Category: Literature

An Italian novelist, essayist, and chemist Primo Levi creates the unique world of the fantastic beings. Being the italian short writer and novelist, Anna Ortese combines the elements of fantasy and realism in her stories. In context of the 21st century, the ideas and images of Levi and Ortese are quite striking.

Portraying the pictures of unusual animals such as hybrids and monsters, Primo Levi and Anna Ortese create the unique worlds where the imagination is called in order to show the human nature transformed by the social environment and suffering.

Although Levi was Jew, he wasnt close to the religion until the government passed some strict laws related to this community. Obviously, all the stories were written under the influence of social atmosphere in the post Second World War Europe. The dramatic events related to Jewish Italians are reflected in the stories of Levi in such fantastic and mythical way. The Fascist Regime destabilized the socio-cultural life of the Europe.

The expressions of this regime were vivid in the collective memory in a postwar Italy. Perhaps, Levis perception was traumatized by observing the horror during the war. Dehumanization and marginalization brought the influence of a dark mode on the stories. Through the fantastic images, Levi is able to demonstrate the poignant sense of betrayals.

In a story Angelic Butterfly, Levi shows the image of neoteny of the axolotl as the result of Nazi Professor Leebs experiment of the transformation humans into the winged creatures similar to angels. Levi uses the animalization as a particular form of demonization. This image is not traditional in the European literature. However, an idea of such hybrid could be quite expected from the Nazi. Perhaps, Levi creates this monster under the influence of his experience during the World War II.

Thinking about the way of finding human roots, Levi supposes that the origin of humans behavior is not only in a familys genealogy. Those roots can be found in words that people read, music that they hear, paintings and films that they see, and journey that people have ever taken. There are actually no rules of the human relations. Everybody uses ones own experience according to the personal roots.

The fantastic tale Quaestino de Centauris, first appeared in 1961, is one of the most significant and favorably Levis stories. The mythical image of the centaur is used as a symbol of mankind. The creature is struggled between the human and bestial nature. This is an allusion of the Jewish people belonging at the same time to their ethnic and the host cultures, as well as a symbol of Levi himself.

The image of centaur starts the tale and centers upon an idea of the hybrid as someone bigger than the sum of its parts. The fantastic image cannot help escape from the cruel reality, however, through the image of centaur the author can reflect his experience of the 1930s and 1940s within the Italian society with the numerous betrayals and disappointment. This is a hidden theme of the story.

According to Levi, the way of evolution is never linear and can lead to the devolution. The similar idea appears also in the The Search for Roots: natural selection cannot possibly produce any modification in a species exclusively for the good of another species (Levi, 28). The evolution of centaur is a special tool of showing the process opposite to the usual way of development.

Using the archaic utopia, Levi shows the traditional pastoral with the themes and structure of the European folk traditions. The idyllic harmony of the Edenic is an important part of the composition. Obviously, the European society is not similar to this idyll; however, the image of the beast-man refused and abandoned is perfect allusion of the neglected victims of the war.

Besides, the image of centaur can be considered as a protector of borders and guardian of the society as it was accepted in the culture of ancient Greek. The centaur expresses a human degeneration and the doubts about the future development of the civilization.

The monster figure in literature usually reflects the conception of menace of the realitys integrity. Traditionally, they are the representatives of chaos, discort and violence. The same idea we can see in the stories of Levi. His monsters and hybrids should set thinking about the evolution and degradation.

However, the monsters of Levis stories are not just a symbol of the beast; moreover, they are an allusion to the mankind which produces more cruelty than a beast. Levi wants to call the sympathy of readers toward the monsters. His centaur is a victim which has will to survive in this hostile society.

The collective cultural and historical memory of the Jewish community allows Levi to use the ancient fantastic images. The monsters as the Jewish people in Italian society try to survive. Therefore, the image of the monster helps Levi to express his experience of the Jewish existence in the 20th century (Nicholas, 136).

As well as Primo Levi, Anna Ortese uses the elements of realism and fantasy making the works dreamlike. Her style is particularly similar to the works of Edgar Allan Poe and Franz Kafka. The major themes of Orteses works are anxiety, loss and bad sides of the humans. Use of the collective cultural memory is one of the main characteristics of her stories which help to investigate the human nature.

From the beginning of The Iguana written in a style of fairy tale, the reader becomes unsettled. The prologue of the story can be considered from the economic aspect behind the aesthetic conditions. The young Italian count Aleardo comes to the island of Ocana and meets strange servant who probably seems to be an iguana.

Watering down the line between the reality and fantasy, the author makes hint about the social problems and environmental conscience. The iguana is not a monster as reader may suggest, it is a symbol of human relationships within different classes and communities in the natural world.

Being the main hero of the story, the iguana is an image of the oppression which can be taken away only with a help of the young Italian count who is ready to die in order to save the iguanas life (Ortese 163). The iguana being cherished once later becomes abandoned and identified with its evil essence. However, intrinsically this creature is not an evil. The counts sacrifice as a symbol of the best characteristics is a hope on the future progress of the civilization.

The reality and dreams cooperate into the creation of the fantastic woman hybrid. Perhaps, it can be difficult for a reader to understand the whole meaning of the story. Was it an iguana who transformed into the human being, or it was a human who became a reptilian?

Nevertheless, this story can be called the social and, moreover, ecological fairy tale which brings disappointment. The count dies and doesnt realize his dream to involve and integrate the beast into a society where love to the creatures and nature has been forgotten. Ortese says that anyone whom God has given a fate of continuous encounters with Evil has been dealt a terrible blow (92).

Describing the picture of monsters and hybrids, Primo Levi and Anna Ortese use the imagination which suggests readers to set thinking about the real monsters of the society. The beasts of the stories are only the allusions of the mankind which turns the evolution into degeneration.

It is obvious that the way of perception of the both authors changed due to the horrible events of the World War II and postwar reality. The War destabilized the socio-cultural life of the Europe. The history of Jewish nation influenced the perception of Levi which has been reflected in his stories about the beasts.

Monsters of the stories suffer as well as the people undergo the troubles. Primo Levi and Anna Ortese insist upon the existence of the monsters. However, they are too few and not dangerous as the monsters among the human beings. The abandoned beats and hybrids are only the symbol of the lost people in the postwar reality. Using the collective memory and ancient myths, the authors seek for an understanding of the numerous problems by the society.

Works Cited

Levi, Primo. The Search for Roots: A Personal Anthology. UK: Penguin Group, 2001. Print.

