating what activities and how they should be implemented. These baselines are essential for EVM calculations because the latter rely on the milestones. For example, a budget plan is a significant baseline, and it is further used to determine whether the project can be considered financially good, which is possible if the stipulated plan is met.

EVM Metrics

When it comes to assessing the results, both good and bad, appropriate EVM metrics should be used. Planned Value is used to demonstrate what value a project is going to bring over its duration (Barrientos-Orellana et al., 2021). Earned Value reveals the actual revenue that a project has generated by meeting the milestones (Barrientos-Orellana et al., 2021). The Actual Cost shows the market value of the project after its completion (Barrientos-Orellana et al., 2021). Consequently, managers can rely on these metrics to assess the effectiveness of the current project.

Project Closure

Appropriate project closure strategies are needed to ensure that all the processes and activities are adequately ended. It is possible to rely on project audits because this post-project review reveals how successful the project is (Larson, 2020). Furthermore, a project closure checklist can be used because it helps managers determine whether all the required steps have been implemented to close a project (Buttrick, 2018).

Lessons Learned

1. A project planning stage cannot be neglected since it guides the entire project.
2. It is essential to abide by the project budget.
3. Conflict is probable, meaning that it is necessary to address it adequately.

References

Barrientos-Orellana, A., Ballesteros-Pérez, P., Mora-Melia, D., González-Cruz, M. C., & Vanhoucke, M. (2021). Stability and accuracy of deterministic project duration forecasting methods in earned value management. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management. Web.

Buttrick, R. (2018). The project workout: The ultimate guide to directing and managing business-led projects (5^th ed.). Routledge.

Larson, E. W. (2020). Project management: The managerial process (8^th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Abstract

Biometric ID management systems have been thoroughly discussed in recent years and are now universally utilized for security purposes. At present, the two primary types of biometric systems include physical and behavioral approaches. The two models have distinct advantages and disadvantages, including cost-efficiency, simplicity of implementation, and accuracy rates. Most modern biometric ID management systems belong to one of these approaches and are utilized in diverse settings. The current paper thoroughly explains the underlying principles of biometrics and discusses the primary features and functions of various biometric ID management systems.

Introduction

In general, biometrics refers to measurements and analysis of certain biological characteristics, such as faces, fingerprints, or voices. However, this concept is commonly associated with biometric identification or authentication of individuals, which has become one of the most prominent security system types in the world (Akhtar et al., 2018). At present, biometric technologies are increasing in popularity due to the versatility of the model and are particularly efficient in border control, forensics, and law organizations (Drozdowski et al., 2020). Furthermore, private businesses and commercial organizations are also implementing biometric identification and authentication to improve data security (Drozdowski et al., 2020). Nevertheless, biometrics is a complex area of technological research, and people frequently lack a comprehensive understanding of the framework. Therefore, it is essential to continually improve the system and raise peoples awareness concerning biometric technologies. The current paper examines the primary features and functions of a biometric ID management system and provides a detailed overview of the biometric technologies in this area of research.

Theoretical Background

However, before discussing the features and functions of the biometric ID management system, it is essential to establish the theoretical background for further analysis. The underlying principle of biometric identification is the uniqueness of biological patterns in every individual; thus, every person has different biological quantitative information (Akhtar et al., 2018). This data ranges vastly from unique facial features to finger veins and brainwaves, making biometrics identification a highly versatile but secure system (Akhtar et al., 2018). The standard techniques primarily include fingerprints, faces, and iris authentication due to the convenience and relative simplicity of the methods (Akhtar et al., 2018). The standard mechanism of biometric identification is the following: the user inputs the data  the biometric sensor reads the input and extracts the necessary features  the received data is compared to the information in the database (Akhtar et al., 2018). Consequently, if the input matches the entry in the database, the user is granted access. The described approach is the standard biometric system implemented in a large variety of settings and locations.

