Category: Literature

Pox Americana is a book by Elizabeth Fenn where she writes about small pox, its effects and spread across the North American continent. Small Pox was a very dangerous disease at that time. She describes small pox as the deadliest disease to have attacked the world. In her book, she writes about how she came face to face with the disease in the 1770s and 1780s.

Fenn uses the book to explain and even play an informatory role by explaining to people just what small pox was and its effects. Fenn believed that small pox was indeed the deadliest disease in the entire world.

She argues that the small pox outbreak affected America and humanity so badly that it could have actually changed or shaped history. The mortality rates were particularly high among Native Americans and Indians because they did not have prior experience with the disease and therefore lacked natural immunity. European invaders on the other hand are reported in the book to have got off more easily because they had prior exposure and some had lifetime immunity.

Fenn generally props up small pox as the deadliest disease in the world not even mentioning cancer and other known and more common killer diseases. In her book, Fenn explicitly looks at small pox, its effects and how its spread across America between 1775 and 1782.

Pox Americana as written by Fenn seeks to make it known to the reader the deadly impact small pox had on America. It affected thousands of Americans, Indians and even the invading Europeans in a way that left a stream of deaths that cannot be forgotten. Fenn details the characteristics of the deadly disease (small pox) in terms of outbreaks, infectiousness and severity.

Ms Fenn stresses how serious small pox was by pointing out that from the fourteen nineties to seventeen seventies as many as 23 small pox epidemics hit the North American continent. This was obviously a disturbing revelation. It was not until much later that the masters learned to quarantine the infected persons and prevent them from spreading the then deadly disease.

It was later discovered that cutting the skin and rubbing in matter obtained from the Variola virus, from persons who showed mild symptoms, could actually boost immunity to the destructive virus. This went a long way in curbing the then common deaths and gave some hope to the ailing that they could recover. Before this revelation, all the sick were abandoned by their relatives for fear of infection because they under the impression that their sick could never get better.

There are a couple of thoughts that Fenn brings out that are highly contested. One of the most heavily contested thoughts is that she describes small pox as the most dangerous or deadliest disease in the world. Critics argue that there are many other diseases in the world that affect people even more commonly than small pox which were not mentioned in the book. More common diseases like cancer, common cold and malaria were not mentioned as she talked about her supposed deadliest disease in the world in pox Americana.

It has also been argued that the numbers given in the book about how many people actually died were not confirmed anywhere. All the facts used by Fenn were not referenced or proven. Even Fenn herself was very frank about her methods terming them as speculative. The figures and charts used to show the mortality were therefore widely believed to be inaccurate and exaggerated.

Ms Fenns sources were mainly journal entries, testimonies; media report photos, some history records and mortality rate charts. These sources were however not properly backed up and Ms Fenn does not state anywhere in her text that they are indeed accurate

Ms Fenn first had her attention drawn to small pox when she was researching on an undergraduate essay on Indians in the Hudson Bay fur trade. It is then that she discovered the recurrence of small pox. The Horseman on the Roof by Jean Giono, is what inspired her to want to know more about small pox.

Ms Fenn then decided to try and revisit the small pox outbreaks and the grave effects they had on the North American population. She was to later learn that these epidemics occurred during the time of the American Revolution. Memories of small pox encounters were therefore more blurred because all this happened during a very defining moment in history; the American Revolution. However unnoticed these epidemics seemed, Ms Fenn found out that indeed these epidemics might have actually influenced history.

The small pox strategy during Washingtons invasion of Canada was abandoned when it emerged that it would have had a damaging effect on black slaves who had been nurtured by Britons to fight colonists. The blacks had no immunity because they did not have previous exposure and would have been devastated by the disease. If small pox had been used in that strife, then history would have been very different now because the entire black unit would have probably been wiped out in an unimaginable disaster.

It has been tricky to make any solid inferences on whether the American Revolution would have turned out any differently than it did because most of what small pox is seen to have stopped continually appears to have been inevitable anyway. It was however still quite a story to tell because Ms Fenn brings out some otherwise unappreciated facts about the nations founding fathers; they used humane methods to hold the armies together.