Nicholas, Patruno. Undestending Primo Levi. US: The University of South Carolina, 1995. Print.

Ortese, Anna Maria. The Iguana. US: McPherson, 1987. Print.

Introduction

In this article, Wertsch seeks to give insight into the implications ofBahktinsunique ideas on Vygotskian approach to mediated action.

While Bahktin still recognizes and acknowledges the centrality of meaning to the socio-cultural approach to mediated action, unlike most semiotic analyses that have mainly focused on the nature of formal structure central in most contemporary linguistics, Bahktin and Vygotsky, in line with the Russian tradition of prioritizing semantics also focuses on how language and other semiotic structures can be used to produce meaning and how that meaning shapeshuman response/ action(Wertsch 222).

Deviating from the two arguments that individuals own meaning and that nobody owns meaning, Bakhtin seems to take the seemingly middle ground that individuals, in using language, only rent meaning. That a speaker can only mean what he says indirectly by taking words and giving them back to the audience in accordance with the protocols of dialogue; meaning therefore belongs to a group of people and not to an individual (Wertsch 223).

Discussion

Wertsch then proceeds to present the implications of Bahktian theory in the ways that this theory differs from the rest in its approach to meaning. These he discusses under three key concepts:

Rejecting the disengaged self and the atomism tied to it.Bahktin, like Charles Taylor, disputes the atomism attached to claims of the disengaged self which states that the individual is metaphysically independent of society (Wertsch 225).

He reflects this stand in his attempt to answer the question Who is doing the talking?

Bahktin rejects the idea that an isolated individual can create an utterance and meaning. A kind of interference or subordination, Bahktin argues, is inherent in any utterance and meaning, this is especially evident in ventriloquation; that never is the creation of an utterance and meaning attributable solely to a voice. The voice is precluded by the fact that the word half-belongs to someone else as claimed by Bahktin. The very process of speaking therefore precludes any claims of atomism (Wertsch 224).

Recognizing a dialogic and a univocal function of text.Here, Bahktin seems to argue against the mathematical information theory which views the transmission of information as unidirectional, i.e.directly from the speaker to the listener. Bahktins perspective does not agree with the perceived passiveness of the listener, this model downplays the need for the listener to voice his response as key to their understanding (Wertsch 226).

Bahktins perspective also seems to dispute the perceived singularity of meaning in this model; that there is only one meaning that can be achieved as reflected in the unidirectional heading of the arrows in the diagrammatic illustration of this model (Wertsch 226).

Recognizing the authority tied to text.Here, Wertsch discusses how Bahktin distinguishes authoritative from internally persuasive discourses(Wertsch 226). Bahktindescribes the authoritative word as that which does not permitdebate or dialogue of any kind. Authoritative words are dead and static and are meant to be accepted or rejected as they are and not to be modified (e.g. religion, teachers word, etc) (Wertsch 226).

On the other hand,internally persuasive words provoke thought and can be interpreted and modified as one wishes. They are said to bear dynamic tension andtherefore provoke dialogue. And since they bear dynamic tension, persuasive words are linked to sociocultural contexts (Wertsch 226).

Conclusion

In conclusion, Wertsch illustrates and coordinates his comments on the three implications of Bahktins theory.

Works Cited

Wertsch, James. Voices of the Mind: A Sociocultural Aproach to Mediated Action.London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.1990. Print.

Introduction

One of those things that were created to establish the world peace yet constantly provokes conflicts, religion has never been an easy discussion topic. Unlike one might have thought, the key problem is not only that the postulates of certain religions conflict with each other; in addition, the misconceptions within the adepts of a specific confession lead to numerous problems.

Adding several personal issues that one can possibly encounter during ones own religious experience, one will get a concise portrait of the religious situation in the world in general and within the United States in particular.

However, some of the core religious problems in the modern American society can and must be solved; according to American grace: How religion divides and unites us, the book written by Putnam and Campbell, certain religious issues both on the individual and social scale have the solution. Analyzing the impact that the church and religion have on the American society, the authors decide whether faith offers solutions or contributes to conflict fomentation (Chaves, 2011).

Speaking of the genre of the given work, one must note that the book combines the elements of several genres. To be more exact, American grace: How religion divides and unites us, on the one hand, can be considered a science book, since it offers specific political, social and religious issues to a much wider audience.

However, the given work can also be considered a research paper, since it provides a hypothesis and attempts to prove the given hypothesis right. Finally, American grace: How religion divides and unites us helps the readers dive into the depth of the American history. Blurring the line between different genres, the authors stir the reader towards a conscious evaluation of the role that religion plays in the contemporary society.

The Authors and Their Methods

As it has been stated above, the key topic that the authors of the book focus on is the ways in which religion shapes the contemporary society and the changes that religion brings. However, as it has been stated before, the authors do not avoid taking a historical retrospective into the development of the American religious landscape.

Stressing the fact that the current religious backdrop of the American society is extremely diverse, the authors dwell on the changes that the religious society has undergone for the sake of maintaining tolerance and democracy and touch upon such issues as interfaith or same-sex marriage, etc.

Moreover, Putnam and Campbell take a closer look at the process of a religious identity shaping. Hence, the thesis statement that the given work revolves around can be summarized in the following way: despite the years of misunderstanding and misconceptions between the representatives of different religions in the USA, with the help of tolerant attitudes, religious misunderstandings are long gone.

In addition, with the help of their research, Putnam and Campbell seem to have been working towards encouraging more people to display tolerance towards other religions and religious traditions, therefore, spreading religious tolerance not only in the United States, but also all over the world.

Key Findings: Analysis

Along with the above-mentioned conclusion, Putnam and Campbell have offered a number of other peculiar research results. Despite the fact that the levels of tolerance have risen all over the country, there is still a significant amount of instances of intolerance in the United States. As the authors of the book claim,

93 percent of Americans believe America is divided along racial lines; 96 percent see divisions along economic lines; 97 percent say the country is divided along political lines (Putnam & Campbell, 2010, 516). Therefore, the religious conflicts as the reason for the citizens of the country to be separated are rarely taken into consideration, which might be the sign that the religious issues have, indeed, become the thing of the past.

Though the given point of view is rather disputable, the statistical data still shows that people do not witness many conflicts spawned by the religious issues or misunderstandings in the sphere of religion (Leiter, 2012).

Another peculiar conclusion that the authors drive and that gives a lot of food of thoughts is the fact that religion in the United States has gained a specific civic status (Gill, 2012).