Biometric Identification Types

Biometric identification refers to the recognition of personal features and is the most significant step in biometrics management. The two primary areas of biometric identification are physical and behavioral biometrics (Alzubaidi & Kalita, 2016). The former concerns unique physical characteristics, such as facial features, fingerprints, and brainwaves (Akhtar et al., 2018). The latter refers to behavioral patterns of individuals, such as the manner of talking and walking, or hand-waving, signatures, and keystrokes (Alzubaidi & Kalita, 2016). The underlying principles and complexity of the identification processes differ significantly, depending on the biometric type and standards (Akhtar et al., 2018). At present, physical measurements  fingerprint and face recognition, specifically  dominate the field of biometric security systems due to the ease of the methods and well-documented research (Alzubaidi & Kalita, 2016). However, it is possible that behavioral biometric ID systems become more prominent with the continual development of software, hardware, and the introduction of innovative technologies.

Biometric ID Management Systems

Having established the theoretical background of biometric identification, it is possible to examine the contemporary ID management systems based on physical and behavioral biometric patterns. At present, biometric ID management systems are taking over the traditional authentication methods, such as passwords or knowledge-based verification (Recfaces, 2020). While there are certain disadvantages to most biometric technologies, biometric identification demonstrates better security and convenience compared to traditional models (Recfaces, 2020). Each biometric ID management system has unique features, functions, advantages, and drawbacks; therefore, companies need to understand the specific characteristics of the models before implementing them (Recfaces, 2020). The current sub-chapter provides a detailed description of the most prominent biometric identification management systems and lists the advantages and disadvantages of the frameworks.

Fingerprint Recognition

The most standard and widespread type of biometric identification system is fingerprint recognition. This approach utilizes the conventional feature extraction from the sensors and compares the received data with the entries in the databases (Yang et al., 2019). Fingerprint recognition is used in various settings, including law enforcement organizations, border control, consumer biometrics, and financial services (Yang et al., 2019). This type of biometric identification demonstrates high accuracy rates and excellent security since every individual has unique fingerprints, and this measurement can be used to even distinguish identical twins (Yang et al., 2019). As a result, fingerprint biometric identification models are highly prominent in modern security systems and are universally utilized.

Nevertheless, there are certain disadvantages to the fingerprint recognition system. First, the biometric system might not capture the correct input if the minutiae (unique fingerprint patterns) are damaged in some way. It frequently occurs due to the intense friction of the fingers with a rough surface. For instance, the minutiae are damaged severely after rock climbing or hard physical labor and need a recovery period of several days to be recognized by the biometric systems again. Other types of physical biometrics have the same issues; however, the damage to fingerprints occurs more frequently than to the face or iris. Secondly, while the security of fingerprint recognition systems demonstrates better results than those of traditional approaches, the framework is not foolproof (Joshi, Mazumdar & Dey, 2018). At present, the improvement of biometric systems is a relevant topic, and various methods, such as neural networks, deep learning-based anomaly detection models, and vulnerability simulation, are used to enhance security (Joshi et al., 2018). Therefore, while fingerprint recognition systems are highly relevant in biometrics, there is still much work to be done to optimize the method.

Face Recognition

Face recognition is another type of physical biometric identification that is widely accepted throughout the whole world and is relatively simple in implementation. These systems are highly prominent in law enforcement and criminal identification (Abdullah et al., 2017). For instance, it is possible to utilize face recognition biometrics to compare peoples faces with the inputs from criminal databases to alert law enforcement organizations concerning potential illegal activity (Abdullah et al., 2017). The design of face recognition biometrics is relatively standard and is presented in the chart below:

Ultimately, face recognition biometrics are not restricted to security functions but are also highly prominent in law enforcement for investigation and crime prevention purposes.

Similar to other types of biometrics, face recognition has a number of advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of the method include the simplicity of implementation, the non-contact nature of biometric input, and the capability to identify several people simultaneously (Ye et al., 2020). Face recognition systems might also be easily expanded by adding additional image inputs to the databases (Ye et al., 2020). However, this biometric ID management system is prone to several drawbacks. Specifically, face recognition demonstrates low accuracy rates due to environment lighting and can be relatively easily deceived via makeups and facelifts (Ye et al., 2020). Furthermore, the implementation of the system requires higher expenses compared to the fingerprint recognition approach (Ye et al., 2020). Ultimately, while face recognition is a relevant and easily accessible method, it has a number of drawbacks obstructing the efficiency of the approach.

