Category: Man

This essay will conduct a literature review to support the claim that women speak more politely than men.

Brown, P. (1980). ‘How and why are women more polite: Some evidence from a Mayan community Women and language in literature and society’. In this article, he discussed the differences in males and females with respect to language. There’s not much difference in the language of both men and women except with the social relationship and social status. The communicative strategy was used to see the difference between the languages. This strategy relates language and society with each other. In this view, the ethos of women is tied to culture and social structure. Through this strategy, it is also find that how the social relationships and social structure affect the language of women. Women will behave similarly at the strategic level.

There are not linguistic similarities between West African women or high caste Indian women and Tenejapan women. But there are similarities between language usage of Tenejapan women and other peasant women in small societies. There are two hypotheses that are made through this research. First is the negative politeness. It means that if women are inferior in society then their language will be also less powerful. Second is the positive politeness. It means that if any member has a close relationship with so many people, then that relationship involved the whole person. If female relationships are multi-stranded, then they are politer.

Hang, Y. S. (2009) ‘Do females speak more politely to females among Hong Kong young generations’. The study in this research article shows that women speak politer or courteously to women listeners than to men listeners amongst young era in Hong Kong. Moreover, one thrilling finding may be discovered in this research no matter what the gender of the speakers is, they both speak politer to women. This affords a distinct locating in opposition to the beyond researches which best focus at the gender of the speakers. Moreover, this additionally offers a perception to us that the gender of the listeners is also the essential factor affecting the politeness conduct of the speakers.

Besides, the politeness techniques exchange with the relation between the individuals and the listener. Participants behave greater with politeness to strangers than to their pals. Moreover, they deal with the strangers in the comparable way and therefore in the case, gender of the strangers become much less crucial to cause the exchange of the politeness conduct of the speakers.

Mahmud, M. (2015). ‘Language and gender in English language teaching’. In the journal, he focused on effect of gender differences in the language and communication on the means the students of both gender learn English. In most of the cases, female students feel shy to express their ideas in English language even when they can do. Generally, they prefer to express their ideas in the form of a written document instead of oral presentation. On the other hand, male students use their English speaking ability as the way to show their status as men, irrespective of the female students they don’t feel any hesitation.

According to Connell ‘the use of language is designed by the relation of power’. Learning of a language is the characteristics of species which strengthen the whole culture. Gender is considered as a significant aspect in the Bugis society in the communication of men and women. For them social status influences their gender performance in language. More intensive observation is suggested on the learning styles in order to find their various expressions and achievements.

Ide, S. (1990) ‘How and why do women speak more politely in Japanese’. In this article, he investigates the basic features of the politer nature of women are explored and described qualitatively as well as quantitatively in this paper. The sex difference of a speaker in the choice of linguistics form is considered as a general question in theories of linguistic politeness and complex variables. Linguistics politeness of Japanese is described by the term ‘discernment’. And this term plays a vital role in the theories of linguistic politeness in the literature of west. As the discernment concerns with the suitable choice of politeness level I was able to collect quantitative data from large scale and express the politeness level of both the genders quantitatively. The basic features of politer speech of the women are described qualitatively and quantitatively as below: “Features of women politer speech: negative politeness, deference, use of higher linguistic forms owing to higher assessment of politeness level toward the addressee (first stage variable), repertoire of pronouns of more formal forms, use of sentence final particles wa and kasira. Demeanor use of linguistic forms of politeness level higher than the associated politeness level of the addressee in the interactional domain of sociable/civil activity (second stage variable), absence of deprecatory level of first and second person pronouns, avoidance of vulgar expressions, beautification/hyper corrected honorifics. Positive politeness: use of feminine sentence particles wa and no”.

Beeching, K. (2002) ‘Gender, politeness and pragmatic particles in French’ . In this book, the chapter first has further subtopics quite associated with my research question. I can take information whether or not women communicate polite or men through the subject “Introduction of Gender, politeness and pragmatic particles”. As there many linguist focuses on gender politeness that who speaks more politer men or women here Marquez mentioned about the 4 virtually distinct perspectives of politeness. The social view, the conversational maxim view, the face saving view and the conversational-agreement he stated according to these views women are extra politer than men. Another linguist labov also stated that women talked cautiously and use fewer stigmatised paperwork than men and he also stated that women are lots sensitive than men to the status sample.

Jesperson another linguist claims that once women upload or locate euphemistic manner of describing positive body elements or sure herbal capabilities they avoid the direct and impolite denominations which men and specifically younger men, prefer among themselves. Coates also found that the overlapping is the feature of women’s talk which is absent in British men’s conversation. Men don’t provide minimum feedback and frequently do’t reply in any manner to different’s remarks. They disagree very at once and bluntly with others statements. They Abuse each other and criticize each other very immediately. They seem to switch topics suddenly and without regard for the preceding speaker’s topic.

Mills, S. (2003) ‘Gender and politeness’. In this book, the chapter ‘Gender and Politeness’ has further subtopics quite related to my research question. I can easily take information about women speak politely as compared to men or not. He discussed the elements of linguistic behavior that have regularly been stereotypically related to women: compliments and apologies: and he analyses extracts from conversational information with a purpose to task any simple view that women are always constantly extra polite than men. Women linguistic behavior is often characterized as being involved with cooperation and avoidance of conflict. This characterization is based totally on the assumption that women are powerless and show their powerlessness in language: those sorts of politeness are markers of their subordination.

Penelope Brown discussed in his works on the analysis of politeness amongst a Mayan community, argues that women are well-known are politer than men. She states that during maximum of cultures women among women can also will be predisposed to use more elaborated tremendous politeness techniques than men do amongst men. Her standard model of politeness is one associated with care of others: what politeness basically is composed in is a special way of treating humans, announcing and doing things in the sort of manner as to don’t forget the opposite person’s feelings. On the entire meaning that what one says civilly might be much less sincere or more complex than what one might say if one wasn’t taking the opposite character’s emotions into account.

Gavenila, E. I., Arsa, Y., & Pasaribu, T. A. (2019) ‘Directive forms Expressed by Male and Female Respondents in Different Situational Contexts’. In this article, he explains women and men who come from the identical speech community with distinct social lessons may additionally use one of a kind linguistic forms in expressing directive messages. The records additionally recommend that men are extra sincere in turning in directive messages. Another noteworthy locating is that women dominantly express the usage of interrogative and declarative forms. Interrogative and declarative bureaucracy are taken into consideration politer and much less direct. Women tend to store their faces via the usage of politer paperwork because they do no longer need to be taken into consideration impolite.

This is strongly related to politeness strategies which are ordinarily followed by means of women than men Different responses are grounded in social-cultural narratives concerning one of a kind social variables inclusive of social magnificence, the connection between individuals, and ritual. More extreme research must be carried out to analyze the hyperlink among language and other social dimensions because this research is restrained to the small number of participants and contextual settings. The interested researcher can check out the connection among language and social variables via natural statistics in every day verbal exchange. Moreover, language users additionally want to be more aware of the significance of social dimensions and emotional feelings in conversation.

Al-Marrani, Y. M. A., & Sazalie, A. B. (2010) ‘Polite Request strategies by male speakers of Yemeni Arabic in male-male interaction and male-female interaction’. In this article, he discussed the belief of polite request techniques as utilized by male speaker of Yemeni Arabic in the identical gender and cross gender Male speaker of Yemeni Arabic inside the same gender employed high degrees of directness without the fear of dropping ‘face’. This isn’t indicating the correctness of directness in ‘near’ social distance relationships, however in all likelihood the fact that it’s far the expected behavior in such situations. The use of direct method by means of male speakers of Yemeni Arabic within the same gender can be attributed to the closeness and the harmony among the interlocutors. Also it became discovered that there’s a well-known trend in Yemeni Arabic for better tiers of indirectness in male-woman interactions. The use of oblique approach by using male speaker of Yemeni Arabic cross gender can be attributed to subculture and spiritual values.

Buda et al. (1998) have pointed out that there are unique linguistic utterances that men use when addressing women, and vice versa in Arabic, because of cultural and religious values. In quick, the preference for direct requests in male-male interactions appears to be an instance of team spirit or tremendous politeness among interlocutors. In male-female interactions, the requesters used independence politeness strategies to mitigate and melt the effect of request and to reveal them appreciate for ladies in Yemeni society according to Islamic values. Native speakers of Yemeni Arabic used direct requests with softeners softness in an excessive frequency to mitigate their requests. Also it proves that imperative shape isn’t always as rude in Yemeni Arabic as it’s miles in English or some other language. Direct requests are classified in Yemeni Arabic as cohesion politeness strategies because they suggest that the speaker assumes handiest a small social distance among him/herself and the interlocutor.

