Category: Logic

Logic is any inference or judgment made on some issue, which may be linked to intense reasoning and justification. Anything that occurs in our lives, and all our surroundings, are based on some form of logic. There lies a reason behind everything, and this notion was brought about by famous thinkers and philosophers of the olden days.

Amongst the great philosophers of all time, are the famous names of Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato. They each came up with their own philosophies regarding logic, and all the resulting philosophies were pertaining to each of their own unique way of looking at things and opining on them. Aristotle begins the history of logic, with his discussions of principles underlying various avenues of life (Ontology and History of Logic, 2008).

The history of logic relates to the progress of the science of valid inference (Wikipedia, 2008). Numerous cultures have developed and executed varying methods of reasoning, but the most prominent ones that are known to us today, are those associated with China, India, and Greece. The theories concerning logic date back to the 4^th century BC, and the most significant logical concepts developed were those of ancient Greece.

Aristotle gave his idea of logic, which was known as ‘dialectic’ or ‘analytic’ in those times. According to the Greek meaning, the term ‘logic’ is derived from ‘logos’, which means sentence. Aristotle and Plato initially came up with their studies of logic, and it is assumed that the need for the reasoning of things aroused with the advent of geometry in that era. Geometrical evaluations had begun as early as the 6^th century, with the pyramids playing an empirical role in the Pythagoras studies, which introduced demonstrative science (Wikipedia, 2008).

The logic of Aristotle was of importance during the period of the Renaissance too. His famous works, which are of the highest eminence in the history of logic include, ‘The Categories’, ‘Topics’, and ‘Prior Analytics’, to name a few. There were five treatises present in his collection, which was named the “Organon” (King, P. & Shapiro, S., 1995). He is considered the first logician, giving reasoning and justifications for arguments.

Plato was the first thinker to put forth philosophical logic. He also raised three eminent questions relating to logic, firstly, if something can be called true or false, secondly, the connection between valid arguments and conclusions, and thirdly, the nature of definition.

After the philosophies of the former two thinkers, comes the Stoic form of logic. This dates back to the 5^th-century thinking and liked to the thinking of Socrates. In fact, the philosopher Euclid, who came up with these teachings with his fellow men, was a pupil of Socrates. The Stoic school contributed three main aspects, which were, modality, theory of conditional statements, and truth and meaning.

Coming back to Aristotle, he stated that the logical form of a substance is known by its quantity, as well as quality. The greatest contribution he had made to the element of logic was syllogistic, a combination of opposing thoughts and converting thoughts.

Whatever is taught today is based on logic, and the logical forms taught to us by famous philosophers of the past. Everything that we encounter has meaning, and the branch of philosophy has given us the greatest connotation of the term ‘logic’, like no one else before.

References

1. King, P. & Shapiro, S. The History of Logic. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy 1995, 496-500. Web.
2. Ontology and the History of Logic 2008. Web.
3. History of logic. Web.

Introduction

Aristotle, the great Greek philosopher, considered dialectic to be the search for the philosophic basis of science. Very often, he used this term as the synonym for logic. In addition, the prominent thinker estimated rhetoric in the context of logic, because logic, as well as rhetoric and dialectic, point out the studying of persuasion methods. The outstanding Aristotle’s works “Poetics” and “Rhetoric” had a great influence on the art of rhetoric and its development. Not only writers and thinkers, but also prominent teachers of rhetoric used some elements from Aristotle’s doctrine. Aristotle considered rhetoric to be the ability to find all possible methods of persuasion to every single object (Garver, 1995). That’s why Aristotle interpreted rhetoric to be the science about means of persuasion.

Main body

Aristotle told that rhetoric could be regarded as the branch of politics, but at the same time, it could be understood like the part of dialectic, because both rhetoric and dialectic try to find proof for persuasion. Aristotle explained the general concept of persuasion with the help of rhetorical syllogism, which consists of probabilistic conclusions. He rose important arguments and concepts in his ethical, logical, and psychological writings.

Hegel had his own conception of dialectic. His aim was to state a philosophical system so that it would combine the thoughts and ideas of Hegel’s predecessors. Moreover, he wanted it to be formed in such a conceptual framework in which both the future and past could be understood from the philosophical point of view. That’s why Hegel perceived that the study of philosophy was reality as a whole. Such reality he regarded as the Absolute or Absolute Spirit. According to Hegel, the Absolute had to be referred to as pure Spirit, Thought, or Mind in the long process of self-development. Traditionally the mensuration of his thought was dissected in the categories of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. Though Hegel tried not to use those terms, still they are very important for realizing his notion of dialectic. So the thesis had to be a historical movement or a certain idea with incompleteness within itself. Such incompleteness led to opposition or antithesis, a contradictory movement or idea. Synthesis was the result of the conflict. The synthesis became a newly appeared thesis, which in its turn gave rise to another antithesis, generating a new synthesis. Such dialectical process of historical and intellectual development led to the evolution of ideas. Hegel’s views were based on the idealistic concept of the universal mind, which due to evolution could occupy the highest stage of self-actualization and freedom (Hegel, 1812).