Discussing the issue of religious diversity in the United States, Putnam and Campbell also bring up a very interesting and somewhat unsettling idea concerning peoples perception of religious diversity. According to the authors of the book, some people might actually not perceive the idea of religious tolerance, while fearing to display their disagreement.

A Putnam and Campbell explain, one can hardly dare to show lack of tolerance and the unwillingness to accept other peoples beliefs; however, deep inside, people might still refuse to put up with the fact that the ideas taken from other religions are manifested openly: Who would dare admit that they are uncomfortable with diversity of any sort? (Putnam & Campbell, 2010, 521).

Another result of Putnam and Campbells study that should be mentioned is the fact that there has recently been a tendency in the U. S. for people to change their religion; moreover, those who changed their religious beliefs also tried to convert their family members and friends into the new faith. As Putnam and Campbell commented, Religious churn means that many Americans change religions, thus introducing family and friends to their new faith (Putnam & Campbell, 2010, 523-524).

The fact that the people who change their religion try to convert the others means that the boundaries between various religions become blurred, which, in its turn, contributes to more tolerance towards different beliefs. All in all, the facts that Putnam and Campbell have offered to their readers seem to show the tendency in the American society to solve emerging religious misconceptions in a civilized manner, which has also been noted in other papers recently (Einstein, 2008).

In Search for the Truth

Evaluating the results of the research conducted by Putnam and Campbell, one should consider the methods that the authors resorted to in order to come up with the stunning results mentioned above. It is necessary to mention that the authors of the book conducted a thorough historical research, gathering the facts concerning the changes in the moods towards religion within the American society over the past several decades.

For example, Putnam and Campbell mention that in 1960, presidential candidate John F. Kennedy had to reassure Protestants that they could safely vote for a Catholic (Putnam and Campbell, 2010, 2).

With the help of historical evidence, the authors of American grace: How religion divides and unites us managed to address the attitudes that the American society has been displaying over the past few decades towards religious issues in general and religious diversity in particular.

In addition, Putnam and Campbell reasonably offered statistical data in their research, which meant that opinion polls and questionnaires were also used in the process of book creation. The aforementioned says that the authors approached a topical problem and considered the exact issues that have been on agenda of the American society for quite long.

Conclusion

Putnam and Campbell definitely should be given credit for their extensive and all-embracing work; however, it seems that certain issues could have been addressed in a different way, which would have made the book more engaging. First, it is necessary to mention that Putnam and Campbell devote only one chapter of their study to such an important issue as the relationships between politics and religion.

Thus, the authors lose the opportunity to compare the impact of two most powerful tools of controlling people, which is rather sad. Another important issue that is worth bringing up is that even in the present-day American society, religious conflicts are still a part and parcel of everyday reality, while the authors claim that the American population has reached the state of tolerance towards all kinds of religion.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the arguments offered by Putnam and Campbell in American grace: How religion divides and unites us are quite legit. Even though some points mentioned above raise questions concerning the veracity of the data that the authors provide, overall, this is a decent work with interesting conclusions.

Explaining how religion works in society, what function it performs and what place it takes in the life of an average American, Putnam and Campbell answer the questions that many people ask, which defines the book significance.

Reference List

Chaves, M. (2011). American religion: Contemporary trends. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Einstein, M. A. (2008). Religion and the politics of tolerance: How Christianity builds democracy. Waco, TX: Baylor University Press.

Gill, R. (2012). Theology in a social context. Vol. 1. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company.

Leiter, B. (2012). Why tolerate religion? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Putnam, R. D., & Campbell, D. E. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Water for Elephants is an account by Sara Gruen that details various aspects of life as captured through Jacob Jankowski, a septuagenarian living in a nursing home. The story shows how Jacob, was orphaned at a young age during the Great Depression and later jumps on to a circus train by chance.

He begins taking part in circuses which involve animals, performers and other misfits. He says,  theres no dismounting without going under the train Im sure Im going to lose it. They tour different towns to perform. Jacob is deprived of his parentage when he learns that his parents have died in a road accident. He has to face life on his own as an orphan.

The Garden Party by Katherine Mansfield shows the education that Laura, a girl from a well to do family has to go through as dictated by norms in her social class. The short story details the experiences of Laura with the co workers she has been left to manage because her family wishes to host a garden party.

Laura is given leadership responsibilities that she has never held before and this makes her nervous. Her experience is similar to what Jacob went through when he jumped on a train by chance to become a vet of circus animals. Laura has to be more accountable to her parents who have high expectations of her.

Jacob has to adapt from the life he has been accustomed to in an Ivy League university to face a future without his parents. His skills as a vet help him to acquire a chance to work with animals which opens his eyes to the world outside his school and home. Jacob gets acquainted with the lead trainer, August and his wife Marlena.

August is cruel to animals in the circus. However, Jacobs deep emotional feelings cause problems after he falls in love with Marlena, Augusts wife. This affair causes Marlena to split with August, an issue that affects the working environment on the circus train. Jacob and the love triangle that he is caught up in, shows the true extent of his passion, which drives him to fall in love with another mans wife.

Laura comes from a family that values its high social status over anything else. Her lifes outlook is strongly influenced by what her parents have taught her. She has to follow class distinctions that her parents observe strictly. Her high social class attitudes influence how she relates with other people. Her parents expect her to interact with people who come from a high social class, similar to theirs.

She however fails to follow the traits and snobbish attitudes of her parents when dealing with workmen hired to work in her home. This is shown when she lets a worker place the marquee where he feels it would look good even after she objects to it. The workman remarks in a cheeky way, &.where itll give you a bang slap in the eye. This shows that she interacts well with people irrespective of their social status or backgrounds.

Jacob has to choose between his love for Marlena and the compassion he has for his circus colleagues, as ordered by his boss, Uncle Al. Uncle Al asks him to convince Marlena to come back or else Walter and Camel will be thrown off the train. His love for Marlena grows, and she gets pregnant with Jacobs baby. Uncle Al is shown as a conniving man, who uses those who work for him to benefit himself. Jacob has a close relationship with the circus animals because of the way he cares for them.

Workers who had been thrown off the train, join forces and attack it. They later release the animals from Uncle Al and Augusts cruelty. Jacob and Marlena start their life together as a couple, after August is killed by an elephant in the circus. Jacob manages to come up with an effective way to reach out to Rosie, an elephant that shows resistance during training.

Laura cares about people outside her social class which is shown by her reaction when she receives news that their neighbor has died. Their neighbor, Mr. Scott dies in an accident while driving his cart. Mr. Sheridan and his family scoff at Lauras suggestion that the Garden Party should not be held, in respect to the memory of their deceased neighbor. Her mother puts it bluntly when she retorts, People like that dont expect sacrifices from us.