During the war for independence for instance, George Washington decided to have new army recruits inoculated. This is seen by Fenn to have been a very important and humane decision because it probably saved thousands of soldiers and the public population who were inevitably in contact with the soldiers on the move. The virus however eventually caught up with the war and Fenn writes, It executed an even more stunning maneuver and outflanked the war itself. (Fenn, 2001)

Ms Fenns story becomes even more compelling when she makes us realize that that was not the first time small pox had haunted us yet it still wreaked havoc each time it did. The readers, who include politicians and leaders, would therefore be a little more prepared to deal with another outbreak be it to civilians or in military action.

She reveals very important information on how the masters learned how to deal with small pox using tissue from patients showing mild symptoms. It is this very method that eventually developed and used to completely stamp out small pox years later.With regard to this subject, it can be safely concluded that Fenn brought out an aspect of history that would have otherwise never seen the light of day.

The 1775 to 1782 epidemic is yet another strong point by Fenn. She devotes about half of her text to the diseases trail of death all the way from Mexico, Canada, and Hudson Bay region up to Alaska. This kind of trace entailed a strong zest for knowledge, discovery and as Fenn Puts it studying events elsewhere on the continent which highlights the geographic and demographic gaps in our historical canon. (Fenn, 2001).

This kind of dedication and hard work is what really shows just how much this kind of contribution is important to society and other scholarly disciplines like History, Social Ethics and Medicine. Ms Fenn clearly understands that interdisciplinary research is the future of the world and goes ahead to pioneer in that respect. Historians, Medics, Politicians and philanthropists a like refer to her text for research and reflection purposes to date.

Ms Fenn also presents focus on the disease all through the lands, who spread it and how they spread it. Fenn reckons that the use of new weaponry including horses and other techniques introduced by Europeans could have enhanced the spread of small pox. Indians would carry the virus from their Great Plains residence, for instance, and spread it all over the places they travelled while trading, fighting or just horse riding.

Residents of the Great Plains are expressed to have done most of the spreading bit in the 1775 to 1782 epidemic. She does not however put blame on them but rather blames the increased interaction between the natives, Europeans and other traders. Colonization and missionary work further increased interaction between foreigners and the natives who had very limited or no knowledge at all of small pox.

Ms Fenn observed the diseases route right into the pacific North West while trying to establish the original culprits who brought the disease to North America. Russian fur traders and Spanish explorers had visited and interacted with the native North Americans but at that time there were no reported cases of small pox; it is therefore unlikely that they brought in the disease.

Fenn also rules out the thought that mariners might have conspired to release variola to finish the people after they had left. She fails to detect any signs of epidemics in their native ports and concludes that they could not possibly be the source of small pox. Establishing who might have brought or probably developed small pox was evidently a hard task. Fenn used all kind of methods to narrow down the list of culprits although she did not for sure credibly establish who transmitted it to North America.

Although widely believed to be inspired by public awareness on killer diseases like breast cancer and AIDS, researchers would have easily been inspired be Pox Americana to research more on epidemics that rocked the world in the past.

Diseases introduced by invaders or native diseases have wiped out almost all the non-indigenous populations. European invaders introduced fatal viruses while visiting missionaries in Africa, for example, were badly hit by tropical diseases like malaria. Military camps were more adversely affected by small pox because they were very crowded and offered easy means of transmitting the highly communicable disease.

In the book, Fenn does not imply a bed of roses for the native North Americans when invaders from Europe came in, but instead focuses on the bigger picture and doesnt even mention how British commanders attempted to start biological wars by trying to intentionally spread small pox. This would have been a very interesting and important subject especially at this time in history. Biological warfare is still controversial to date and this would have been a definite topic for fierce debate.

It is not clear in her text if there is any connection between the small pox outbreaks in the north and those experienced in the south and other parts of the American continent .She also does not touch on any trends in the outbreaks or infection rates in her text. It would then seem that maybe these outbursts had no relationship whatsoever or maybe she did not have enough knowledge and resources to trace the disease trends in order to report on this particular subject.