Subon, F. (2013) ‘Gender differences in the use of linguistic forms in the speech of men and women in the Malaysian context’. He explains that according to the past researchers it has been revealed that there are differences in the speech of men and women regarding linguistics feature. Directness in speech might have similarity and a usual difference is seen in addressing, humor, questions, politeness and the different topics of conversation. But there is no difference in the use of intensifiers. This study is not valid for the people of other regions belonging to different races because the data provided by the researchers was only of the 5 men and 5 women living in Siburan District. It may be different from men and women of other towns, cities and countries because these Kuching have their own kind of characteristics and the other reason is, it’s too small sample to study the whole population.

Canary and Hause cited in Mulac that they have not found any consistency related to the differences in the communication strategies of men and women. But this study helped us in getting more information about the linguistics features and the difference in communication way so that’s why we are able to introduce it among the people. The understanding between the differences in speech helps in effective communication and the better understanding between the men and women. According to the Conflict Research Consortium, USA, in an article “it was emphasized that the best way to cross cultural communication is knowledge”. So that’s why it’s being appreciated because the knowledge about differences in linguistics features for men and women will lead to the respect for one another.

Holmes, J. (2013) ‘Women, men and politeness’. In this book, the chapter ‘sex, politeness and language’ has further subtopics quite related to my research question. I can easily collect information about whether females speak polite or males through the topic ‘Why do men and women interact differently” which basically focuses on the analyzing linguistic politeness. The question is deceptively easy. The answer, through comparison, is very complex as this e book illustrate. He stated that when a sociolinguist is asked this question her first reaction is to mention ‘it depends what you suggest by using politeness, it additionally depends at the context wherein they are speaking’. Considerations consisting of those mean that any answer wishes to be hedges and certified in all kinds of ways. But possibly he says proper on the outset that, while all the vital reservations and qualifications have been taken into consideration, he assume yes, women are more well-mannered and polite.

Over a few years, women have verified a bonus over men in checks of fluency, talking, sentence complexity, analogy, listening, comprehension of each written vocabulary, and spelling. By evaluation men are more likely to stutter and to have reading disabilities. They also are much more likely to go through aphasia speech issues after brain harm. Overall men are sincerely at a bonus in terms of verbal skills, specially to begin with. But women and men also use language differently. And this is wherein variations in politeness can be determined. Most women experience communicate and regard talking as an important manner of maintaining in touch, especially with pals and intimates. Men have a tendency to look language extra as a tool for obtaining and conveying facts.

“Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus” states a popular book written by a relationship counselor John Gray. After studying Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in class I found appropriate to read the book to consolidate obtained knowledge. The author discusses common problems occurred because of communication differences between the two sexes. He explains that to prevent conflicts and tension, understanding the distinction is important. However, in attempts to show the differences, the book mainly focuses on verbal communication and talks not a lot about gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact. Because nonverbal communication is not fully defined in the book, I decided to explore the topic.

Due to fundamental psychological differences, men and women differ in their behavior. This causes misunderstandings and conflicts between them. The situation when they fail to properly perceive the non-linguistic message of the opposite sex is frequent because people tend to think that others contemplate and behave in the same way as themselves. However, I frequently note the differences in everyday life, and they become even more obvious when I watch talk shows. In such an environment, the behavior of people usually is exaggerated, so the distinction is easily perceived. That is why I want to discuss the distinction in non-verbal communication between men and women on the example of talk shows.

There are seven dimensions of non-verbal communication, however, to show the most important differences, I will review feminine and masculine tendencies in three of them: Body Movement, Touches, and Space.

Body Movement

I always note that women make eye contact more frequently as they tend to establish an emotional connection or show willingness to listen. Men make less visual contact with their communication partner and seem more reserved.

Besides, to set a stronger emotional connection and to convey their feelings or show sincerity, women are more likely to smile or move eyebrows during conversation. Men usually demonstrate less facial expressiveness.

Women are engaged in more head-nodding to show their engagement and desire to listen to a person, however, men use nodding to show agreement.

Touches

Again, to be emotionally closer and support a person, women use arm touches and give hugs more frequently. On the other hand, men usually use touches to show dominance, power, and confidence by placing a hand on a shoulder or patting on the back. According to Paul Zak’s “The Moral Molecule” book touches make people feel connected to each other. Furthermore, in creating strong relationships, touches are important and beneficial for both sexes even though two groups use them for different reasons.

If a man uses touches towards a woman in the same way as women typically use, it may be viewed as unwanted touches, sexual harassment, and invasion of personal space. Men should use touches very carefully, at the same time, touches from women are rarely considered as sexual harassment.

Space

People tend to set larger interpersonal distance during interaction with men rather than women. Additionally, It has been found that women orient more directly to a person during communication showing that they are listening and ready to support.

Men and women have different postures. In the sitting position women usually cross their feet and have a more restricted pose. At the same time, men occupy more space and their poses tend to be more free and expansive.

Understanding nonverbal behavior, which in most cases is unintentional, gives a lot of clues about the emotional state of a person and can be useful to create fulfilling relationships. Even if a person can note the differences, reasons of a specific behavior is still undefined for most people. Exploring the non-linguistic differences between females and males was interesting and useful. As the topic now is much clearer, I believe I will be more effective in preventing conflicts and tension during communication by putting more attention on nonverbal signs.

References

1. J. Gray (2002) “Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus”
2. Marianne LaFrance and Andrea C. Vial (2016) “APA Handbook of Nonverbal Communication”, chapter 6 “Gender and Nonverbal Behavior” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291330552_Gender_and_Nonverbal_Behavior
3. Paul Zak (2013) “The Moral Molecule” https://www.scienceofpeople.com/how-to-read-body-language/

Man-woman relationship is as old as human survival. Earlier it was a biological need. The contemporary complexity of it is an adding up of culture. It is a manifestation of existence which figures the central part in literature. Since the beginning, literary venture has been to represent this relationship along with its concomitants, and to bring out the misfortune. Fiction is the most attribute and prevailing outward appearance of literary term in modern times. The ever-changing reality of life inevitably reflects itself in literature. Morrison’s novels are no exception as regards her depiction of man-woman relationship. Like other novelists, she too explores the tensions and pretensions in this area of life. That man-woman relationship forms a major theme in her novels. All her novels taken up for study here reveal the varied phases of man-woman relationship; marital, premarital, and extra-marital. There is a comprehensive portrayal of man-woman relationship in Morrison’s novels. She speaks of what it was in the past in America, and how it extended to the modern times without much change. She describes how superstitions and infidelity affected conjugal relationships. As a novelist with a keen observation of life, she analyses the reasons for happy and unhappy marital lives. With the keen insight of a psychologist, she portrays pre-marital and extra-marital relationships, and shows sex as the primary instinct in man woman relationships. She has a clear and correct understanding of the working of the masculine and feminine mind. She portrays the frivolous attitude of man who casts away women like worn-out shoes in the presence of new ones. She shows that man is not able to fathom the mysteries of the feminine mind. She wants man not to consider women merely as a means for the release of sexual energy. In reality, the African American society comes out from the slave era. It was identified as the emasculation of the men. As a result, the readers find the vicious treatment in the man-woman relationships. Most of the critics propose that the women’s helplessness comes into view to have been accentuated by or associated to intimidation or denial of, the manhood of the male slave. It is rather expected any female writer can set the genuine voice than the male voice in their storylines. Female writer are the supporter for the rational depiction of man-woman relationship. Unquestionably, the African American society emerging from the slave era, it was recognized as the emasculation of the men. Consequently, the readers meet the vicious conduct in the man-woman relationship.

For the purpose of present study the contents have been taken from relevant books, articles and journals. Both primary and secondary sources of information have been taken together.