This shows how Mrs. Sheridan and her family value their own social status more than anything else. Laura is later sent to deliver a basket of sandwiches and pastries which had remained after the party, to their bereaved neighbors family. She is able to meet the family of the deceased and offers her condolences to them.

Jacobs involvement in the story shows his ability to form strong relationships with others. He manages to stay close to his circus colleagues even though his boss is harsh on them. Third person narration has been used in Lauras story to reveal more about her and people she interacts with.

Lauras thoughts and actions form the basis of the story. She manages to show how race and social attachments played crucial roles in the lives of many people in the 1920s. She also shows how social status has very little value in death. When she interacts with her bereaved neighbors, she begins to appreciate the value of life in all its forms. She manages to overcome stereotypes that influence how people of different social and racial backgrounds interact with each other.

The plot comes to the present and shows Jacob, waiting to be taken to watch the circus by one of his sons. He has been married to Marlena and they managed to give birth to five children. Jacob, in the story shows that, it is possible to overcome difficult circumstances if you have the passion to do so.

He fulfilled his dream of working with animals later on when he joined another circus, before being employed as a vet in a zoo. Jacobs manages to sustain strong relationships with animals and his family even though he was isolated as an orphan. Jacob helps the weak under his care to get a better life. He frees Marlena from her marriage with August and also manages to free the circus animals that were being brutalized on the train.

In conclusion, the two stories show the sacrifices people make to fit in a particular society. Jacob is able to make a positive life for himself even after the death of his parents. Laura manages to change her condescension of people with low social status.

Problem identification and research question

Charles Bukowski was an American writer born in the year 1920 and died in the year 1994 (Bukowski & David 2). Owing to his lifestyle, he was often referred to as a dirty old man.

A deeper analysis of his writings reveals that Bukowski was a social critic who sought to criticize and challenge the American cultural and social normalcy. By illustrating much of his life in his writings, he managed to dramatize the oppressiveness in the workplaces, controversial facets of traditional masculinity, and the elites perceptions of arts and academia.

As compared to other American writers of his time, Bukowskis writings are notable because his ideas and thoughts contradicted with what other writers upheld dearly. In general, his writings were presented in vulgar form. This proposal paper focuses specifically on the personality of Bukowski.

Through these studies, several researches will be done to bring into light a comprehensive synopsis of the life and work of this fascinating man.

As such, the following research questions will be answered: Are the stories written about the personality of Bukowski true? Did the writers personality influence his writings? Did the writers early background influence the way he expressed his writings? Several bibliographies assert that Bukowski underwent through suffering and neglect as a child and later rose to be one of the most celebrated critic writers of the 20^th century.

In this regard, the proposal papers objective is to investigate the validity of the above claim. Likewise, the research paper will comprehensively cover on the areas unaddressed by the previous researches.

Literature review

Bukowski grew up in Los Angeles with his abusive parents. It is believed that his writing career was influenced by his dysfunctional relationships with his parents. As a teenager, his father beat him severally turning him into a social misfit. After one year in college, he dropped out to become a writer.

However, his writing career was frustrated by the lack of sufficient funds. As a youth, Bukowski found himself drifting from one job to another. Later on, he concentrated on writing and wrote several poems, short stories, and novels (Martin 4). Literature critics assert that his work was greatly influenced by his personality and the environment of Los Angeles. From his writings, one can note that Bukowskis writings focus on poverty, authoritativeness, alcohol, workplace challenges, and associations with women.

Out of these topics, two interrelated themes can be identified. The writers main theme has been advanced through a persona named Chinaski in most of his writings (Charlson 23). Through Chinaskis character, Bukowskis hatred for the authorities is illustrated. Similarly, through the same character the writer criticizes the authorities for abusing and fooling the common people.

Research methods

To find the answers to the research questions and achieve the objectives of the research paper, a comprehensive case study needs to be conducted on the personality of Bukowski. Through the case study, his relatives, fellow writers, literature critics, and magazine editors are to be interviewed.

Likewise, to obtain comprehensive results the case study must analyze data from different sources. In this regard, researches have to make use of academic journals, Bukowskis books, related literature, and Bukowskis website. By doing so, the case study will collect several views on the writers experiences. In addition, the case study will enable the researchers to identify whether the existing literature and perceptions focusing on the writers life are accurate.

Works Cited

Bukowski, Charles, and David Stephen Calonne. Charles Bukowski: portions from a wine stained notebook : uncollected stories and essays, 1944-1990. San Francisco: City Lights, 2008. Print.

Charlson, David. Charles Bukowski: autobiographer, gender critic, iconoclast. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford, 2005. Print.

Martin, John. The pleasures of the damned: poems, 1951-1993. New York: Ecco, 2007. Print.

In the story, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Friedrich develops a controversial character by the name Zarathustra. The character introduces his ideologies to members of his community upon returning from self-imposed exile in the wilderness. The concepts presented in the story reflect Friedrichs personal beliefs and revolutionary ideas, especially on the ability to differentiate between good and evil.

In the story, Zarathustra takes the role of a reformed and enlightened philosopher, who after having stayed in the wilderness for ten years, gains knowledge about morality, ethics and best practices recommended for all people. The paper makes an analysis of Zarathustras claims and ideologies, their implications towards conventional religions, and controversies surrounding his moral definitions.

One of the significant elements asserted by Zarathustra is overman, a perfect state of being, which lies past the state of man. In his analysis, Zarathustra claims that man lies between the overman and the animal state, but the overman state is only achieved through desisting from all evil practices.

In his advocacy for the overman, Zarathustra makes it clear that God is already dead and the only state within which humans should aspire to achieve is the overman. His claim that God is dead does not make him an atheist per se. In fact, he makes it clear that it is the lurking atheism, mediocrity and democracy in the world that he fears. Through his analysis of infinite time that holds finite matter, he fears the eternal recurrence, which he attributes to decadence in morality.

Zarathustra is very specific about the contribution of religion to mediocrity, meekness and weak virtues. According to his newfound belief, religion promotes ideas that are not consistent with life, since it emphasizes on the existence of spirits and afterlife.

Zarathustra claims that moral uprightness must be consistent with life dimensions and support the values and virtues within the understanding of man. Issues that go contrary to common life dimensions hinder humans from becoming an overman, a process that takes places in three stages.