From the text as presented by Fenn, it surely can be concluded that small pox must have taken some part in how the American Revolution turned out. All these occurrences and the epidemic outbreaks that broke out before, during and after wars must have a changed something in history which would have definitely been otherwise written in the event that these outbreaks were absent.

Events such as deaths from small pox that wiped out entire wars even after the end of the wars must have had a significant impact on civilization and todays world. The ethics and morals displayed by the military leaders also brought out rich history in the text. Fenn therefore did a great job in not only reminding her readers of how much small pox terrorized the world but also sensitized researchers and historians on past and present epidemics.

References

Fenn, A. Elizabeth. (2001). Pox Americana. the Great Small Pox Epidemic of 1775- 82.NY: Hill and Wang.

In Not All Men Are Sly Foxes, which appeared in the Newsweek in 1992, Amin A. Brott asserts that most popular contemporary picture books have not given a fair idea of stereotypes.

He insists that most of these books describe mothers as the only real parents who take important family roles such as bringing up and taking care of children, while fathers as parents who take secondary roles, for example, going to work hence, their tendency of arriving home late. Because of these, he warns that chances of children forming the characters of the described fathers in the books are high, as most of them love reading such books.

The authors assertions about the influences of these childrens books are right, as most of them do not give a fair idea of stereotypes. Therefore, these books can provide children with a false notion of parents roles, as most children who read these fairy tale books are of a younger age hence, tend to copy what others say or do.

Although children do not necessarily remember all their childhood experiences, unconsciously most learned knowledge in ones childhood has immense effects on later life stages. For example, from my personal experience, the idea that girls should wear skirts and boys wear pants is an idea that people implicated in me in my childhood. Although this might be the case, presently, such a view is questionable.

However, although such held notions are questionable, currently, still most picture books show that girls are wearing pink skirts instead of blue pants. It is true I feel weird when I see a man wearing a skirt, because of the experiences that I learned in my childhood. This is a clear indication of the significance of what children see and learn in their youth.

According to Not all Men are Sly Foxes, the author states that the librarian gave me a list of the twenty most popular contemporary picture books& four portrayed fathers as less loving and caring as mothers&six of the remaining nine books mentioned or portrayed mothers as the only parent (Para 6). The author goes further to explain that, it is only three books in the entire list that gave an unbiased image of fathers and mothers.

It is clear here that, in the entire list of twenty books, it is only three books, which present the correct image of what children can copy, as these books play a crucial role of shaping childrens personalities. Therefore, for books to have a fair idea of stereotypes, it is essential for authors of any books to be careful when presenting different images of parents roles. Another example of a book, which the author states have a biased presentation of parents, is the Mother Goose and the Sly Fox.

Although this is one of his daughters favorite books, as the author states, The story is funny, and the illustrations are marvelous, but the unwritten message is that women take better care of their kids, while men have nothing else to do but hunt down and kill innocent and law-abiding geese (Par 4).

Because individuals tend to apply all learned concepts in any life scenario; likelihoods of these books implicating in children wrong ideas of stereotypes are high. To prevent such cases from occurring, it is important for parents to control what their children read and be careful when buying books for their children. Consequently, the writer gives very important information about the nature of implications fairy tale books can have on children, primarily as concerns wrong stereotypes about parents.

Show business manifests through myriad media formats and the recent spurt in radio talk shows and their wide local popularity has spurred the development of numerous FM stations all over the country. In order to grab the attention of the avid listeners, innovative and meticulously planned music as well as talk shows are planned, designed and executed keeping in mind the tastes and preferences of local audiences as well as the national stage, if the broadcast capabilities include such a framework.

Shock Jocks contribute substantially in the success of such programs with their witty comments and innovative utterances which stimulate anticipation as well as keen interest in the listeners. In the process local and national advertisers are able to push many of the products across to their customers through strategically placed audio ads which generate huge revenue for their respective companies.

A radio jockey has to keep in mind what to say and what not to according to the prevalent norms in the social setup he or she is operating in. Inadvertent or intentional slips of the tongue, though generating great interest can sometimes lead to serious trouble as demonstrated by the incident leading to the sacking of Don Imus from two of the major broadcasting radio stations, CBS and MSNBC (Clemmitt 1).