The present novel Beloved is about women, which marshals the description form of bravery in the African American fictional world with keeping unique focal point on the man-woman relationship. In a very forceful way, Morrison employs Beloved to demonstrate in agonizing element one of the ways black women’s bodies were “scarred and dismembered by slavery and then salvaged and remembered in the acts of free love” (Ashraf Rushdy 102). It is about a love relationship vanished twisted between mother and daughter. Women as mothers had the furthermost mental propel within the American slave culture. The practice, which deprived of the women the prospect and opportunity of loving their children, only handed out to set against them from their children. The type of love relationship between mother and daughter in this novel is moreover indicative of the unusualness and intricacy of Morrison’s art. It is a novel on the subject of women, which drum up the description form of intrepidness in the African American fictional world keeping extraordinary meeting point on the man-woman relationship. Within the past border of American slave culture, Morrison portrays the ability for destructive love from a historical truth. Sethe Suggs’ love for Beloved is “tough and she back now” (B 200). She strive to validate her deed by make believe that there is just no substitute to what she does; “How if I hadn’t killed her she would have died and that is something I could not bear to happen to her” (B 200). The novelist appears to support Sethe’s situation about the infanticide. However, afterward in the novel, the writer looks as if not to disregard the infanticide as she also depicts the vengeance that such ugliness precise. Morrison proposes that Beloved can be read in two ways, both as a psychically injured real-life slave girl and as a ghost (fantasy object for the emotions of others). We might as well consider her from perspectives. Beloved is killed at the age of two. According to classical psychoanalysis, children begin at this age to experience the oedipal crisis, which should bring about their growth into divide selfhood.

Morrison’s novel Jazz presents with the issue of romantic love and desire against the backdrop of man-woman relationship. It puts that problem as a battle for both self-identity and recognition. The novel as well give particulars, on the other hand, how love and shared positive response cannot be appreciate by yourself of one’s interior self or one’s community setting. The trouble of love is a difficulty of the insensible psychosomatic self as well as the outside public circumstance. Therefore, this novel displays through her characters that for African- Americans living in a racist, post-slavery society which reject them their grade as human issue, the union of love are repeatedly forged into the repression of authority and dislocation of the self. Morrison’s narrative demonstrate that while romantic love is a yearning for joint acknowledgment and must permit for identicalness and disparity to co-exist in chorus, in a social system where differentiation rights command by gender and race, female longing is dislocate, yet smashed. We are familiar with that the basics of adult romantic love stretch out in childhood. Adult sexual love is not only formed by actions and relations commence in the epoch of babyhood and upbringing, but also adult erotic life is an occasion to rebuild and revise clash that began there.

In Song of Solomon, Morrison deals with ancestral myth that directs about man-woman relationships. Of course, it leads the way towards origin of the African American culture. Her negative depiction of the male characters likes to show her gamut of man-woman relationship. In fact, hidden ancestral myth in the novel is explained by her portrayal of the man-woman relationships. The present novel is about a family’s history, which always reflects the combined history of the Afro-Americans. This chronological story spins around Milkman Dead and his unwitting spiritual and physical journey to his ancestral home. Milkman begins his life with a very low intensity of alertness about the triptych of race, class and gender. Such lack of knowledge leads to a deficiency of self-awareness, which put off his expedition towards his individuality. His self-realization is hindered by his cuddle of the worldly and covetous philosophy that he swallows from his father. When he gives up money-oriented thoughts, his principles rises to a higher level and commences to commingle with African masses.

Sula is a story about uncertainty. It inquires and scrutinizes the terms ‘good’ and ‘evil,’ habitually representing that the two time and again be similar to one another. The narrative deals with the bewildering mysteries of human sentiments and relationships, in the end concluding that social principles are insufficient as groundwork for living one’s life. The tale appeals to the reader to be relevant and absolutely opposed terms of ‘good and evil,’ ‘right and wrong’. At the same time as exploring the ways in which people attempt to make meaning of lives overflowing with disagreement over race, gender, and straightforward distinctive points of views. Sula refuses to accept uncomplicated responses, signifying the indistinctness, exquisiteness, and fear of life. Morrison’s ambiguous link between man and woman relationships, she is intelligent to illustrate that these terms are relative to each other and often occur mutually. Helene Sabat, the daughter of a New Orleans prostitute, wed Wiley Wright, a man from the Bottom and set up a respectable home there. Throughout a journey by train back to New Orleans to visit her ailing beloved grandmother, she is dishonored by a prejudiced white conductor. One-legged Eva Peace, her daughter Hannah and Hannah’s child Sula subsist in a large house filled with friends, extensive family and various boarders. The matriarchal Eva set of laws the household from a rocking chair fitted into a child’s wagon. Her son Plum returns from World War I sensitively ruined and went under his grief into alcoholism and drug addiction. Eva’s attachment to Plum does not permit her to watch him perish so after rocking him to sleep one night, she kills him by cover his bed with kerosene and lighting it. Alisha R. Coleman argues the girls feed one another peer-parenting in the absence of balanced parenting the local role models. Up until Nel’s marriage to Jude a man who believed that with Nel, “the two of them together would make one Jude” (83) Sula and Nel are kindred spirits. A few years afterward Sula is dying and Nel momentarily visits her. When Sula lastly dies, she mystically remains cognizant. She is outside of her body looking down at it. She comprehend that death is trouble-free and incredible.

The novel Tar Baby itself reinterprets a folktale that almost certainly originated in Ghana however which turn out to be exclusively American from side to side retellings on Southern plantations. Br’er Fox efforts to trick his arch enemy Br’er Rabbit by placing a sticky doll made from tar in its path (the Tar Baby). After Br’er Rabbit gets stuck to the doll, he tricks Br’er Fox into helping him escape. Some critics have argued that Br’er Rabbit represents a black slave who tricks or outwits his white master. In the foreword to Tar Baby, Morrison remembers the significance of Storytelling in her childhood. She grew up listening to the adults in her family amuse one another with tales and early on she developed the longing to spin yarns as well. Morrison in due course dedicated Tar Baby to the many women at whose feet she first learned both to pay attention and to tell stories, including her mother and grandmothers.

In The Bluest Eye, the Black woman who faces straight double oppressions is Pauline. She is a Black woman who is oppressed due to her race and gender. Pauline faces all types of women’s oppressions such as social deprivation, physiological oppression, cultural oppression, and psychological oppression. Basically Pauline and her family, i.e. Cholly Breedlove (her husband), Sammy Breedlove (her son), and Pecola Breedlove (her daughter) are oppressed psychologically by the master. The master here is the White man. He treats each of them (the Breedlove family) as the ugly people who are expected to wear that image (the ugly people). She and her family are considered ugly because physically they have black skin, curly hair, heavy eyebrows which are nearly met, crooked nose, etc. and it is contrary to the physical of White people who have white skin, straight hair, sharp well formed nose, etc. The eyes, the small eyes set closely together under narrow foreheads. The low irregular hairlines seemed even more irregular in contrast to the straight heavy eyebrows which nearly met Keen but crooked noses with insolent nostrils. They had high cheek bones, and their ears turned forward. Shapely lips which called attention not to themselves but to the rest of the face… It was as though some mysterious all knowing master had given each one a cloak of ugliness to wear… the master had said, “You are ugly people’’. Pauline in the ninth of eleven years old lives on a ridge of red Alabama clay seven miles from the nearest road. When Pauline was a child, she was oppressed psychologically because she was treated differently from others since she was two years when Pauline’s foot was injured by a nail at the road. Since then, her foot was lame. From the analysis of the Black women oppression in Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye, the researcher invites the other readers to acknowledge the oppressions faced by Black women, particularly in this novel. Furthermore, Morrison also invites to reveal the Black women’s response to the oppressions, whether they accept the oppression, imitate or reject it.

“What is man” is the basic question under taken by many philosophers. This question was also under taken by St. Thomas Aquinas.

There are various types of natural beings who have specified structures, peculiarities and differences. These natural beings can be divided into two major groups; living beings and non-living beings. Among the various types of living beings there is something common i.e. soul- an anima.

Many of St. Thomas Aquinas’s perspectives and Aristotle’s perspectives go hand in hand. Both of them have studied the physical being as a function of whole of which it is a part and not by isolating them from the natural world.

St. Thomas Aquinas didn’t deal the question of soul as a metaphysical problem since metaphysics failed to fulfill the two criteria of knowledge as dignity of object and certainty of knowledge. We all are alive and it is the experience of life which provides certainty of knowledge of the soul.

We are conscious of the world around us and also about our activity and corpuscularity. Also we have an experience of having control over our whole body and its activity. The understanding of various activities which I do makes me conscious that I am alive. It is a primary function of the soul. Without understanding we would have not asked what intellect is.

Soul is the primary actuality of living bodies which makes them different from the other nonliving bodies which cannot perform any operation. These bodies can be categorized by substance and accidents.