Karl Popper had a similar to Hegel approach to dialectic. According to him, dialectic was a theory that maintained that something – for instance, human thought – developed in a way characterized by the so-called dialectic triads: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis (Popper, 2002, p. 421). Usually, dialectic was associated with three laws of dialectic: the law of the interpenetration of opposites (struggle and unity of opposites); the law of the transition of quantity into quality and vice versa; the law of the negation. Popper considered that logic dealt with notions of things prescinded from the real ones themselves. Though dialectic admitted contradictions, for Popper contradictions were logical contradictions. That’s why dialectic is opposed to logic.

Conclusion

In the modern philosophical literature, dialectic is represented as a kind of new logic. A newly appeared term “dialectical logic” is even used to depict that new type of logic (Stavinsky, 2003). Such an approach towards dialectic and logic leads to the confusion of understanding Popper’s treatment of the problem. But a lot of today’s scientists consider that logic, dialectic, and rhetoric belong to different spheres and can’t be accepted as potential replacements for each other.

Works Cited

Haack, S. Philosophy of logics. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1978.

Hegel, G. Hegel’s Science of Logic. London: Allen and Unwin, 1812.

Garver, E. Aristotle’s Rhetoric: An Art of Character. The University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Lakoff, G. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.

Popper, K. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. London: Routledge Classics, 2002.

Stavinsky, I. Philosophical Researchers. Moscow, 2003.

Introduction

Philosophy is part and parcel of our lives. The term philosophy is derived from a Greek phrase which literally means, “The love of wisdom” (Soccio, 2009). Philosophy can today be used to refer to person’s beliefs, values and general way of life. In this case, we will be talking of someone having a philosophy and not someone being a philosopher. The first philosophers were considered to be wise for their boldness in asking some questions like what life’s meaning was, or where our origin was. One such philosopher is Aristotle whose arguments have come to be known as the Aristotle logic (Robin, 2007). Aristotle is reputed to be the first man to study the logic concept although there have been other numerous contributions to the concept over the years.

Logic and Philosophy

Philosophy generally deals with the interpretation, meaning, evaluation as well as logical consistency. There are at least two hundred areas of study in philosophy (Soccio, 2009). Because there are so many branches of study, there is usually conflict of interest and some philosophers even suggest that some of those arrears should not be considered as philosophical disciplines. For example, a philosopher that is a logician may have a hard time embracing metaphysics. The main reason would be that metaphysics is at best confused and abstract.

Only until very recently, the philosophy from the west has been characterized by logical reasoning which involves written arguments. This in a way blocked out any other expressions of philosophical wisdom. After the eighteenth century, philosophers were no longer considered to be a certain clique of highly literate men who were able to fend for themselves or who were associated to the church. Today, learning institutions have made it possible for other people to study philosophy including women who were not considered worthy of the tile of philosophers (Soccio, 2009).

The author defines philosophy as the “love for wisdom.” Ideally, it means that philosophy is not a career. On the contrary, a philosopher is someone is in pursuit of knowledge and wisdom because he wants to know and not because he has to know. Philosophy is therefore not merely a means to the end. In fact, Liddell & Scott describe it as a passion for wisdom. This would imply that philosophy is not to be looked at as a career but as a hobby. It is however interesting to note that while today’s philosophers have more wisdom than the olden day philosophers. They are not necessarily wiser than they (Kimura, 2006).

One other important issue that the author deals with is the fact that the tides have changed as far as archetypes are concerned. Philosophy was considered to be a privileged position that only a few people from the elite class held. This is hoverer changing with time. Philosophy is now available as a field of study at universities and it is an open course for any one with the minimum admission requirements.

Conclusion

Aristotle’s concept of Logic has been a major building block for logic over the years. He developed the concept of Logic as formal epistemology. This was known as oragan. He by so doing became the first thinker to develop a systematic approach to proof. He paved the way into further research by becoming he first philosopher to come up with formal deductions and independence proofs (Creed et al., 2003). The logic concept is widely used in mathematics and desings of computer algorithms.

References

Creed, L. et al. (2003). The Philosophy of Aristotle. New York: Penguin.

Kimura, G. (2006). Philosophy as Wisdom of Love: Vision in Action Leadership Institute. Web.

Robin, S. (2007). Aristotle’s Logic. Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy.

Soccio, J. (2009). Archetypes of Wisdom: an introduction to Philosophy. London: Cengage Learning.

Mathematical Platonism is the concept that describes the existence, abstractness, and independence as adjectives for mathematics routine practices. The philosophy insinuates that some objects exist independently of external forces, such as language and thoughts (Park, 2018). However, the truth is not asserted regarding the formal existence and the role of Platonism in pure mathematics. Besides, the concept of independence is shallow and does not make sense to true realists because of its idea that objects occur regardless of the existence of other practices. Studying Platonism provides alternative thinking that reality extends beyond the physical world and includes objects not part of the casual and spatiotemporal order studied in biological sciences (Ruloff, 2020). The study will help understand how mathematical Platonism influences the naturalist’s theories school of thought because there is little or no doubt on mathematical philosophies. Frege’s argument that mathematical language is quantifiable gives Platonism a lifeline and true meaning (Paul, 2020). However, little is known about the objectiveness of the mathematical concepts, the level of accessibility, the metaphysical problems it seeks to address. This paper will discuss realism and true realism as concepts that help understand mathematical Platonism and answer the question of existence, abstractedness, and independence.