Slapstick comedy and shock comments are the essence of a successful radio jockey and on most occasions they get away with the most preposterous and ridiculous comments which serve to stimulate as well as titillate the humor bone of the listeners. But if certain limits are crossed, the very comments which appear innocuous at first can be interpreted in a different way altogether.

Imus, who already had a reputation for passing racial slurs, especially against the African-American community, was caught offhand on one such occasion while discussing the NCAA Womens Basketball Championship, in which he labeled the Rutgers University Womens Basketball Team members as nappy headed hos, largely due to their composition of the team, which was represented by all black team (Clemmitt 20).

Although he was quick enough to air an apology when he realized the gravity of his mistake, the comment sparked huge outcries which lead to severe condemnation and protests form African American organizations across America.

Imus was labeled a misogynist and this particular comment was widely published over the internet which strengthened the case against him (Clemmitt 20). The protests reached such a crescendo that the two major broadcasters he was working with had to stop the talk show and sack him permanently.

A controversy raged thereafter which attracted numerous comments from primarily African American celebrities and organizations as well political followers which included both the conservatives as well as liberals, who debated the applicability and enforcement of specific laws and regulations to prevent such incidents in the future.

Although the incident set up a precedent for sacking other jockeys due to their selectivity of slurs directed against particular ethnic communities, it was highly debated by supporters and fans of Imus, who were addicted to his inimitable style.

His supporters asserted that such slurs were common even within the African American populations and the vocabulary used was a product of their own hip-hop and Gangsta styles of music and living, in which women were labeled with insulting names, denigrating their position in society.

The supporters pleaded that if such labels are not considered insulting in music which is constantly being aired worldwide, why did the use of this particular phrase by Imus, despite his public apology, was used to annihilate him socially and professionally.

His fans believed that the termination of his program spelled a doom for the shock jock system of entertainment, whose foundation itself was based upon the value to elicit the elements of surprise and humor among the audiences. He is known for his satire and outrageous comments (Imus on MSNBC).

The detractors however built a crescendo of allegations against Imus due to the plethora of evidence of racial slurs associated with his performances which had denigrated to the level of insulting innocent, apparently admirable batch of young students who were representing their university team.

(Clemmitt 15-17) in her article has analyzed the issue incisively and presented the pros and cons related to the incident. She provides evidence from the American history during the past century which has numerous anecdotes and incidents of racial discrimination against the minorities, which need to be addressed by such punitive measures to discourage such misadventures in future.

The views and arguments put forth by prominent personalities from the Black world in America were instrumental in building the public opinion against Imus, which lead to his sacking. The author has nevertheless interspersed her article with comments from others who were concerned about the freedom of radio as an instrument for expression and entertainment, which they feel was under grave threat of being throttled, if regulatory authorities started directing and dictating the content of the aired programs.

Ethnic and race based jokes have existed in all societies of the world and cannot be completely be got rid off as they serve to titillate and entertain people during the course of their daily activities. But there use on a public platform such as radio and television is definitely objectionable and needs to be prevented in the future to build a more safe and tolerant society.

Works Cited

Clemmitt, M.Shock Jocks, Should Racist and Misogynistic Speech be Regulated, CQ Researcher, Vol. 17, Issue 21, pp. 481. June 1, 2007.

Imus on MSNBC, Don Imus- Host, online information. Web.

Ehrlich views cowboys very differently as from what many people think they are and this is in an attempt by some individuals to idealize them which consequently makes us loose the true disposition of cowboys. Real cowboys as depicted by the author are homely, kind and gentle individuals, who work fifteen hours a day taking care of cattle. Therefore, the genuine cowboy does not possess a tough demeanor due to human confrontation; rather it is because of his encounters with the elements of nature while he is out in the field.

The author views cowboys as hard workers because a cowboy will already be at work at four in the morning and according to the author; His part in the beef-raising industry is to birth and nurture calves and take care of their mothers.