Iris Recognition

Iris recognition is a type of physical biometrics that is frequently utilized to secure data of major significance. The primary reasons for such an approach include high costs of implementation, the necessity of complex hardware and software, and relatively inconvenient usage (Ye et al., 2020). However, the method is associated with excellent stability and accuracy due to the unique method of assessment and the impossibility to counterfeit the input (Ye et al., 2020). The structure of a human eye comprises the sclera, iris, pupil lens, and retina, and each of the said components has a unique sub-structure and personal characteristics (Ye et al., 2020). As a result, the stability and security of iris recognition significantly surpass those of other biometric systems and exceed the stability of fingerprint recognition (Ye et al., 2020). Ultimately, iris recognition is a highly secure biometric system; however, the implementation of the system is complex and associated with large expenses.

Voice Recognition

Unlike previous identification methods, voice recognition is a behavioral biometric technology. Similar to physical systems, behavioral technologies follow a structured and hierarchical algorithm  registration, preprocessing, feature extraction, and matching (Alsaadi, 2021). Voice recognition is one of the most prominent behavioral systems that continually become more popular in the field of biometric security (Alsaadi, 2021). The idea of voice biometrics has been derived from the established methods of speech recognition, which were first implemented in the 1960s (Alsaadi, 2021). Since then, technologies have been improved drastically, and nowadays it is possible to extract unique features from peoples voices and implement voice biometrics (Alsaadi, 2021). At present, voice recognition is a prominent biometric system that receives attention not only from the security perspective but also from areas of technological research.

The advantages of this approach are the reliability and convenience of authentication. The disadvantages of the system primarily concern the biometrics traits. The uniqueness of the voice features stems from the individual structure of peoples vocal organs, such as mouths and throats (Alsaadi, 2021). Therefore, if a person suffers from throat infections or other sicknesses, the accuracy of the biometric management system might be reduced significantly (Alsaadi, 2021). Furthermore, the voice is affected by emotions, the process of aging, and the overall state of physical health, which might further influence the reliability of the system.

Gait Recognition

Gait recognition is a relatively new type of behavioral biometrics and refers to the analysis of how people walk. The extracted features of this biometric system are generally the characteristics of a stride, such as a length, cadence, angle, and motion (Rida, Almaadeed & Almaadeed, 2018). However, the innovative approaches might also analyze the whole contours and silhouettes of people to identify them  this method is known as model-free gait recognition (Rida et al., 2018). The advantages of this system include the relative simplicity of implementation and cost-efficiency (Alsaadi, 2021). However, the accuracy of gait recognition might be significantly reduced due to clothes interference, injuries, or if the observed individual carries an object (Alsaadi, 2021). Therefore, if the silhouette or gait is obstructed in some manner, the biometric system will most likely provide inaccurate results.

Keystroke Recognition

Keystroke recognition is another type of behavioral biometrics that has been gaining increasing popularity in recent years. In general, this biometric system analyzes typing patterns via keyboards (Ali et al., 2016). Research has established that people have unique typing features, including speed, frequency, finger positions, and pressure on the keys (Ali et al., 2016). Naturally, it is essential to provide a special keyboard that is responsive to all biometric features for this approach to be successful (Ali et al., 2016). Despite the necessity of special equipment, keystroke recognition is the cheapest and easiest to implement biometric system; however, this approach also has the lowest accuracy rates (Ali et al., 2016). Ultimately, keystroke recognition is a cost-efficient biometric ID management system, but it should not be used to protect data of utmost significance.

Conclusion

Summing up, the current paper has provided a theoretical background to biometrics and examined the core functions of a biometric ID management system. The two primary types of biometric ID systems are based on either physical or behavioral patterns. The former is utilized in fingerprint, face, and iris biometrics, while the behavioral measurements are used in voice, gait, and keystroke recognition. The major function of all biometric systems is improved security; however, some of the frameworks, such as face recognition, are also used widely in investigation and crime prevention. Ultimately, biometric ID management systems provide better security than the traditional approaches and might become even more prominent in the future.

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