Substance has different meanings:

1. form or essence: by which thing is called “this”
2. matter: in itself a “this”
3. Compound of both: matter as pure potentiality and form as actuality.

In the world there are bodies that are alive and active, but also some are not. It shows that body alone cannot be alive. The soul is substantial form of the living body which makes them alive. Human body is alive because it is the composition of matter- potentiality and soul as form- actuality.

The human is a composition and so the human soul connected with matter or even after death is totally different than the Angels who are pure spiritual and have pure form. So the man is whole composition of soul- form as activity element and body- matter as potentiality elements.

According to the principle “operation follows existence (operatio sequitur esse)”, the soul is able to exist by itself since it is able to act alone. But this kind of existence is imperfect and incomplete. The soul’s connection with body makes it more perfect soul. Soul and body are interdependent and inseparable union which experienced in “this” life and also after the resurrection of bodies where the resurrection brings reunion of soul and body and makes them inseparable substantial being. This substantial unity explains true composition and gives the idea of man having only one substantial form i.e. rational soul which updates the possibility of one matter. The soul is the substantial form which acts in human’s all functions. Here St. Thomas applies Aristotle’s hylomorphism i.e. human being is compound of matter and form.

It is totally opposite to Augustinian model where soul is dependent upon the body. But St. Swiezawski explained that in the human conception of St. Thomas soul is not only the spiritual but the principal which brings the uniformity of whole, psycho- physical human life and they both are interrelated for all human functions. The soul-form is the principle of unity and body-matter is the principle of individuation in human body which is the composition of soul and body.

This principle of the individuation is the attack to the isolated immortality of the soul (the individual soul is not eternal) by Latin Averroists. Their idea came out as the theory of monopsychism where they proposed that all humans at the basic level shares one and the same divine soul.

The composition of body and soul in human beings leads to the commensuratio (uniformity) where body is not accidently added to the soul but the soul as essence explains its subordinating commensuratio hereinto “this” body. This unity of the formal- material is experienced in every man as a compound substance. Uniformity of “this” body remains with the given soul all the time, with the existence of the soul and even after death, which makes possible the individual immortality.

All souls are substantially different due to matter which is not only body as corpuscularity but as possibility and potentiality by which the body is able to act. It constitutes the concrete material and spiritual area in which man lives.

God creates independent and immortal human soul which is tabula rasa as St. Thomas goes with Aristotle. So the human knowledge is not possible only on the intellectual abilities but dependent on senses. The physical body provides the sense data to the intellect- the activity of the human soul.

When our knowledge is dependent on senses than the soul is not able to know by itself. Principle of causality is the only possibility of acquiring knowledge through which one reaches to certain symptoms of physical life to the understanding of final physical cause i.e. soul.

The conception of human being as a person according to St. Thomas Aquinas gives the higher position to the man among all natural beings. So the man has to fulfill the responsibility of acting to maintain this position among all creatures. And this position is maintained if man understands his role in this world by “tilling it and keeping” it and not destroying since he is a physical being as a function of whole of which it is a part.

If you ask a women back in the day what words could they use to define a man most if not all would say they are physically strong human beings, hard working husbands, the providers of the family and of course well respected. In the story ‘Brothers Before Hos’: The Guy Code by Michael Kimmel, there’s a standard that men appear to need to follow so as to be viewed as a solid, free genuine man that society affirms of, fitting into the male controlled society. Indeed, even family proves to be useful when demonstrating the case of being a sure method to be acknowledged on the planet. While then again the tale of ‘How to date a dark colored young lady’ by Junot Diaz inclines more towards how misanthropic men are towards ladies. Men appear to generalize ladies and not think nothing a greater amount of them, helping the man’s self image become more grounded to making themselves as well as other people might suspect they are genuine men for doing as such. The two stories have extremely solid messages, one on what guidelines men ought to observe to accomplish the elevated requirements society has towards their manliness and how having all the power that men hold upon encourages them disparage ladies. The accounts are educational to ladies and ideally to men too, by and by this shows how regardless of the measure of years that pass by ladies will some way or another be viewed as simply delicate people, guys as the most grounded most influential people and satisfying something most aren’t simply to delight their sense of self.

Manliness turns into a fixation of a regular thing for guys. Keeping certain guidelines to be viewed as masculine makes men attempt to satisfy the exclusive requirements other men make for them. Numerous men would feel that on the off chance that they don’t satisfy those measures, that would make them short of what others. Kimmel makes reference to, ‘…that men buy in to these beliefs not on the grounds that they need to dazzle women,… They do it since they need to be decidedly assessed by other men’ (611). Ladies don’t appear to be the inspiration of men needing to be progressively manly, rather it is other men. Guys consistently remember inquiries as; what should be possible to be more than another man or is the thing that I’ve done adequate to ‘amazing’ other men. Filling in the principles and in any event, growing better methods for how to take care of business winds up normal for men and feeds into their considerations of manliness. It is by all accounts a challenge that men have with one another, in any event, with regards to the sexual demonstrations with a ladies. ‘While she’s in the washroom call one of your young men and state, Lo hice, loco. Or then again simply sit back on the sofa and grin’ (Diaz, 3). Feeling glad for being with a lady is the best advance and viewed by other men as a respect. Set aside if the man even has affections for the ladies simply the straightforward certainty that the demonstration happened is more than adequate for him and an or more for his young men. This theme has demonstrated by and by that men could be narrow minded on occasion simply contemplating the power they would get by following ‘The Guy Code’ or basically going over with a ladies. As referenced commonly certain men simply live for other men not to satisfy themselves yet to bolster into others satisfaction or delight of the labor.

The musings that a few men have of ladies are fundamentally the same as like being extraordinary housewives, cooks, decent bodies and more depictions that simply associate with ones outside excellence and advantageous activities for men. Notice how none of the portrayals never resemble being exceptionally insightful, fearless, free, wonderful character, ect. Kimmel expressed something fundamentally the same as how sexist men are towards ladies by expressing, ‘While ladies regularly become a sort of cash by which men arrange their status with other men, ladies are for having, not for imitating’ (611). Ladies are viewed as items and not as the contrary sex that could be as solid and incredible as men may be. It appears for Kimmel ladies are a business that makes ‘their statues’ rather than being the people they adore and appreciate. Men consider all the more how ladies advantage them as opposed to considering their feelings which ladies put more into when with a man. The ideal model that associates with Kimmel’s view on ladies is the thing that Diaz makes reference to, ‘When her dad pulls in and blares, let her abandon an over the top farewell. She won’t need it. During the following hour the telephone will ring. You will be enticed to get. Don’t.’ (3). When he got what he needed from the female his inner self as a man developed more grounded, he felt pleased with what he’s cultivated currently overlooking the young lady he was with. Men will in general get what they need and once they’ve effectively achieved their objective they realize they have the ability to control the ladies and feel multiple times progressively needed. Everything falls back to demonstrating other individuals that they ‘got it like that’ which means they are the best and nobody could jump on their level from the gathering of young men. On the off chance that a male were to peruse these accounts at a youthful age they will be affected to proceed with the conviction of ladies simply being articles or people who need a proprietor. This could keep bolstering into the negative idea of ladies simply being sufficient to help men, clean, cook and just things society has said ladies are useful for, for quite a long time. The manner in which men think towards ladies gives a negative effect to how even other ladies see one another, it arrives at the point where certain ladies self-destruct and have faith in the gibberish and low norms men have towards them.

Support comes connected at the hip with how certain little youngsters are worked to be towards themselves as well as other people, homes being the primary spot many get familiar with the distinction of something great with something awful. Guardians or any gatekeeper are known to be our first instructors throughout everyday life except it is us who decided to either pursue that way or our own convictions. ‘Folks hear the voices of the men in their lives-fathers, mentors, siblings, granddads, uncles, clerics to illuminate their thoughts regarding manliness’ (Kimmel, 611). Little youngsters are made to anything guardians desire them to be, sadly anyway their home hold runs is the main way these little youngsters will realize how to live. The male figure in their life assumes a significant job which will make either an exceptionally manly man or just a man who’s portrayed by his own being and not by how society needs him to be. At a youthful age every one of the one needs to do is tune in to the grown-ups imagining that all they state is the proper thing and right method for living. A few family units discipline these little youngsters to being difficult to have the option to get by in the outside world others simply make men without passing by ‘The Guy Code’, being sexist and satisfy what other men anticipate that them should be. ‘Sit tight for your sibling and your mom to leave the loft. You’ve just disclosed to them that you’re feeling too wiped out to even think about going… ‘ (Diaz, 1). The youthful adolescent realizes what his arrangement is and realizes he wasn’t raised to bring young ladies over and slight them, he needs to trust that his mom will leave to have the option to do what he needs demonstrating the dread that he has of being discovered accomplishing something he shouldn’t. Appears his mom has indicated him not to resemble some other kid originating from a hispanic family unit, ladies are to be treasured not put down. He settles on the decision of doing the inverse to satisfy his manliness and pursue the means of other little youngsters. The male figure will consistently have the thought raising their little fellows to solid influential people. By and by those in ones house hold impact in how little youngsters need to grow up and be, we consider the to be as good examples particularly when originating from that father figure.