Keywords:Existence, abstract, independence, Platonism

Mathematical Platonism

Platonism is a mathematics philosophy insinuating that some objects exist independent of external variables, such as people, thoughts, and routine practices. Mathematical Platonism is described in three conjunctions, including existence, abstractness, and independence, which are the traditional variables of the topic. In 1953, Gottlob Frege posted a strong argument that the language of mathematics tends to refer to and quantify the mathematical objects and the corresponding theories are true (Park, 2018). However, the approach cannot be valid unless the first expression comes after and gives meaning to the statement. Consequently, the mathematical theory of Platonism has developed objections based on Frege’s argument (Ruloff, 2020). Classical semantics states that the singular language of mathematics refers to the first order of quantifiers and objects that range over such entities. Similarly, the truth indicates that most of the sentences accepted in mathematics are true. Thus, the mathematical concepts are epistemologically inaccessible and metaphysically problematic that attract long debate on Platonism.

Definition of Platonism

Mathematical Platonism is that mathematical adjectives replace the idea that arises from existence, abstractness, and independence. For instance, the formal structure of reality can be ‘∃xMx,’ where ‘Mx‘ represents the predicate ‘x is a mathematical object’ and is acceptable in all objects studied in pure mathematics. Second, the mathematical abstract of abstractedness occurs when an object is deemed abstract in the case of spatiotemporal and casual inefficacious. Lastly, claims of independence are the least clear compared to the first two claims because they ascribe to the autonomy of an object where regardless of the occurrence of other practices. However, the claim of sovereignty is still schematic and not well structured. Thus, mathematical Platonism indicates that objects exist abstractly, independent of intelligent agents such as language and believes.

Significance of Mathematical Platonism

Mathematical Platonism puts pressure on the physicality idea that reality is exhausted. Exhaustion is due to the physical objects that provide alternative thinking that reality extends beyond the physical world and includes objects that are not part of the casual and spatiotemporal order studied in biological sciences (Plebani, 2017). In addition, if mathematical Platonism is true, it puts pressure on the naturalist’s theories school of thought because there is little or no doubt on mathematical philosophies. Further, an in-depth understanding of the mathematics of Platonism will establish the knowledge of abstract objects leading to rediscovery, which many naturalist theories struggle to accommodate. The philosophical consequences are similar to the mathematical Platonism, but the forms are suited to accommodate such effects (Park, 2018). The resemblance is due to the mathematical concept of owning the rights as a scientific tool. Few philosophers are against the Platonism ideas with strong core claims whose scientific credentials are as strong as mathematics.

Mathematical Significance of Platonism

Platonism defends specific mathematical ideas such as the classical first-order language, impredicative definitions, and Hilbertian optimism, which are the core values in mathematical philosophy. However, according to working realism, more classical methods support mathematical reasoning but require philosophical defense based on Platonism. Therefore, while Platonism is a philosophical view, realism is a view within mathematics about the methodology of disciplines, making the two concepts distinct (Park, 2018). Furthermore, there is a positive correlation between the two views because realism receives strong acceptance from mathematical Platonism. In addition, Platonism ensures that mathematical concepts are discovered rather than invented because there is no need to restrict the idea to construction methods that establish a powerful argument (Park, 2021). Therefore, Platonism has mathematical significance because it indicates that mathematics is about independently occurring objects with unique answers, which motivates the Hilbertian optimism.

Object Realism

Object realism assumes that a mathematical abstract exists and acts as a conjunction of the existence and abstractness. Unlike nominalism, which defines the view that there are no abstract objects, object realism is abstract, and a universe exists (Plebani, 2017). However, object realism leaves out independence because it is logically weak in the concept of mathematical Platonism. The argument of object realism is stronger than mathematical Platonism because many scientists believe in non-physical objects as long as they are dependent on material things (Paul, 2020). For instance, physicalisms accept the law, poems, and corporations as a mystery of epistemic access to non-physical items and the processes constituting them. Other scientists believe that the philosophy of mathematics revolves around the objects outside the Platonism theory, such as traditional intimism. These ideas support the existence of mathematical objects that are dependent on mathematicians and their activities.

Truth Value Realism

True value realism statement involves unique objects with actual value independent of its logical order in the current mathematical theories. The idea also notes that mathematical objects are deemed accurate and vice versa, making the concept a metaphysical view that is non-ontological (Park, 2021). However, despite indicating that every mathematical statement has an actual value, it does not conform with the Platonist ideas that the actual values occur in the ontology of known mathematical objects. Mathematical Platonism promotes the concept of natural value realism by enhancing the platform where the mathematical objects acquire their truth value (Paul, 2020). However, mathematical Platonism does not include the true value realism unless further clauses are provided.