One of the first stages towards achieving the overman state requires total and harsh self-discipline, coupled by renouncing of all forms of comfort like a camel does. Through self-discipline, humans generate resilience to differentiate between good and evil.

The second stage requires humanity to declare their freedom boldly as the lion does, in order to enter the last stage of creativity and innocence of a child. Having successfully passed these three stages, Zarathustra claims that humans become overmen, with freedom and authority to set up personal values and live a perfect life.

Zarathustra argues against religion, and in one instance, he cites three issues, which are highly condemned in most religions and especially Christianity, his most referenced religion. In his analysis of morally justified issues, Zarathustra cites sex, power and selfishness, and gives controversial statements in support of his controversial selection.

Based on his newfound doctrine, Zarathustra claims that these three issues provide humanity with unconditioned satisfaction. It is within these three issues that humans generate the will to live, to co-exist with each other, and to evaluate their personal success.

The story brings about a revolutionary approach to life by provoking social and moral limits of achieving personal goals. By using Zarathustras statements, Friedrich brings into focus the implication of beliefs and practices in realizing a satisfactory life. Although the author seems to satirically, refer to and match Zarathustra with Christianity excerpts, like Jesus in the wilderness for forty days, and the last supper, he seems troubled by the lurking spiritless eternal recurrence.

Introduction

Robert Putnam is currently a professor of public policy at the Harvard University (Cullen, 2011). David Campbell is presently employed at the university of Notre Dame as a professor in the department of political science (Cullen, 2011). Both the authors of this book are experienced writers who are well known for their literary works. Since both of them are social scientists, most of their books are based on societal analyses (Cullen, 2011).

At the time when this book was published, there were many controversies in religious practices in America. For instance, there were noticeable killings that were associated with religious conflicts (Alba, Raboteau & DeWind, 2009). Therefore, this book is relevant in addressing the concept of religion in Americas society as well as the increased tensions between different religious followers such as the Christians and Muslims.

Authors findings on the American religion

Most of the Americans are deeply religious. The continent has several religions. Most of these religions are amazingly tolerant to one another. In recent years, the religious setting of the United States has undergone tremendous changes (Alba, Raboteau & DeWind, 2009). Robert Putnam and David Campbell acknowledge that these changes have been instrumental in shaping the modern society. They associate these changes with three major events in the American history.

These are the crashing down of religious adherence in the 1960s, the rise of religious rights and evangelism in the 1970s and the relaxed manner of practicing religion by the young generation of the 1990s. This has increased religious polarization in America according to Putnam and Campbell.

The authors are also quite categorical in analyzing the question of Islams position in American religious practices. Christians believe in peaceful coexistence, while Muslims are perceived to be radical in nature (Alba, Raboteau & DeWind, 2009). The current events whereby Christians are attacked by Muslims have illuminated the modern threats facing Christianity.

Moreover, Protestants have perceived the Roman Catholics as religious misfits for a considerably long period of time. For example, the destruction of the Massachusetts convent and the civil unrests in Philadelphia that resulted into scores of deaths symbolized the religious struggles between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics in the 19^th century.

However, the current situation is completely different. The Catholics and the Protestants coexist peacefully (Hemeyer, 2009). Putnam and Campbell assert how the two groups attained commonality. They highlight how any form of reciprocated fear, suspicion, and hostility may give way to tolerance and harmony. The manner in which the two authors offer an explanation to religious differences is quite interesting towards understanding the future of the Americas religious cohesion.

Besides, some of the methods used to dispatch information in this book include graphical records and narratives. The latter are highly influential and analytical tools in the study of the Americas religious practices. The book analyses the power of the modern evangelistic churches using the first person narrations.

The topic covered by this book is rather dynamic bearing in mind that it offers information on the roles of religion, ethnicity, gender, and class. Civic engagements between these groups are also addressed by the authors in this book. Nevertheless, the dominant theme on the divisive and unifying nature of religion is still central throughout the plot of the book.

Putnam and Campbell critically analyze the past 60 years. They expound the divisions that were available by that time and how they were wiped out of existence with the passage of time. The Protestants and Catholics discouraged intermarriage between the two groups during the 1960s.

In addition, the Protestants did not spare president, John F. Kennedy of the cynicism. Currently, the Catholics and the Protestants are so intermingled and united that they group themselves together claiming to be on the same team as Christians. However, Christians from the olden days are still more conservative than the current generation of believers. They are opposed to the current changes in social issues.

Putnam and Campbell suggest that in the present century, political divisions are based on the religious level of an individual. As such, denomination is not a major area of concern. The major divisions among Christians in the United States is based on the mainstream Catholics and protestants against those who have classified themselves as the liberal Catholics and protestants. This has lead to a dilemma.

The religious discipleship has become a family of Christians in the United States. Why are the Muslims not included in this large family? Instances such as the 9/11 terror attacks, burning of the Koran by an evangelist and politicians using evangelists to threaten Muslims are some of cases that illustrate the growing disparity between Christians and Muslims.

Authors Conclusions on Findings

Putnam and Campbell attempt to resolve this predicament in the last chapters of the book. A detailed account of the observations made in the introductory chapters is given. The tolerance levels of Americas religious practices are revisited. According to Hemeyer (2009), the American religious practices are very flexible.

They can compromise their doctrines to fit any circumstance provided that they avoid tensions between different religious practices. A typical example is a belief system by most American Christians that a non-believer can go to heaven. This type of belief is completely against Biblical teachings.

Putnam and Campbell also discuss the current arrogance against Muslim. They describe it as a norm that is rapidly being assimilated by Christians. The friendship between the American people is not dependent on the religious inclination. In fact, every American has more than one friend from different religious beliefs.

They also have family members with different religious backgrounds. These close ties have made the Americans to relax the strict application of the Biblical doctrines. They do not want to harm friendship or family ties by invoking the heaven and heal principle of most religions. Adoption of these unfamiliar beliefs has completely changed the way religion is practiced in America.

Putnam and Campbell assert that the Americans want to maintain peaceful coexistence. Therefore, they are forced to tolerate one another. In order to prove some of these latest religious developments, the authors conducted variety of surveys in large group of conservative communities. They found out that most Americans prefer a friendship based on common religious grounds. This implies that they are often compelled to tolerate one another.

Another major issue analyzed by the authors is the neglected influence of minority religions in the American society (Hemeyer, 2009). Muslims, Buddhists, and Mormons do not have a lot of effect on the social issues in America. The number of followers of these religions is so insignificant that they are perceived to be inconsequential. They do not affect interactions among the American people.