The two stories make solid and fundamentally the same as focuses on how society and family affect how certain men are how they are. Manliness, misogyny and how the family unit is ran are the messages that are being conveyed to these little fellows who gradually have faith in all that is said to be separated of a network of what a man ought to be. The majority of Kimmel’s and Diaz’s focuses impact these youngsters to have confidence in the ides of passing by principles that society gives them, considering ladies to be simply just articles and helpful for their own advantage, finally how much the male figure in these little fellows lives empower them for all the above to occur as they persuade more established to be genuine men. Having perused the two stories, I remain with the possibility of men simply relinquishing that exclusive requirements many need to live off of, people ought to have a similar objective of being incredible and rule the world in their own specific manners without satisfying others.

Introduction:

What should a “real man” be like? You may hear this couple of times, meanwhile, there are lots of voices trying to answer that question in the given society. So, who is defining the meaning / the methods of being a “real man”? does it come naturally? From which way the society keeps telling you? in this article, I will discuss about the relation between hegemonic masculinity, media, and consumption.

Masculinity and hegemonic masculinity:

Masculinity is about the relation between men and women and the relation between men and the other men. According to Connell, R (1995, p.67), societies have cultural accounts of gender, but not all have the concept of‘ masculinity’. there are some rules about ‘masculinity’, Sociologist Michael Kimmel explained:

“The rules of masculinity? (a) No sissy stuff: avoid all behaviors that even remotely suggest the feminine. (b) Be a big wheel: success and status confer masculinity. (c) Be a sturdy oak: reliability and dependability are defined as emotional distance and affective distance. (d) Give ‘em hell: exude an aura of manly aggression, go for it, take risks. These four rules do not define masculinity that is biologically determined, nor do they even capture all masculinities in the United States today. But they do specify normative masculinity, that version—white, middle-class, heterosexual—that is often used as the standard against which other masculinities are compared and other social groups suppressed.”

Masculinities are numerous, hegemonic masculinity is not the only form available in society. There are a lot of elements that construct hegemonic masculinity: white, heterosexual, able-bodied, upper-class, cisgender, Christian .there are some of the words that describe it: rational, in-control, strong, physical, powerful, homophobia. In his analysis, Connell, R(1987, p.183) said: “ ‘Hegemonic masculinity is always constructed in relation to various subordinated masculinities as well as in relation to women.” The interaction between different types of masculinity is an important part of how the patriarchal social order works.it brings the issue of gender inequality, which is two ways, both the power of men over the power of women and the power of some men over the other men. This concept has been widely used, analyzed, and discussed. Despite being abstract, hegemonic masculinity is still considered the key to men’s dominance over women.

Fashion and hegemonic masculinity:

It’s a stereotype that fashion is considered a feminine domain. there is a tendency exists to assume that fashion is a female domain. But we shouldn’t ignore the role of men play in the fashion industry as well. Clothing is playing the role of a medium, which could positively distinguish individuals from others in their surroundings. Clothing also serves as a symbol, which can quickly and easily tell others what kind of person you are or what kind of mood you are in. If you are a punk person, you might put on leather, denim, metal spikes or studs, chains, and military-style boots. costume defines initially.

From the research about hegemonic masculinity above, we know that it is very powerful, strong, and in control. So, what does society wants a hegemonic masculine man to wear, and what should they wear in order to be considered “as a man”? When it comes to hegemonic masculinity fashion, what’s the first thing comes to your mind? For me, it’s men wearing dark color suits and leather shoes. Art historian Anne Hollander (1994, p.55 and p.113) asserted, “The modern suit has provided so perfect a visualization if modern male pride that it has so far not needed replacement, and it has gradually provided the standard costume of civil leadership for the whole world. ” does these norms of outfits created by society in natural, cultural codes, historical process or are they created by fashion brands who want to capitalize and creates these stereotypes of how a man should wear?

Because of reform and opening, china is advancing to ever-higher levels. with the development of marketization and industrialization, the middle-class group is continuing to expand, and the request of asking mentally joy ran high， which result in the Chinese fashion industry, the magazine market is boosting. fashion magazines are the mass media that target the middle class. they gradually became popular in mainland China. But there were only a few women’s fashion magazines. It was not until 1997 that the first male fashion magazine (Esquire CHINA) appeared in China. Through various visual effects and strong texts, has created a large number of Images of Social Elites who are well-dressed and with a very strong economic base for its readers. it has tried to give readers that idea about “what a man should be” or “how you should do to be a successful man”. The masculinity it constructed is highly praised by the patriarchal society and it has the character of hegemonic masculinity. has a clear class division of its readers. From the original white-collar workers to the later “successful” man, and now to the strongest, most influential people in the society. It can be seen that the male readers are served by having a certain social status and influence. I will try to analyze some covers to explain how （the media） constructs the hegemonic masculinity in the given society.

The magazine’s cover is not only a magazine’s aesthetic/reputation but also a selling point. To a certain extent, the selected cover character highlights the magazine’s temperament and style, and also shows the idea and concept of the magazine. For ’s cover, most of them are a middle-aged man whose life has reached a certain level, and have made some achievements. Actors and pop stars are regulars on the cover of it. On the one hand, pop stars have certain popularity and influence which can lead the sales of magazines. On the other hand, a wide range of characters, and actors can effectively convey the value of the magazine. http://www.weixinquanquan.com/wa/chuangyikeji/show_82530）

By choosing Zhang Hanyu as the cover character, wants to present to the reader the idea of “tough man”. In one of the covers, he is wearing a leather jacket, holding a cigar in his hand, and has shaving cream on his face. the smile shows happiness. it looks like a successful man in his daily life. On the other cover, he is wearing a suit and has an expression of ambition on his face which looks like he is announcing his success to the whole world. The “tough man” image has the following characteristics: wise, indestructible, and successful. One of the key of presenting the “tough guy” is to the make physical and mental connections to each other. the cover constructs the “tough man” image through toughness, a strong body, and the feeling of spirit of the king. The muscles represent a strong physique and the wave on his forehead present times and all the experiences that make who he is. This is very< SHI SHANG XIAN SHENG >’s thing and it’s all about hegemonic masculinity. (http://yule.sohu.com/20091015/n267378157_1.shtml）

The person named Li Kaifu, is the former vice president of Google and the former president of Google China. As a businessman with overseas education background and working for Microsoft in the United States, Li Kaifu is described by the society “successful man. Many college students hope to become next LiKaifu in the future. He often has lectures talking about his experience, he is also answering people s questions patiently, so he has a large number of followers. He had lectured than 300 times in universities in China, working 20 hours a day, he is still energetic. He is a good president, a good mentor, a good husband, a good dad … According to the above description, Mr. Fashion presents us with a sense of social responsibility man. presents us with some nearly “perfect images” of man: the good virtues of gentleness, courtesy and politeness, a strong sense of responsibility, and always pay attention to his appearance as well, which have always been elements of hegemonic masculinity. “Xiao Xian Rou”

Hegemonic masculinity has traditionally been presented for a very long time in China. Before reform and opening, man was more tending to wear suit or very settled colour set. However, with the changing technological developments of communication, internet is getting more and more influence on the beauty standards. An internet buzzword that used to describe girlish young males quickly became popular, “XIAO XIAN ROU”( little fresh meat), made in 2014 across China and the wider Asia region. it was used to describe Korean pop singers by their Chinese fans, later it’s been used in common life. in particular, to men who appear good looking in nature, his skin is so delicate and smooth, innocent, with an appeal which is often cross genders. which they look a bit girlish. They are usually much more attractive to others, when it comes to “little fresh meat” celebrity, noticeably they have more opportunities to work with fashion and beauty brands, because they have a huge fan base in general .Luhan, a Chinese singer, is one of the first celebrity of this phenomenon. he got the chance to work with l’oreal, KANS, MEILISHUO ( chinese online fashion shopping application for female)and so on.（Lu han, L’oreal 2015）

In countries like China, where there are still a number of problems obstructing gender equality, like traditional sexual stereotype, wage gaps, homophobia and so on. the popularity of “little fresh meat” is a significant movement, because it allows the new representations of masculinity showed on screen. they are challenging the status of hegemonic masculinity in people’s mind.