Mathematical Platonism motivates truth realism because it gets the actual value of objects and endorses at least one branch of mathematics, such as arithmetic. Nominal believers commit to the odd-sounding idea that the ordinary math statements that; there are multiples of itself between 10 and 20. In this case, it is essential to differentiate the mathematical language Lm and the nominalists and other philosophers who believe in the Lp format. Nominalist believes prime numbers exist, but no abstract objects are made in the Lp format (Park, 2021). Thus, they indicate that the actual value of the Lm values is in a fixed manner that does not make mathematical sense. Furthermore, for the existence to have the desired effects, it must occur in the Lp language used by the mathematicians and accepted by the nominalists contrary to the purpose of the claim (Paul, 2020). Philosophers argue that true realism ideologies are ideal for Platonism debate because it gives clear and tractable evidence.

Mathematical Platonism involves the ideas of existence, abstractness, and independence as adjectives for mathematics routine practices. The philosophy insinuates that some objects exist independently of external forces, such as language and thoughts. Similarly, the truth is not clear about the existence and the role of Platonism in pure mathematics. This paper agrees with the naturalist’s concept that independence is shallow because of its idea that objects occur regardless of the existence of other practices. Studying Platonism helps to understand its role in explaining how mathematical objects extend beyond the physical world. In addition, the study discusses how mathematical Platonism influences the naturalist’s theories school of thought because there is little or no doubt on mathematical philosophies. Frege argues that mathematical language is quantifiable, and the objects exist in true realism regardless of language and thoughts. Mathematics of Platonism implies that mathematical entities are valid and live and are abstract, independent of rational human activities.

References

Park, W. (2018). Philosophy’s loss of logic to mathematics. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics, 43. Web.

Park, W. (2021). On abducing the axioms of mathematics. Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics, 161-175. Web.

Paul, T. (2020). Mathematical entities without objects. On realism in mathematics and a possible Mathematization of (Non) Platonism: Does Platonism dissolve in mathematics? European Review, 29(2), 253-273. Web.

Plebani, M. (2017). Does mathematical Platonism meet ontological pluralism? Inquiry, 63(6), 655-673. Web.

Ruloff, C. (2020). Theism, explanation, and mathematical Platonism. Philosophia Christi, 22(2), 325-334. Web.

Introduction

Before starting to write the composition, each writer thinks about the context. The author can choose any genre, any topic for his work, but the most meaningful choice is the approach. Someone can give in to tender feelings and write about beauty or an emotional story. Someone can argue convincingly and rely only on scientific data and logical conclusions. Even Aristotle wrote about the three ways of persuasion ethos, pathos, and logos.

The ethos is responsible for trusting the writer, the pathos for emotions, and the logos for logic and the voice of reason. Often, writers have the tension of facade about which side to choose, so some give preference to both feelings and rationality. The situation with the writing of works between logic and emotions contradiction occurred with Edgar Allan Poe in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” Oscar Wilde’s “The Importance of Being Earnest,” and the line ‘A rose by any other word would smell as sweet’ from William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet.”

Analysis of the Usage of Feelings and Logic in the Literature Works

“The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe

In his short story, Poe covers the side of the senses and the rigor of the mind. The author describes the murder of an old man by the narrator of the story. The plot is quite simple but unusual because a person kills a man because of his vulture eye (Poe 8). The work includes feelings of conscience and emotions that torment the hero, but on the other hand, the author clearly and ruthlessly describes the murder. Firstly, after the death of the old man, the beating of the victim’s heart begins to pursue the killer (Poe 10). The author has included some symbols and literary devices in his work. One of them is a metaphor about the vulture eye can mean a secret that connects the heroes. The eye is a kind of motif because the story unfolds around it.

Another metaphor is the combination of the heart and the clock that beat in the head of the hero. He precisely planned his crime like a clock, the time pulsed with him, and the beating of man’s heart was like a clock. Secondly, Poe is considered one of the best in the field of short stories. Therefore, he writes without details and does not use the names, and descriptions of the characters. The author is very minimalistic, so his text seems to follow a specific and clear plan. Consequently, the work “The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe can be considered stretched between the feelings and the rigor of the mind.

“The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde

The play “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde is a comedic work that combines emotion and seriousness. First, the plot consists of the two selfish brothers that are wooing two girls. However, to make an impression, they decided to call themselves Earnest. It is important to note that Earnest is a literary pun because the word implies not only the name but also the meaning of “seriousness” in the title. Nevertheless, the author used a large number of epigrams and paradoxes when describing Lady Bracknell. Epithets and metaphors, comparison, hyperbole, litotes, irony, and many other elements demonstrate the sharpness and brightness of the author’s word.

Since the play has a style of comedy, the audience and readers can not immediately understand the hidden meaning. Therefore, the disclosure of important and serious topics opens up another “logical” side of the work. For example, the author uses real events and places, so the name Mr. Earnest Worthing hides the existing city in England (Wilde 3). The author also raises topics of the nineteenth century, such as bourgeois society, capitalist exploitation, the destruction of art, attitudes to marriage, female emancipation, bigotry, and even vulgarity. To conclude, the author raises the current problems of society and mixes them with the feelings of the characters in the play “The Importance of Being Earnest.”