Nonetheless, Muslims still have more religious challenges compared to the other minority religions in America. The pronounced negative publicity of Islam in the media has complicated the way most Americans perceive Islam. This explains why the survey revealed a different opinion from the evangelists concerning Muslims going to heaven. The positive relationship between Islam and black evangelists was attributed to the idea that most Muslims in the United States are African Americans.

In terms of the social theory, the authors conclude that there are myriads of factors that determine social contact between different religious groups in the United States. They note a factor such as shared goals in their effort to explain what brings these groups together. In the case of Muslims, the authors appreciate the levels of acquaintances with Christians. The tension between the two groups is associated with lack of physical contact between them.

The Significance of This Sociological Approach to American Religion

Religious strife has been explained using two schools of thought namely the essentialists and the optimists (Hemeyer, 2009). The essentialists base their arguments on the character of a religious movement that is defined by the doctrines, scriptures, and theology. Religious conflicts are thus seen to be enduring and deep-seated.

The optimists on the other hand, believe that minor problems fuel the religious conflicts. Issues such as insecurities and economic struggles have been known to fuel the differences (Hemeyer, 2009). Putnam and Campbell are closer to the arguments of the optimists. They display the liquefied nature the religious principles, their flexibility and response to political and social context.

Although this argument goes against the subtitle of the book, it offers the reader a conclusion that religion does not divide America. The books significance is of great importance in bridging the gaps created between people due to religious differences.

It is an informative book that can be used to enhance understanding of the current American society. Furthermore, the book informs the reader how religion in American society has influenced social wellbeing and co-existence of people and how it has developed to be part and parcel of the national culture.

References

Alba, R. D., Raboteau, A. J. & DeWind, J. (2009). Immigration and Religion in America: Comparative and Historical Perspectives New York, NY: NYU Press.

Cullen, J. (2011). American Grace, How Religion Divides and Unites Us: book review. Web.

Hemeyer, J. C. (2009). Religion in America. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Putnam, R. & Campbell, D. (2010). American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us. New York: Simon & Schuster.

The Hook

This is a contemporary legend transmission because it lacks supernatural elements within its contents, and shows how various threats invade our space. Similarly, it shows how people are anxious about boundary issues. It qualifies as a contemporary legend because it has been in circulation in recent times and reflects the cultural reality of adolescents during that period.

Over the years, this story has been told and retold by different people. There are various versions of the story but the moral of the stories remain the same. In contemporary legends, women are often depicted as being vulnerable and weak, while the men are portrayed as the villains or heroes. These characteristics are present in this story and classify it as a contemporary legend.

Screaming Jenny

As is with most contemporary legends, this story has anxiety as its backbone. It preys on the readers fear for the unexplained and warns of a danger that lurks even in places we think are safe. Similarly, the authenticity of the story is not determined and the story has been retold many times over the recent years.

The fact that the location of the incident exists in reality gives the reader the illusion that the story could be true. This is a characteristic of a contemporary legend. In addition, the woman (Jenny) is portrayed as a weak and vulnerable character who even after dying comes back as a ghost in pursuit of rescuing from men (the heroes/Villains).

Army of the Dead

In this story, the laundress is portrayed as a victim of her own curiosity. Despite the stern warning from her husband, she simply cant leave well enough alone. As a result she ends up suffering the consequence of her disobedience. This story falls under the contemporary legend category because it has a moral (messing with the unexplained can lead to dire consequences), the laundress is depicted as a vulnerable and weak individual and the soldiers (army of the dead) are portrayed as heroes going to help win the war.

These characteristics make for a contemporary legend. The story preys on the readers fears by implying that there are consequences when one interferes with the supernatural. In addition, the story has been retold numerous times and there is no clear indication on whether it is true or false.

The Driverless Car

One for the main characteristics of a contemporary legend is that it lacks the origin/ source of the story. This can be evidenced from this particular story, which is narrated as a hear-say from a FOAF (friend of a friend). Secondly, it lacks supernatural elements and has eloquently shown how the events invade and threaten an individuals space, safety and security.

Additionally, this story depicts how a culture (carjacking and ghost stories) can influence an individuals perception in regard to what exists, and what he/she believe happens. Similarly, it has a twist in which the authenticity of the victims narration of the events are questioned after witnesses to the same occurrence walk into the cantina and dismiss the victims claims. These are among the characteristics that make the Driverless Car a contemporary legend.

The Clown Statue / The Clown Doll

This story is narrated as a hear-say. The source is not identified and there are no specific details leading to the occurrence. It focusses on the fears of teenaged baby-sitters who are paranoid about the presence of uninvited predators lurking in the dark as they wait for the opportune time to attack.

Similar to most contemporary legends, this story portrays the baby-sitter as a weak and vulnerable woman whose space, safety and security are threatened. In addition, the man (in this case, the clown midget) is portrayed as the villain. On the same note, it lacks a supernatural element to it.

The story reflects on the culture that baby-sitters are often attacked especially in big houses by unknown assailants and that parents fail to believe their children even when they are in fact telling the truth. These are some of the characteristics that make this story a contemporary legend.

The Legend of the Pearl

This story explains the origin of the pearl. It gives a detailed description of how pearls came to be. It qualifies as a contemporary legend because the source is not identified and there are no specific details about how the situation came to be. The butterfly and the shell are given human emotions to support the plausibility of the story.

On the same note, this story lacks supernatural elements and focuses on the culture of love. It shows that there is happiness and sadness where love can no longer be found. The story is a classic representation of the complexities of love. These are among the characteristics that make it a contemporary legend.

The pearl is a symbol of the virtuous nature of love that can be experienced in todays society. The use of a butterfly and a shell symbolizes todays love culture, which goes beyond racial, ethnic and tribal differences.

The Legend of the Fir-tree

This is a contemporary legend because it explains the origin of the Fir-tree and why it is used during the Christmas festivities. Like in most contemporary legends, the woman is portrayed as vulnerable and weak individual while the man is depicted as the hero who sets out to save the damsel in distress during her time of need. On the same note, there is no indication on whether or not this story is true.

In addition, the source, location and details of the contents of the story are not given. The story focuses on the culture of togetherness during the festive season and shows that as long as we have the Fir-tree in our homes, we are not alone. These are some of the characteristics that make this story a contemporary legend.

The Body in the Bed

This is a contemporary legend because it lacks main details about where the events of the occurrences happened and who witnessed it. In as much as the location is revealed, the story does not have enough evidence to ascertain whether it is true or false. On the same note, the woman (the body) is portrayed as the victim while the man is depicted as the hero.