Hegemonic masculinity and consumption:

According to Breward, C. (1999,p.1-p.2).the year between 1860 and 1914 is seem as important moments in the history of mass consumption. women took the charge of the representation of consumption .the majority of males are assumed to have been absent from this sphere of activity ,it was mostly taken ,or they were convinced of its unworthiness by society with feminine ‘vanity’ or ’susceptibility’. Breward, C. (1999, p.24)also mentioned that the psychologist J.C.Flugel identified in order to play out of appropriate masculine identities, men relinquished aesthetic control over their clothing.

Nowadays, still some collections convey the idea of hegemonic masculinity. brands like diesel , it has a perfume commercial which contains a lots of masculine scene.it has the scene of fame as well. Neymar Jr, an international soccer star, played in the advertisement. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXlDDo5sgaM)

Today, with the continuous growth of gender mobility and the development of LGBTQI rights in Western society, many brands are less scared. Whether traditional or new brands, they are attracting male customers by giving idea of diversity rather just simply define what a man should be like. Alessandro Trincone (Fall 2019 NYFW)

This is a resistance to toxic and hegemonic masculinity and it is a complete rejection. We don’t see much of the traditional things we expect in this work, this is a non-gender collection. To see man in skit which is pale purple polished fabric, and has features on it, it’s very attracting, as well as the make-up and the headwear. The construction of masculine beauty and character breaks through the conventional rules, and becomes abundant and gives more diversity.

People’s ideological of fashion are apparently different now. fashion is changing, people are changing, man are changing. A new era has arrived, more and more forms of masculinity waiting to show up.

Conclusion:

Taking mass media as the entry point, i explore what kind of masculinity it constructs and how it constructs the masculinity. SHI SHANG XIAN SHENG gives the idea of hegemonic masculinity, has a masculine appearance and a responsible mentality. Magazines use symbols, evaluations, ideas, etc. to create and construct meaning. Through a series of ways, we got involved into the world which constructed by the media’s own language. unconsciously, we put weak, non-energised to “not as a man” zone, and it is one of the propagators of stereotypes. What we shouldn’t ignore is that this idea of single form of masculinity that magazine keep giving to the readers may have some impact on daily life, because the magazine displays a special gender ideology to the audience while showing gender stereotypes. For men, the magazine constructs what men should do. Which leading to the differentiation of social roles. The popular buzzword ‘little fresh meat’ on the Internet is a good symbol of diversified masculinity, which Promotes social inclusion. In consumerism, some brands are selling stereotypes to men, but there are still some brands that are constantly innovating and looking for new forms of masculinity. This action is of great value as it is helpful to realize the impact of the diversity and is essential to balance the social class.

What makes a man a real man? Some might say that kayaking down a river rapids makes you a man. Others might say that supporting your family makes you a man. Which one is it? The rapids? The support? Both? In Man Mission, author Eytan Uliel explores this question and others.

The story is told in first person. We never learn the narrator’s name. But he and his three best friends, Sam, Daniel, and Eric, take one week out of each year to go on a “Man Mission” to do things that real men would do: hiking, kayaking, or cycling. Their adventures include ocean kayaking in Fiji, white water sledding in New Zealand, and ice climbing in Iceland.

Yet, despite all those “manly” adventures, in the end they still have to come home to Australia and engage in a man mission of a different sort – that of being the breadwinner for a family, sacrificing their own happiness for the happiness of the people and things that depend on them: a wife and children, a mortgage, piano lessons, soccer practice, gym memberships, and all the rest that goes with domestic living.

Which of those two lives is the real “manly” life? The yearly Man Mission is fun; despite the danger, the injuries, and the near–constant discomfort, it provides the companions with a getaway to do traditional manly things: hangout with buddies, not shave nor shower, not write a single report, not change a dirty diaper; it’s a week to rely on one’s wits and prowess alone. But in the end, there’s always coming back to the other man mission, the one where responsibility is the driving factor, sometimes deeply gratifying, but decidedly not always fun, and sometimes downright soul-rending.

And there’s the crux. In one Man Mission you can do what you want. In the other, you do what has to be done. The contrast is a sharp one and almost every man in the world faces it. Fate can be cruel. On a Man Mission, a mistake can cost you your life. On the other man mission, mistakes may not be physically deadly, but you can still lose your life: your marriage, your children, and your place in the world. And sometimes, temporarily or permanently, your sanity. But lest you get the impression that author Uliel suggests that domestic responsibilities are any less important or fulfilling than leading a life of adventure, let me say now that that is not true. He deals with them fairly, assigning the correct importance to each.

In Man Mission, Eytan Uliel tells a good story, so good, in fact, that it may be difficult to believe that it’s just a work of fiction. Furthermore, Man Mission deals with profound questions, ones that are inherent in the lives we live in the 21st century.

I found not a single grammatical or typographical error. This book is accessible to everyone, although there is frequent profanity throughout. It is probably not suitable for children, who would not understand the subject matter anyway.

Let me add that in no way does author Uliel suggest that women don’t also engage in these activities. Several times in the book, women were seen either doing the same activities as the men, or, in fact, were the guides to the activities.

Rarely does a reader come across a book like this one. It is fun, but also poignant, an easy read, but one that deals with profound questions. I give Man Mission a solid 4 out of 4 stars.

Aristotle’s View on Humanity as Political Beings

Aristotle remains, to this day, a huge influence in various fields of studies like logic, psychology, metaphysics, ethics, and many more. His writings still prove to be a subject of further studies and debate to this day, more than 2300 years after his death. One of the many subjects he touched upon, and had a fascination towards, was the nature of man. In his work Nicomachean Ethics, he called man ‘Zoon Politikon’ which means a ‘political animal.’ This particular description of humanity must be studied in conjuncture to a previous claim of Aristotle’s that man is a ‘Zoon Logikon’ meaning that man is a ‘rational animal.’ Through Aristotle’s empirical observation, he determined that man can’t live without a political association — man naturally comes together to form some sort of community or society wherein he can flourish and develop in relation to his peers, which suggests that political participation is a must and one cannot live in anarchy. Man becomes man among others, and must live in an environment and community governed by laws set forth upon him by a political authority. As political beings, it is inevitable for a public authority to arise as it is in our social nature to thrive only with others and not individual beings deprived of a sense of community. This means that human beings also understand the importance of the perpetuation of the common good of the community and the implications of putting forth the community as a whole, as opposed to the individual’s well-being. This is where political authority comes in.

The Essence of Political Authority

What is political authority? Helene Landemore of the Department of Political Science in Yale University defines political authority as ‘a distinct form of authority by contrast, for example, with parental or divine authority, in that it is, historically at least, attached to the power of governments and their various extensions.’ As defined by Landemore, political authority is, simply put, an ability by a political entity to seek obedience and coercion from their subordinates, or the citizens in a community. Authority is a power to create an obligation amongst the masses to obey and follow the rules set forth by the government. Furthermore, it grants the government to exercise the threat of punishment against insubordinate citizens.

Legitimacy and Obligation in Political Authority

Additionally, William A. Edmundson of Cambridge University gives three ideas that provide legitimacy to a state: obedience, coercion, and intrusion. All of which, he says, are inseparable from the government. Obedience refers to the citizens, wherein they are being asked to follow a set of rules and regulations set by a political entity. Coercion refers to the threat of punishment by the government once a citizen fails to perform his responsibility. Intrusion refers to the government’s right to intrude into a citizen’s private life but with restrictions and reservations that they must adhere to, stemming from natural law.

Michael Huemer, a professor of Philosophy in the University of Colorado in his book ‘The Problem of Political Authority’, defines political authority as ‘the right of government to coerce conformity to its rule and the duty had by those subject to the government to obey.’ He, furthermore, argues that the concept of ‘authority’ has two simple aspects:

• (a) Political Legitimacy — the right to rule, or the right of the government to impose laws and enforce them by coercion into the citizens. It concerns the right of a certain body or an institution to govern over the masses and the right for them to derive their mandate to tax, organize defense, institute social programs, regulate the economy, etc.
• (b) Political Obligation — the obligation of the citizens to obey their government and the rules that are set upon them. However, some might say that political obligation deals more with answering the question of why it might be prudent to obey the state but not why we are obligated to do so. Instead, if we are politically obligated to obey the laws of the state, then it is morally wrong for us to disobey them.