The Line ‘A rose by any other word would smell as sweet’ from William Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”

The line ‘A rose by any other word would smell as sweet’ from the romantic play “Romeo and Juliet” by William Shakespeare combines the emotional and a logical backside of the story. On the one hand, the author describes through Juliet her love for Romeo, despite his name or origin. She compares it to a rose because even if the rose had a different name, characters would still love it and its smell (Shakespeare 41). This line has a metaphor for the rose that symbolizes the name of Romeo.

However, on the other hand, Shakespeare raises the moral values of the Renaissance. The author encourages people to think about the enmity between the clans, which may not be significant. Therefore, the rest of the family should not suffer because of the actions of the previous generation. Hence, Romeo and Juliet go against parental and social rules. Consequently, the line ‘A rose by any other word would smell as sweet’ from William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet” is not only a touching romantic quote but also a logically rigid line.

Conclusion

To conclude, sometimes writers are guided not only by feelings, emotions, and concepts of beauty but by a strict mind, logic, and science. These directions help to make not only entertaining sense but also describe the serious problems of society. Therefore, such writers as Edgar Allan Poe with “The Tell-Tale Heart,” Oscar Wilde with “The Importance of Being Earnest,” and the line ‘A rose by any other word would smell as sweet’ from William Shakespeare in “Romeo and Juliet” write in both approaches.

Works Cited

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Tell-Tale Heart.” The Tell-Tale Heart and Other Writings, Drew and Scammell, 1843, pp. 6-10.

Shakespeare, William. Romeo and Juliet. Thomas Creede, 1599.

Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Penguin Group, 1985.

Logic and language are different although in many cases they have some relation to each other. Logic is learning about ways of reasoning and argumentation, both appropriate and inappropriate. Language entails how our language relates to our judgment. Many intellectuals believe that it is important to understand them to achieve solid interpretation, coherent judgment, and consistent communication. Logic helps an individual understand means of thinking and interpretation in various studies. It helps individuals have the power to develop their own ideas and evaluate or analyze the ideas of other people. Studying logic helps eliminate many errors that occur in arguments and ideas portrayed by others so that one can formulate their ideas well. (Fierke, 2002)

Logic is defined as the study of the ideologies of accurate reasoning. Logic allows individuals to understand the guidelines overriding the validity of arguments. In this case, one tries to understand whether various deductions are a result of specified assumptions. In this case, if a deduction is true then it follows that the assumption will be true. It’s also important to note that logic is non-contingent in that it does not depend on any unintended characteristics of the globe. This can be illustrated in the example where physicists tell us that no signal moves faster than the speed of light. This means that if the laws of physics were different then this would probably have been false. This implies that the laws of physics are dependent on the fact that they could have been otherwise. However, logic results from using reasoning alone, and its validity are independent of any worldly characteristics. For instance, logically concludes that a statement of the form “If P then P” is automatically correct. This means if logic says “If it is raining, then it is raining” should be true. This clearly shows it is true regardless of whether it is raining or not. (Copi & Cohen, 2009)

A language is a form of transmitting or exchanging ideas between humans. Language is how human beings convey information through which skills, values, and practices are explained and shared. The sharing of information is dependent on symbols, sounds, and signals that represent implicit significance within a social setting. A major function of language is that the symbols are subjective. This means any idea or grammatical rule can be incorporated within a symbol. Though most languages use sounds, the arrangement of various sounds used does not have any basic or intrinsic significance. These sounds are just agreed-upon rules that portray a particular thing among a community using that language. The significance of the signs can be arbitrary; however, the method of conveying significance cannot be arbitrary. This is the practice of the whole society while individuals have no right to modify them arbitrarily even if one can add new ideas. It is important that the documented meaning of these signs and those that individuals add be related. (Fierke, 2002)

Logic and language though related are different in the way they portray meaning in various issues. They should be studied closely to ensure that the right meaning is understood to avoid any confusion between the two. The idea of language portrays the feelings of individuals while logic states the facts which are in society. Their different meanings should be considered in detail before one makes conclusions. There are various areas of study that will allow one to get the right interpretation of language and logic. This ensures that the two meanings are not confused or left without any information.

References

Copi I., & Cohen, C. (2009). HUM200: Introduction to logic: custom edition (13th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Fierke, K.M. (2002). “Links across the Abyss: Language and Logic in International Relations” international Studies Quarterly, Blackwell Publishing, Vol.46, no.3, pp.331-354.

The introduction of the element of Logos, or logic, can be seen as one of the crucial stages in creating a compelling argument. In his draft of the Declaration of Independence and the further completed manuscript, Jefferson makes several appeals to logic that allow viewing the document as a legitimate statement and the foundation of the American justice system, as well as its democratic framework, in general. By emphasizing the notions of egalitarianism and the principles of natural law, Jefferson successfully appeals to logic and makes a convincing presentation of the crucial social and legal principles to his opposition.