He accomplishes this role daily for lengthy hours and he enjoys his job. Accordingly, Ehrlich perceives the courage expressed by cowboys to be of a unique quality. Courage means acting instinctively and selflessly to the aid of another rider or an animal. For example, according to the author;

If a cow is stuck in a bog hole, he throws a loop around her neck and takes his dally and pulls her out with horsepower. If a calf is born sick, he may take her home, warm her in front of the kitchen fire and massage her legs until dawn.

The author at one time witnessed a cowboy dive into a lake to save a horse that got stuck and swam the horse back to shore, supporting her claim that cowboys are indeed caring individuals. The author therefore acknowledges the fact that cowboys are required to strike an equilibrium between both the male and female qualities.

This is because they engage in different roles as they duly execute their duties. She states that Cowboys will be the ones who will act as midwives when aiding a cow to give birth, taking on a feminine role. At the same time, they will take on a masculine role when they go out hunting and when braving different climatic conditions.

Ehrlich points out that in a wider scope, cowboys are responsible for the sustainability of the ranches they work in. They work in teams and teamwork is essential for effective management of the large number of cattle they are responsible for. At first glance, the rugged outward appearance of a cowboy may be taken to mean his toughness. This nevertheless is not true; rather their looks can be attributed to the challenging nature of their jobs.

The author sates; The physical punishment that goes with cowboying is greatly underplayed. Once fear is dispensed with, the threshold of pain rises to meet the demands of the job.

They are required to work for long hours under different climatic conditions every day of the week. Their job takes more from them and they have to adapt to keep up with the strain on the job, considering it is a well paying job and the author in a way admires them for their tenacity.

Ehrlich states that They spend most of their working days on horse back, and they will time and again be overpowered by their horses or battle extreme weather conditions. Further, even with the kind of difficulty they experience at work, cowboys will rarely complain and often express dissatisfaction by laughing at themselves.

The writer of Conundrum Jan Morris formerly James Morris provides an autobiography of personal gender transformation from biological male to female because she felt that she belonged to the wrong body. The writing in the text is elegant to portray anachronistic perception.

Although spent in the male pursuits of the traditional times, the authors male existence presents a view of fascinating life. She indicates the times her service was a fascination but not to her satisfaction for instance, the roles of a husband, father or a member in the army.

The issue of sexual characteristics denied her happiness. All that she is covers all that she does. She ironically graces all these conundrum of gender difference with some selfcondemning wit and humour. Born in 1927, the writer spent thirty-five years in personal mystery regarding gender and another ten years undergoing anticipated changes; she underwent surgery in Casablanca in 1972 to live her expected life.

The writing presents the reader with conjectures over how much one has to undergo in desperation of reconciling the inner with the outer self. The option to undergo the complex surgery in a clinic also appears primitive. The presentation of events in the literature brings out some special aspects of uniquely accounted realization. It is possible for the readers to move along the transition of Jan Morris from the male to female world through the well-articulated geographical setting of events.

It is possible to connect the setting to the phases involved in the search for an identity. She began with a controllable revealing and analysis of the new self to come to the conclusive satisfaction. This is evident in her indication that there is nobody in the world I would rather be than me (174). Her writing helps many people to conclude that self-acceptance shapes the various feelings and ideas perceived in the world.

The uncertainties that Jan Morris faces during this uncommon procedure, especially the unfavourable conditions at the clinic for this complicated surgery show her value for the prior lifestyle. According to her, It was dark by now, and the room was uninviting& Inside, the clinic seemed to be plunged into a permanent silence (Morris, 138-9).

She succumbs to the anaesthesia to undergo the gender transformation through surgery (142), and her satisfaction of the physical outcome is evident of her use of simile regarding the experience of the surgery. , We were like prisoners, (142)

Her writing also illustrates the positive and encouraging aspect of the recovery process. She indicates the perception of the feminine world where she meets great kindness, for instance her welcoming back to Europe encouraging.