Similarly the story lack a supernatural element and is based on a hear-say. The story reflects on contemporary culture in which people believe that Las Vegas is where people can easily be killed and hidden without other people noticing. In addition, the story reflects on the dont-care attitude that people in todays society have towards each other.

Black Aggie

This story qualifies to be a contemporary legend because it seeks to discourage the youth against the dangers of hazing/pranking. This culture has been in existence for a very long time and though it is considered as a rite of passage it may have serious negative implications on an individuals life.

As is with most contemporary legends, this story does not have a source of origin or evidence to substantiate its validity. Similarly, it shows how the unknown threatens an individuals safety, space and security. The moral of the story is that individuals may face serious consequences when they interfere with the unknown.

It seeks to discourage young people from playing dangerous games in sacred grounds. In addition, the story targets the readers fear of the dead especially so in cemeteries. The storys ability to reflect on a popular culture and imply consequences from undesirable actions are among the characteristics that make it a contemporary legend.

Bear Lake Monster

One of the factors that make this story a contemporary legend is that it has been retold several times in different variations. It has a supernatural element that seeks to elicit fear in the mind of the reader and audience in regard to the dangers that lurk around Bear Lake.

The story seeks to warn people against swimming in Bear Lake alone. In addition, the story focuses on mystical beliefs held by people regarding supernatural creatures that prey on unknowing victims in places where they think they are safe. On the same note, the validity of the claims asserted by the story cannot be confirmed nor denied. These are among the various characteristics that make this story a contemporary legend.

Im coming down now!

This is a classic example of a contemporary legend. It focusses on the popular culture in which people believe in haunted houses all over the world. The content of the story seems believable but there are no facts to support the claims. Another factor that makes it a contemporary legend is that it is based on hear-say in which it is narrated from a FOAF (friend of a friend) perspective.

As such, the origin, location and details leading to the occurrence are not validated. Similarly, it shows how the unexplained threatens the space, security and safety of an individual. On the same note, it contains a supernatural element which is supposed to induce fear and anxiety in the minds if the readers. These are among the various characteristics that make this story a contemporary legend.

You cant get out!

This story is a mixture if dreadful perceptions and humor. The town drunk believes that he has met his doom and the devil has come to reclaim him for his wrong doings. This story reflects on the culture in which people believe that God will punish them for their wrong doings.

On the other hand, it is humorous in the sense that the town drunk misjudged the whole situation and panicked. The validity of the story is not ascertained. It has no supernatural elements and shows how an individuals perception or misconception regarding a situation may threaten his/her safety, space and security. In addition, it is narrated as a hear-say meaning that it may or may not be true. These are among the various characteristics that make this story a contemporary legend.

The Crying of Lot 49 is a postmodernist novel by Thomas Pynchon. Oedipa Maas as the main protagonist of the novel attempts to investigate a centuries-old conflict between the mail distribution companies by opening windows to the world beyond the known sun.

The narrative method used in The Crying of Lot 49 can be linked to a detective story, full of riddles, attempts to solve them and unexpected plot lines. Using a detective storytelling model was characteristic of postmodern novelists. From the opening episodes of the novel, readers are engaged into a detective-like search for the solution of the main puzzle. Oedipa Maas as the main protagonist of the novel acts as a detective investigating the case of centuries-old worldwide conspiracy.

The main character can be associated with the girl from the picture Encuentro by a Spanish-Mexican surrealist painter Remedios Varo. The girl in the picture is sitting in an empty room with a box on the table. A face similar to her own is looking into the girls eyes from the box.

The symbolic meaning of this box can be interpreted as the circumstances hiding the truth and answers to the main question surrounded with mystery. Lost in thoughts, the girl in Remedio Varos picture like Oedipa Maas from the Pynchons novel under consideration are searching to the answers for the mystery whereas the solution is closer than it might seem.

However, analyzing the role of mystery in the plot of The Crying of Lot 49, it can be stated that the effect of mystery is produced with the structure of the novel and the intersection of the main plot lines I it. There is no strict line between randomness and strict pattern in Pynchons novel which intensifies the impression produced upon the readers involved into the process of detective investigation.

Emerged into the investigation conducted by the main protagonist, readers as well as Oedipa herself are frequently unsure whether her findings can be true. Oedipa finds a lot of clues on her way, but frequently doubts their authenticity. As opposed to Varos surrealistic picture which does not claim for competing with reality, the plot of the novel under consideration depicts the absurdity of the world and can make readers to believe the author.

Oedipa asks herself: Shall I project a world? (Pynchon 82). This rhetoric question reflects the characters doubts regarding the authenticity of particular clues and evidence she finds in the course of her investigation. This uncertainty is inevitably shared by readers who question authenticity of the plot lines and the story of the conflict between the two mail distribution companies.

Regardless of the fact that the novelist provides detailed explanation on how the WASTE mail system was originated which sounds rather reasonable and realistic, readers are left without clear answers to their questions. Looking for the answer, Oedipa has to consider even more than three traditional dimensions: Now here was Oedipa, faced with a metaphor of God knew how many parts; more than two anyway.

With coincidences blossoming these days wherever she looked, she had nothing but a sound, a word, Tristero, to hold them toghether (Pynchon 109). Trying to find the basis for this metaphor, the main character frequently looses her connection with reality and tries to build more sophisticated mental bridges searching for the main answer.

Looking for the solution of the main riddle, the Oedipa tries to extend the limits of her perception to see the hidden worlds and hear the unheard music by opening windows to new dimensions. For instance, meeting a sailor, Oedipa opens a window to a dimension which cannot be expressed in spoken language, but is accessible only in vision.

She knew that the sailor had seen worlds no other man had seen (Pynchon 129). In this episode, the reasonable explanation is intersected with imagination and surreality depending upon the interpretation of the unknown worlds. On the one hand, a sailor could visit unknown lands during his traveling all over the world.

On the other hand, from the context, readers can understand that the unknown worlds are not only distanced from them, but also hidden on unusual levels of perception. Oedipa attempts to search for the answers beyond the well-known worlds and even to hear music made purely of Antarctic loneliness and fright (Pynchon 129). This metaphor which is based on the mix of traditional senses and perception clearly demonstrates the novelists attempts top extend the traditional boundaries of the three-dimensional world.

Despite of all the absurdity of the depicted world, the author provides logical reasoning for the most plot lines no matter how unrealistic they may sound. By preserving a particular pattern within all the chaos and mess of the plot lines and the levels on which they take place, Pynchon appeals to the minds of readers and allows them to draw their own conclusions whether the story is authentic or not.