The use of logic is evident throughout the entire document, allowing Jefferson’s argument to be apparent to both his followers and his opposition. For instance, the mentioning of the fact that the country was at the time under the aegis of a tyrant and, therefore, could not provide the platform for freedom and justice to its residents was rendered. By presenting his conclusions in a logical and clear manner, Jefferson managed to convince all sides of the argument that fighting for independence was not only necessary but also inevitable. Due to the focus on the common good and the benefit of the nation, Jefferson made his argument very effective. Claiming that those desperate times called for desperate measures, Jefferson established the key reasons for refusing to follow the British rule.

Organization Name: Wounded Warriors

Program Name: Family Support

The logic model has emerged as a desired tool in developing performance measures in both governmental and private sectors. It is mostly utilized in professional evaluation of programs in communities. It is also used in referencing office management and budgeting of national resources.

Logic model is a participatory approach that aims at strengthening the relationship between managers and employees, employees and stakeholders, as well as offering a culturally competent structure for generating substantial programs (Poister, 2003).

There is a preferred method as far as logic modeling is concerned. It is advisable that logic models must connect service inputs to outputs.

The systems generated should be implemented to capture clearly the outcome of information. This means that policy makers in non-profit organizations should participate in program modification and perfection that would probably benefit accomplices and actually strengthen funding (Bryson, 2004).

On the other hand, the outcomes of any program are identified after considering some factors. The outcomes of a program can be short, intermediate-term or long-term. Irrespective of the above categories, they all aim at answering one question, which is ‘what happened after the program had been implemented’.

Short-term outcomes are influenced by two major factors, which are awareness and knowledge base of the affected (Poister, 2003). Clients are usually affected after identifying the problem facing them. Through raising awareness, clients are in a position to increase their knowledge bases.

Conversely, intermediate-term outcomes are identified after a certain program has changed the practices that are common to clients or communities.

The program could also change behavior patterns among families. Other changes that affect intermediate-term outcomes include strategies employed by governments or non-profit making organizations, technologies utilized in disseminating a program and leadership policies exercised by organizations.

Furthermore, long-term outcomes are closely related to intermediate-term outcomes. When people’s economic conditions are enhanced, long-term outcomes can possibly be observed. Financial assistance and economic empowerment tend to improve people’s social conditions, which would further diminish violence in society. This is a sign of long-term outcome of any given program.

People affected by calamities are mostly rendered homeless (Bryson, 2004). Some are forced to spend their nights in the cold. In this case, they are exposed to harsh environmental conditions. On the other hand, improving people’s financial bases tend to minimize environmental degradation. This means that people are able to afford housing, which would in turn improve the quality of life.

Alternatively, long- term outcomes are manifested by the safety of the environment. Finally, a policy maker is able to identify a long-term outcome by observing people’s political behavior, such as voting. Economically healthy people are tempted to participate in leadership by voting for leaders and presenting their candidature during elections.

References

Bryson, M. (2004). Strategic Planning for Public and Nonprofit Organizations: A Guide to Strengthening and Sustaining Organizational Achievement (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Poister, H. (2003). Measuring Performance in Public and Nonprofit Organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data: methods for analyzing talk, text and interaction (2nd ed.). London: Sage

Business owners belonging to capacity-constrained service organizations are faced with the challenges of fluctuations in demand. They are aware of the fact that fluctuations of this nature threaten the firm’s profitability. There are concerns that using yield management pricing only favors the company.

However, an overview of yield management pricing and combining it with principles of service inventory can easily put these fears to rest. Therefore, capacity-constrained organizations can lay claim to being customer centric provided that business owners and corporate leaders are willing to invest in order to combine the benefits of yield management pricing and service inventory.

Yield Management Pricing in a Nutshell

Business strategies crafted through a yield management pricing framework have been successfully applied to the airline, car rental, and hotel industries (Rouse, 2010). Yield management pricing is a business concept that allows business owners to increase revenue from a business model that is hampered by a relatively fixed capacity (Berman, 2005). For example, the main constraint in the hotel industry is the finite number of rooms available for guests.

During peak seasons, a significant number of travelers may descend on a particular area. It is possible that on this particular time of the year, hotels in the area are unable to accommodate those who are willing to pay even the most expensive rates. Thus, the hotels in the area are able to enjoy healthy profit margins. However, the profit gained during peak seasons are easily canceled out by the low number of guests during lean seasons.

The application of yield management pricing assures business owners of a steady increase in revenue, by creating opportunities in attracting new customers. It is possible to accomplish this goal by constantly updating the hotel or the airline’s price levels through the evaluation of reservations made by customers.

The information gleaned from this process is cross-referenced to future purchases in a specific time slot “against a projection of demand for each time slot” (Berman, 2005, p.169). As a result, business owners are able to “adjust prices to fill all available capacities” (Berman, 2005, p.170). The key factor here is the price of the product or service offered to the general public.

Revenue tends to increase when businesses are able to attract new customers. The best way to accomplish this goal is to lower the prices of goods and services. Therefore, those who are unable to afford the product or the services that were offered during peak seasons are given the chance to sample the product at a reduced price.