The Role and Limits of Political Authority

By Huemer’s account, it can be inferred that political authority goes both ways: for an authority to be successfully in effect, it must be coerced by the government and it must be obeyed by the citizens.

Later on, in the same book, Huemer also outlined an alternative list of qualities that constitutes political authority, given:

1. Generality – which means it generally must be applied to all citizens
2. Particularity – which means it is specific to its citizens and residents within its territory
3. Content-dependence – the state’s authority is not tied to the specific contents of its laws or other commands
4. Comprehensiveness – the state is entitled to regulate a broad range of human activities, and individuals must obey the state’s directives within that broad sphere, and;
5. Supremacy – the state is recognized as the highest form of authority

Given the definition, what is now the role of political authority? It can be argued that authority is the most important characteristic of a state. Going back to Aristotle’s statement that, “Man is a political animal,” it can be said that every state, in any way it is being run, needs a governing body with authority. The authoritative power of a state is crucial to maintaining a structure, which is the very essence of a state. Without structure, a society is no different from barbarity and having no identity as a whole. Authority creates an identity for a society by establishing norms, values, laws, and traditions that bind a society together. Thomas Hobbes described life without the state as “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short” as he believed that the natural state of man was bellum omnia contra omnes or a war of all against all. Without a recognized political power, people would naturally revert back to their animalistic tendencies just to survive.

The Necessity of Political Authority for Social Harmony

The common criticisms of political authority include an assumption that authority is essentially the enemy of freedom, and by imposing authority we are threatening the very core of our society – which is liberty in free will. In response to this criticism, Desmond Hume wrote in his essay “Of the Origin of Government”:

“In all governments, there is a perpetual intestine struggle, open or secret, between authority and liberty; and neither of them can ever absolutely prevail in the contest. A great sacrifice of liberty must necessarily be made in every government, yet even the authority, which confines liberty, can never, and perhaps ought never, in any constitution, to become quite entire and uncontrollable.”

Hume acknowledged that liberty and authority should co-exist harmoniously in order for them to perform their functions as intended. He acknowledged that if an equilibrium between the two is to be established, neither liberty nor authority should supersede the other. Some freedom or liberty must be sacrificed and, in return, authority must be kept in check.

What are the limits of political authority? Jeffrey Mirus of Christendom College argues that for a political authority to be legitimate, it must adhere to the natural law. Natural law is, simply put, the recognition that all of humanity inherently possess within themselves inalienable rights bestowed to them by a higher being as well as a collection of universal rules by which every human being is expected to adhere to. Mirus argues that the government does not in itself generate or possess the principles of morality by which its policies must be shaped. These moral principles come from nature, which is prior to government, and they are native to the persons over which the government, by whatever accident of history, presides.

One other problem of political authority is the question of what happens to someone who fails to live up to their political obligation – what punishments may befall them and how to implement those punishments. After all, the word “coercion” instigates a sense of punishments and sanctions to those who fail to follow authority. Back to Huemer’s book “The Problem of Political Authority,” he tells us that:

“Government is a coercive institution. Generally speaking, when the state makes a law, the law carries with it a punishment to be imposed upon violators. It is possible to have a law with no specified punishment for violation, but all actual governments attach punishments to nearly all laws. Not everyone who breaks the law will in fact be punished, but the state will generally make a reasonable effort at punishing violators and will generally punish a fair number of them, typically with fines or imprisonment.”

Huemer, then argues that the implication of this is that this may lead into the perpetuation of physical violence as, without the threat of violence, deviants may simply choose to break the law and ignore their political obligation. He further drives this point by telling us that there are corresponding gravities of punishment that is given to someone depending on the severity of the crime, and that if it gets more severe, the government is responsible for equally increasing the severity of the punishment as well.

For this, Max Weber wrote: “The government upholds the claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force in the enforcement of its order.” What Weber tells us is that violence can actually be used by the government legitimately for “enforcement of its order” or coercion. He argues that the use of force is actually acceptable but only in the jurisdiction specified by the land. He argues that, not only is violence a requirement of society, but actually a pre-requisite in creating a harmonious community. Weber tells us that the police and military are the state’s main instruments of physical violence, while it is further acceptable for a private citizen to use self-defense in order to defend one’s self from an attacker given that they were in a recognizable grave situation. For example, a police officer is legally required to use physical force in subduing an insubordinate criminal and, likewise, a soldier caught in the middle of a crossfire is allowed to use his gun in order to defend himself and his state. Furthermore, a private citizen is allowed to use physical force once he detects a grave danger that may befall him. The use of force may be justifiable when it is required to preserve the life of oneself or of others.

In conclusion, despite all of its flaws, why should people accept political authority?

In a country or in any state, it is expected of man to work harmoniously instead of individually. Like Aristotle said, man is a political animal. This authoritative power allows states to grow and flourish; without it, people are reduced to being animals. It can be argued that having political authority is counter-productive in a free nation but it can also be argued that political authority is necessary in order to ensure that mankind has guidance as well as a unifying and regulating body to go push through barriers and achieve more compared to an individual working alone.

There may not be any absolute answer to the question, “why should people accept political authority,” without it having any counter-argument. Political authority, in general, may just be the lesser of two evils. Even John Locke’s view on the state is that it is a necessary evil that shall serve the interests of the people and in turn, its legitimacy shall be anchored on sovereign popularity. Would mankind rather spend their lives without a common goal nor any sense of political obligation and political legitimacy, or would it rather give up a few bits and pieces of freedom to ensure the flourishing of one’s community?

Conclusion: The Inevitability of Political Authority in Human Society

Mankind is a social and political animal. No matter what the circumstance may be, it is very likely that humans will form some resemblance of society. Without society, we subject ourselves to the brutish state of nature that allows every man to live for himself and by himself. For that, mankind must install some kind of authority once a society is formed – in order to ensure the perpetuation of camaraderie and community amongst themselves.

In the question of violence, violence itself is a natural condition of things. Man fought nature, man fought God, man fought man. It’s a never-ending cycle of violence. Establishing authority gives a monopoly of violence that allows mankind to utilize a barbaric method into something that is controlled and may potentially benefit the community. It can be argued that it is necessary in terms of the natural state of things and can actually be something that helps maintain a sense of harmony among the state.

In general, the question of why should people accept political authority isn’t really a question of why, but why shouldn’t they?

Imagine a day, just a single day without political authority. No one collecting taxes, meaning streets would be overflowing with garbage and other basic needs of the people are not attended to. Looters are everywhere since there is no person of authority to make them do otherwise. Contaminated water and food infiltrate communities because nobody is there to regulate. Agencies and services that run on taxes are shut down: weather services, garbage collection, prisons, etc. People not following any traffic rules because there are none. A person would be lucky to be alive at the end of the day. And this is just the tip of the iceberg.

To be fair, one may argue that mankind can continue to sustain itself given that we have morals and good nature instilled upon us and to some extent there are. But now that there is political authority governing us and still crime and injustice persist, would it get better without political authority?

Man is a political animal. We belong in a society and it is up to us to fulfill our political obligations. Structured systems to manage human conduct is a necessity in establishing a civilized society. This is what separates humanity from savage, untamed beasts. Without anybody or anything to keep people in place, what is to stop them from tearing each other apart? Therefore, in order to ensure that a harmonious society exists, we need political authority to assist humanity in its constant pursuit of truth, knowledge, and prosperity

Medea written by Euripides is based through Greek society where only men were allowed to take part in politics, law and war. Men were regarded as superior to women, but were not seen as equal to each other and saw themselves as very strong, powerful humans. Male power is the capability or ability for men to direct or influence the behavior of women. This idea of male power is explored through Medea and is very significant to the play as it is demonstrated through the characters Jason, Creon and Aegeus. The reader acknowledges that this incorporation of male power is significant in shaping Medea’s actions and the entirety of the play. Euripides captures the idea of male power through Jason and Creon representing men in this society and Aegeus as a contrast to men’s position in this time.