By combining the elements of a detective narrative pattern and logical reasoning and depicting the absurdity of this world, Pynchon makes readers of his novel The Crying of the Lot 49 to doubt the authenticity of his story and the unknown worlds shown in it.

Works Cited

Pynchon, Thomas. The Crying of Lot 49. Harper Collins, 2009. Print.

Wheeler, Discovering the American Past, 35-56

Wheeler observed that a number factors forced individuals to migrate from their countries to the US. For instance, the Puritans were escaping from the Church of England, which claimed that each person had to exercise religion supported by the state.

Any person found exercising a contrary religion was subjected to pain and suffering in the form of torture. Some followers of Puritanism found out that in the US, an individual would exercise religion of his or her choice without being persecuted by the state. In England, the state was inseparable from the church.

This meant that it was mandatory for each individual to follow state laws because they were consistent with the laws of the church. The church had no power to prosecute an individual for exercising a different religion, but instead it used the state to punish its enemies. As Puritans settled in the US, they adopted a different culture, which was closely related to that of Calvinism. Calvinism was a religion that exercised protestant ethics.

It claimed that Catholicism was wicked, and the church had no right to pray for an individual. In this regard, an individual had to take the responsibility of ensuring that a prayer is made each morning. Moreover, Puritans who migrated to the US adopted the ideas of Marx Weber on division of labor and specialization. They believed that specialization would increase resources in society. However, they believed that efficiency was a prerequisite of specialization.

The author showed how cultural aspects change with time. He also showed how Protestantism developed through complex stages. From the above summary, it can be noted that people migrate not only because of economic, political, and social reasons, but also due to cultural reasons. Furthermore, it is noted from the summary that the American society has always tolerated various groups in society, irrespective of gender, religion, and country of origin.

Wheeler, Discovering the American Past, 57-81

The author observes that the US has always served as the land of opportunities to various settlers. In England, the author observes that parents sent their children to America to access opportunities that could not be accessed locally. The US served as the manufacturing zone for English factories and industries. All raw materials produced in the US were transported to England for processing.

The same products could be taken back to the US for marketing. In other words, the author notes that economic developments witnessed in England in the 17^th century owed much to the American agricultural system. Settlers could produce raw materials in the US and take them home for processing.

This resulted to unfavorable balance of trade, which created tension between colonizers and natives. However, the colonial government in the US used the iron fist to maintain peace and stability in the country. The author notes that the British government came up with some economic policies aimed at increasing production of raw materials. For instance, the government noted that security was extremely valuable in any manufacturing process. It was therefore the role of each governor to ensure that peace prevailed in each state.

Form the above summary, colonialists used a number of ways to develop empires. The locals were subjected to unfair treatment only to benefit whites. Slavery was made legal in various parts of the country because slaves were expected to provide cheap labor. However, the author notes that Britons did not find it easy to settle in some parts of the country, such as Virginia due to environmental challenges.

Wheeler, Discovering the American Past, 82-102

During colonialism, government security forces used excessive force to restore peace and order even in situations that demanded negotiations. Those affected in the encounter with the security forces never received justice because the government moved in to defend soldiers. A case is given where members of the public attacked the soldier due to his unruly behavior.

The soldier was overpowered to an extent of calling for reinforcement from the neighboring military barracks. On arrival, soldiers were also overwhelmed since members of the public were not in good terms with the government. Therefore, they were forced to use force as the only available option. A number of people died, and others were seriously injured. The soldier who caused the problem was to be charged in the court of law, but his case was delayed deliberately.

The author observes that the judge made a ruling in time, but the communication was delayed for several hours because the government was reluctant to act. It is always claimed that justice delayed is justice denied. Therefore, the people of Boston were denied their rights because the soldier could still walk free yet he had caused deaths.

From the above summary, it is noted that colonialists never cared about the plight of the natives. They could not put in place measures aimed at raising the standards of the poor. The people of Boston were angered by the government policy that allowed foreigners to own large tracts of land yet Bostonians were languishing in poverty. This was the main reason why people took the law into their hands.

The locals felt that the government served the interests of the colonialists. Therefore, they had to come up with their own administrative system, which employed mob justice as a form of punishment.

Equiano, Narrative, 15-247

The author explains the lives of slaves in the US and England. He starts by noting that people were often kidnapped, tortured, and ferried to new places. They could work as slaves without being provided with medication and enough food. In the first chapter, he describes the cultures and norms of his society. His society was a simple society that relied on subsistence agriculture for survival. Traditional aspects such as male chauvinism and respect for family values characterized life.

Those found proposing divorce were subjected to unfair treatment. They would easily be banished from the community. However, everything changed when immigrants settled in various parts of the village. The situation was worsened by the arrival of colonialists because people exchanged human beings with other commodities, such as money and farm produce.

In the second chapter, the author explains how society was corrupted to an extent of kidnapping people during the day. He was kidnapped together with his sister during the day. They were then taken to England to serve as slaves. The author explains that life was never normal because he was subjected to inhuman conditions, including being ferried in a container meant for goods.

In chapter three, he describes the nature of life in his new environment. He notes that life was so difficulty for foreigners yet foreigners enjoyed themselves in the US. This was an irony to him because Americans tolerated the existence of other people in their society.

In chapter four, he talks about his social life, including marriage and family life. However, he observes that marriage between different races was highly discouraged. Moreover, marriage ceremonies were conducted based on class and culture. Those with different cultures were not allowed to form any relationship that would lead to marriage.

In fact, marriage between slaves and the masters was considered an abomination. In the fifth chapter, the author talks about some of the injustices meted out to slaves in England. Slaves were treated in the same way as animals because they were expected to work for longer hours in farms. Any slave that complained would be treated brutally. In England, trespass was a serious crime that was punishable by death. It was believed that any slave who trespassed was trying to escape. Slaves could work even when it was raining.

A slave was somebody without a single right. At lunchtime, slaves could be given minimal time to eat poorly cooked food. This means that the health of slaves was never a concern to the masters. In other words, the food provided to slaves was meant to keep them alive, but not to sustain them. In the subsequent chapters, the author notes that natural calamities changed the attitudes of many masters.

For instance, the earthquake that took place in England transformed society. It weakened the economic capability of many producers. In fact, some masters lost their properties, forcing them to allow slaves to look for alternative sources of livelihood. For instance, the author was allowed to engage in trade.