The only condition given is that these new customers must acquire the same service during off-peak months. It must be made clear that repeat customers are also viable sources of additional revenue. The reduction in the price of the goods offered means that loyal customer are now able to enjoy the product during different seasons in a year.

Service Dominant Logic

The application of yield management pricing is an effective strategy that helps business owners deal with fluctuations in demand. The airline industry was able to solve this problem by forecasting demand for airline seats. Airline executives use information gleaned from forecasting mechanisms to determine the specific dates in a year when demand for products and services are relatively lower compared to peak seasons. For example, there is higher demand during the holidays.

Based on this information, airline companies create limited time only offer of significantly reduced fares. These offers are difficult to refuse for frequent flyers, and those who want to travel but cannot afford regular fares. Although the strategies based on yield management pricing has been proven to be effective in countering the impact of demand fluctuations, it is important to know if these practices do not have a negative effect on the quality of service provided by capacity-constrained organizations.

It can be argued that organizations that practice yield management pricing can make the claim that they adhere to the principles of Service Dominant Logic (SDL), and that they are consumer centric in their orientation towards their clients (Maglio, 2010). These organizations can make this claim provided that they are willing to do two things.

First, they need to make the necessary investment in order to provide quality service for their clients. Second, they need to understand the impact of service design comprised of the following factors: 1) targeted levels of quality; 2) speed; 3) customization; and 4) cost for given resource levels (Chopra & Lariviere, p. 57).

Therefore, capacity-constrained organizations must invest in understanding the value of service inventory. There are different examples of service inventory. However, the core component of a service inventory is the performance of a service “before the service request has arrived” (Chopra & Lariviere, p. 57). By doing so the company has a newfound capability to overhaul its service design. As a result it is now able to affect quality of service, speed, and customization.

Application of the principles of service inventory in the airline industry can be seen in the study of how other businesses have effectively used RFIDs or radio frequency tags to improve their services towards their clients (Rayport & Jaworski, 2005). A good example of using RFID’s can be seen in the model implemented by Singapore’s public libraries. In the past students and faculty are frustrated when it comes to borrowing books from libraries.

They complain about unfriendly staff and the cumbersome process of borrowing and returning books. In most cases, it takes considerable time to borrow books as borrowers are forced to wait for the librarian or library worker to look for a particular book in the shelves. The problem is exacerbated if the book is misplaced or lost. It will take time to track the books.

In addition, the documentation process is also cumbersome, because the borrower has to write down pertinent information before the books can be checked out from the library. Users also complain when they have no time to return the books. Books have to be returned at a specific time. The failure to return the books can result to exorbitant fines. However, there are times when users are unable to return the books because of other valid reasons.

The use of RFID or electronic tagging of books in Singapore eliminated or drastically reduced the face-to-face interaction of the borrower and library personnel. When the book is taken out from the shelves, the data about the book and the time it was taken out of the library is recorded in a database. When it is time to return the books, Singaporeans are not compelled to commute or walk back to the library. There are designated receptacles located in various public areas that they can use to return the books. These receptacles are like ATM machines.

RFID tagging can be applied to airline tickets or boarding passes. By doing so, airline companies can eliminate the need for passengers to line up and interact with airline personnel. The moment they pass through designated areas in the airport, the computer automatically records the presence of the said passengers through the RFID in the ticket or boarding pass.

Conclusion

Capacity-constrained organizations must use yield management pricing principles in order to counter the impact of demand fluctuations. By doing so they can steadily increase revenue by attracting new customers and encouraging the patronage of repeat customers. They can also lay claim that they adhere to principles of SDL provided that they are willing to invest in strategies and mechanisms that will allow them to use service inventory principles.

References

Berman B 2005 ‘Applying yield management pricing to your service business, Business Horizons, vol. 48, pp. 169-179.

Chopra, S & Lariviere M 2005, ‘Managing service inventory to improve performance, MIT Sloan, vol. 47, no.1, pp.56-63.

Maglio, P 2010, Handbook of service science, Springer, New York, New York.

Rayport, J & Jaworski B 2005, Best face forward Harvard University Press, Boston, Massachusetts.

Rouse, P 2010, Revenue management for service organizations, Business Expert Press, New York, New York.

Introduction

Evaluation remains a basic component of any program. For purposes of benchmarking as well as measuring of program progress levels and indicators, evaluation is a critical tool. The evaluation initiatives normally vary in duration of conduct, type, or objective. For instance, it is observable that there might be short term, process, as well as impact evaluation depending on the approach to evaluation chosen by the evaluators.

Definitely, these diverse approaches to evaluation harbor different objectives and are normally conducted uniquely from one another. At the initiation stage of the project, the targeted indicators and deliverables of the project are s sufficiently drawn by the project staff according to the basic needs assessments already conducted (Gertler & World Bank, 2010).

Most behavior change programs targeting drug and substance abuse within the general population often require thorough and comprehensive evaluation mechanisms to adhere to the best practices and achieve the various set targets. The adoption and execution of an appropriate evaluation procedure and mechanism therefore remains pertinent to enhancing the success of most of the anti-drugs campaign or behavior change programs (Hogan, 2003).