Jason is identified as a symbol of the intensely patriarchal society of this time, he views himself as superior and more powerful to women especially Medea. In this play, Jason illustrates his power and control over Medea and the drastic effects this causes on their relationship. He abuses his power to gain control and abandon Medea, and despite his justifications, he demonstrates that his primary reason for abandoning Medea and marrying the mistress is to “ensure [his] prosperity” (Euripides, 2003, line 65) illustrating his only desire is economic and status, moving up the ladder. He abuses his power with the desire of maintaining his status. Medea truthfully states to him that it “was the marriage to a foreigner that [he] felt would detract from that great name of [his]” (Euripides, 2003, line 93). Here, Medea outlines the truth and reason and introduces the main idea of his true intentions behind his betrayal and the divorce; this demonstrates Jason’s power over women manipulating them to maintain his own status. Jason speaks to Medea in a derogatory mocking tone as he views himself as superior and more powerful to women and is more concerned with defending his indefensible actions and appear the victim, demonstrating the male power of the society.

Jason’s power causes anger and revenge to build up catastrophically, this power motivates Medea to commit certain actions. The nurse “already saw her glaring at [her children] like a bull, as if she wanted to do something awful” (Euripides, 2003, line 92) this demonstrates the torment Jason puts Medea through, foreshadowing the events of the play adding dramatic tension for the reader and building the anticipation of the coming events. This demonstrates that male power is significant in the play Medea as it illustrates what the extent of Jason’s power is and how he utilizes this to destroy Medea influencing her to take revenge and ponder on awful actions. Additionally, the incorporation of animalistic imagery “like a bull” demonstrates how the society isolates women like Medea resulting in them feeling less significant and isolated from society. This imagery is incorporated to enhance and alter the reader’s perception of Medea. Here, Euripides draws comparisons between Medea and a bull, for the reader this illustrates her as a powerful and violent male-like animal. This establishes the effect Jason’s power has on Medea and the feud this causes between them. It indicates the intensity and anger built up from the abandonment and isolation caused from society and Jason. Medea states “women are the most miserable of specimens!” (Euripides, 2003, line 230) demonstrating that the power men hold of women is incredibly frustrating and the treatment of women is extremely horrifying in this time. Medea appears to be envious of the freedom men have and the physical power that they hold.

Although, through the play, Medea demonstrates the female power she possesses which overrule Jason’s male power, Medea possess emotional and mental power over Jason. She claims that she would “rather face the enemy three times over than bear a child once.” (Euripides, 2003, line 150). This proves that women are stronger and braver then men despite the stereotypes of men in this society holding a stronger sense of power than women. The power from male characters influences Medea to become stronger as a character.

In Medea, Creon represents that idea that men were superior in society and may do what they please. He encourages Jason to marry his daughter and is not concerned that Jason would be breaking a sacred oath he has with Medea. He then attempts to banish Medea showing no empathy towards her. He uses his power to banish them to protect Jason and himself from Medea’s possible revenge and retribution for those crimes. His use of derogatory language towards Medea for instance “you there, Medea” (Euripides, 2003, line 271) belittles Medea resulting in her feeling powerless and insignificant. His fear of Medea is the primary reason for banishing Medea as proven when he states, “I fear you” (Euripides, 2003, line 281), this is ironic as Creon fears Medea despite being a women, yet men were typically viewed as superior at this time. The incorporation of irony for the reader is to emphasize the idea of male power and develop the reader’s interest in the character of Creon. It is deemed ironic as the King fears Medea and uses his power to banish her due to his fear, revealing Creon’s emotional weakness as he allows Medea to overpower him emotionally. Creon fears that Medea will “do some harm to the three of [them], [his] daughter, her new husband and [himself]” (Euripides, 2003, line 287) foreshadowing the final events of the play and allowing the reader to gain insight into the actions Medea will commit. It creates suspense and allows the reader to prepare for the death of the characters.

Creon is significant to the play Medea as he embodies the patriarchal society and displays no sympathy towards her. His actions reinforce the harsh, selfish nature of males in this society towards foreigners and women. Through the passage Creon banishes Medea yet is willing to “grant [her] request” enabling her evil doing and giving her the right to stay in Corinth for one more day. Here, the reader is able to acknowledge the fault in Creon’s male power as he allows Medea to gain more power over him. Creon is aware that by allowing her to stay he is “making a mistake” (Euripides, 2003, line 337) and he recognizes what she is capable of. However, through this grant of request Creon makes a massive error by provoking her anger and allowing her to stay in close proximity giving her power to hurt him. Since, he is aware of his mistake, the reader recognizes that he does not have the strength of willpower to do what must be done with Medea. Euripides, identifies to us the Medea is stronger and possess stronger willpower than that of Creon. Euripides demonstrates that Medea is much stronger, powerful and forceful than that of the male King. As displayed again, irony is used to identify to the reader that this is not the primary view of society at the time and emphasizes that this is the opposite view. Medea has overpowered the King using his weakness and manipulating him with her use of skillful convincing language. Thus, Creon is significant as he represents the fault in men and the idea that women like Medea can manipulate to gain power.

Aegeus is a minor character through the play however is primary role is to act as a savior through the play, which contrasts significantly between the other male characters. He offers a place of refuge in Athens for Medea, which was unsolicited behavior at this time. The appearance of Aegeus in the play is significant and marks an important turning point. He is sympathetic towards Medea and disgraced by Jason’s behavior unlike other men in this society. Aegeus defies the natural actions of a man, and is surprised to hear of Jason’s betrayal. Medea and Aegeus bound an oath in order to assist each other. Medea manipulates Aegeus in gaining power. In this time, intelligence was not highly regarded as characteristics for women. Despite this, Aegeus “swear[s] by Earth and the bright light of Helios and all the gods” swearing to the Gods to give Medea refuge. This serves to highlight the motif of oaths and the broken oaths that Jason and Medea had bound together. Thus, Aegeus provides a contrast to the men in society as he seeks to help Medea.

It can be viewed, therefore, that the characters of Jason and Creon portray the significance of male power through the play Medea. They use their power to overrule women and foreigners and disregard Medea to gain and maintain their status. Here, male power is highly significant as it stands to represent the context at the time and builds on Medea as a character as she defies the role of women at this time. Aegeus, is an important minor character as he stands as a powerful contrast to Jason and Creon and does not conform to the patriarchal society.

I believe that the roles between the men and women in the story the sun also rises are similar in certain aspects but could not be any more different. In the story the men in the story throw themselves at lady brett while she couldn’t care less who was interested in her.she was in control of who she fell for. As for the guys in this story, they all were seeking attention from lady brett and they acted as if they were nothing if they did not have her. The men in the story basically revolve around lady brett because everything that they did was to impress her and gain her attention because they felt as if they did not have her they were nothing.

As for some similarities in the story, both lady brett and the men carry themselves with toughness and integrity . she carries herself very independently almost as a man would do. She shows that she does not need love but she wants it . lady brett knows that she is beautiful and men throw themselves at her but she doesn’t pay them any mind.

What I feel that Hemingway is trying to sa say about sexuality in the post-war world is that sexuality shouldn’t play a big part on how people’s views are.I believe hes trying to say that just because you are male or female shouldn’t determine what is ok or not. He portrays lady brett as someone who doesn’t really care for relationships and just wants her needs met. She knows that she can get any man she wants and lady brett also knows she can get whatever she want. Men usually play the role as the ladies man and they usually play the role as if they don’t really care but in this case the roles are flipped. Also you can tell that post-war Hemingway is showing how much love people wanted back then after the war.

Hemingway is most mindful of the character’s security in the city. Every one of the characters go back and forth however they see fit. Paris portrayed in The Sun also Rises is a vacationer’s Paris of the twenties. Bistros, cafés, inns, are the setting. The state of mind and frame of mind of the characters is that of individuals in the midst of some recreation. They set out to what individuals like to do in the midst of some fun they need to have relationships, they drink, go fishing, and experience new sensations.The bistros and bars Hemingway depicts have extraordinary significance.

Hemingway attempts to pass on an inclination for the of city and the glow of everyday living. So as to influence the reader to respond positively, he should make him at ‘home’; he should influence him to comprehend why certain Americans rejected habitation in the US and picked Paris.

The cafe is a spot to move out of the real world, to escape from an earlier time. Individuals would prefer not to talk or consider it. They live for the present, continually looking for new sensations.their discussion is diminished to eager banter about their ventures. What’s more, this discussion, just as their activities, is to a great extent a matter of posture and signal.