This paper therefore outlines the various disparities that are eminent between process, short term outcome, as well as long term impact evaluation. Furthermore, it disuses some of the notable negative impacts of conducting specifically short term outcome and/or long term evaluation, minus the process evaluation mechanisms.

The Difference between Process, Short Term Outcome, and Long Term Impact Evaluations

Evaluation process majorly investigates the procedures as well as processes or roles that are encountered during any program implementation.

Additionally, this evaluation approach may also examine all the administrative as well as organizational concerns of the particular program under study (United Nations, 2011). As the program progresses, it is vital to take into account the various activities and investigate or examine them as to whether they comply with the path to attainment of the initially outline program deliverables , indicators, or objectives.

This perhaps summarizes the major objectives of the process evaluation (Gertler & World Bank, 2010). Thus, it can be concluded that this type of evaluation basically monitors the project activities to ensure adequate and timely feedback I the course of a program in context. On the other hand, short term outcome evaluation may be applicable in obtaining the descriptive data or facts concerning a specific program. Consequently, the evaluation procedure might also be engaged in the recoding or documentation of the observed short term results.

Task-oriented outcomes refer to those that outline the impact of the particular activity. On the other hand, short-term outcomes describe the instant impacts of the program on the marked audience. Certain pertinent information or data that may emanate from the short term outcome evaluation may entail (United Nations, 2011).

Knowledge as well as attitude transformation and expressed aims of a target group. In addition, the information may also include short-term or instant behavior transformation and policies executed or any institutional alterations made. Generally, the short term outcome evaluations measure project results and other outcomes. Long term impact evaluations also bear unique or distinct features from the other two forms of evaluations already outlined and discussed.

Ideally, this kind of evaluation remains the highly complex and comprehensive relative to the two forms already discussed herein. It also remains highly appropriate and applicable since it concentrates on particular long-duration impacts or outcomes of the project (Hogan, 2003). Furthermore, it might also directly measure or point out the transformations or enhancements in the wellbeing of a targeted group. This particularly applies in campaigns as well as behavior change programs or initiatives within large populations.

It is critical to note that this kind of an evaluation normally remains scarcely applicable within organizations since it is mostly very costly and entail an extended dedication by the various teams. For this role, an external evaluator is normally contracted to carry out the whole process since organizations can never evaluate themselves.

It is different from the short term and process evaluation since it even utilizes the data recorded from these evaluations to develop a final outcome or impact matrix (Gertler & World Bank, 2010). However, it is clear that the outcomes usually may not be expressly linked to the impacts of the activity or project.

This is basically due to the manipulations of other outdoor elements on the specific population. Observably, these influences are always noted to be transpiring over longer durations or periods. Some pertinent information that is likely to be drawn from this kind of evaluation may include alterations in morbidity or mortality and transformations in absenteeism from school or work places.

The Danger of Conducting Only Short Term Outcome And /Or Long Term Impact Evaluation, Without Process Evaluation Components

As indicated before, process evaluation is vital since it deals with the active monitoring of the activities as well as inputs involved towards the achievement of both long-term and short term goals. The basic aim behind process evaluation is therefore to put the project processes under a streamlined and uniformly objective system of action.

Therefore, process evaluation remains a critical monitoring approach that unlike both other types of evaluation occurs immediately after a project has been executed. The process occurs throughout the project phase and is basically the directing evaluative component of the program with a fundamental objective of putting the program into the proper channel (Gertler & World Bank, 2010).

Process evaluation just like monitoring, is not the end relative to other forms of evaluation discussed herein. In perspective, process evaluation offers a monitoring aspect to the whole project and is carried out continuously (United Nations, 2011). The process allows projects to identify and recognize the factors that are not pertinent to the project, or the indicators of the project that may not be performing well.

In the execution of process evaluation, the deviant factors or processes are identified and adjustments are conducted in the process to channel the program towards efficiency and success. The basic objective here is to enhance the effectiveness as well as efficiency of any project.

Thus, it is crucial to note that a project might go astray or lose its course of objective if process evaluation components are not considered (United Nations, 2011). This is because the short term outcome as well as the long term impact evaluations usually occurs after specified intervals while process evaluation is a continuous process right from the program initiation stage.

Conclusion

Conclusively, evaluation remains a critical component of any projects and the personalities concerned have to adequately plan and budget for the appropriate evaluation methodology chosen. Basically, process evaluation enables projects to examine critically the factors or elements that are actually occurring against what was initially outlined or planned (Hogan, 2003).

It enables the projects to execute remedial actions to get activities back on the right channel and be answerable to the targeted outcomes that the project aims to attain. Additionally, the process evaluation helps to recognize how finances ought to be allocated across all project activities and to gather facts that may be applied in the other evaluation procedures.

References

Gertler, P. & World Bank. (2010). Impact evaluation in practice. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

Hogan, J. A. (2003). Substance abuse prevention: The intersection of science and practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

United Nations. (2011). Evaluation: Monitoring, Outcome and Impact. Web.