At the airport, an executive on the plane met Morris with great kindness, and she felt like a princess emancipated from her degrading disguise (146). The relationship with the outside world appeared stronger and better. I felt more strongly than even all their kinships with me, (148)

The conversion was equally dependable on the acceptance nature of others especially the family members and close friends. This was the basis for her perception regarding the differences in the treatment women get in comparison to the male counterparts. The treatment varies from one location to another in the world (148), but according to her, women receive kinder treatment. (150)

The nasty experience of surgery at Casablanca clinic fades just as the male lifestyle. In line to her writing, she stated that, I become more accustomed to my womanhood, and partly because I do not want to remember (160). The story helps the readers to understand the experiences concern with trans-sexuality and appreciate the reasons behind the decisions for the procedures.

Works Cited

Jan Morris. Conundrum. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. 1974.

The passing of time only manage to improve the potency of Poe and Oates storytelling like vintage wine. In Poe we have a writer who was prolific in the 19^th century and in Oates we have a master storyteller who gained recognition decades ago and yet the force of their prose remained the same as if they have published it last week. Reading these two short stories is like watching a suspense-thriller the only difference is that the characters came bursting forth not from a movie screen but from the pages of a book.

The readers feel empathy for the victims because the authors were able to describe the scene so perfectly well that they could also feel as claustrophobic as them. There is a similarity to the plot and at the same time there are major differences to the way the authors tried to tell the story of how a criminal mind can use words to control another person.

Similarities

In The Cask of Amontillado the reader was introduced to Montressor, a man with a serious grudge against Fortunato. He was a brilliant strategist who carefully planned how he would exact vengeance on the person who insulted him. It was strange because Fortunato consider him a friend.

He had no idea that he had besmirched Montressors reputation or if he had cheated him in any manner or even if he had said something that has caused him shame. But apparently Montressor viewed Fortunatos actions in the past to be worthy of death and murder was his intent.

Montressor was no ordinary killer, he was a calculating murderer for he studied his would-be victim, Fortunato. He was an excellent judge of character for he knew Fortunatos weakness and he built a plan around the idea that his ego regarding his skills as a wine connoisseur will make it impossible for him to resist going into the catacombs and there meet his untimely death. This is similar to what Alan Friend tried to do to Connie.

Alan Friend just like Montressor did not spring the trap without first an elaborate preparation. Alan Friend did not only study Connie, he used surveillance tactics as he observed her every time she would go out at night with her friends. It was the perfect time to observe girls like Connie because it was summertime and she and her girlfriends had ample time to waste going to the malls and hanging out in restaurants where an observer can easily disappear from the crowds.

But his surveillance did not only end in the said nighttime prowl, Alan Friend would even go to the trouble of finding out the behavior of Connies family and he discovered that every Sunday they would go to another house to enjoy the weekend and leave Connie behind.

Montressor and Alan Friend used words like a gunslinger would expertly handle a gun. They were ahead of their victims; they knew what they would think and how they would react when a phrase was spoken.

In the case of Montressor he would utter the name of a rival to challenge Fortunato and make him feel that it is his duty to go down the catacombs and endure the ghastly sight of skeletons just to determine if the Amontillado sitting down below is real or not. In the case of Alan Friend he used words to paint a world that is both isolated and fragile, eliciting the feeling of helplessness on the part of Connie.

Differences

In Amontillado the attack was motivated by the need for revenge because Montressor believed that he had to deal with the insult heaped upon him by Fortunato. In Where are You Going, Where have you been?, the attack was motivated by lust and the need to control helpless women.

Furthermore, the traps that they laid were effective but due to different reasons. In the case of Montressor he was able to bring Fortunato to a vulnerable state by playing upon his ego and his penchant for wine. Fortunato was drunk and careless when he descended the steps towards the catacombs. Connie was bright and knew something was wrong but Alan Friend knew her weakness, she was alienated from her family because she finds them boring.

Another difference is the final resting place, assuming of course that Connie was dead after Alan Friend was finished with her. In Amontillado, Fortunato started the journey with Montressor in a wide open space, near the celebration, near the crowds of people and he ended the night alone buriend in the catacombs.

In Oates story Connie started her interaction with Alan Friend feeling claustrophobic inside a house. But at the end she died outside the cramped place of the house and traveled in a car to the countryside where there were plenty of wide open spaces. The similarities and differences enable the reader to appreciate how the authors tried to tell how a criminal mind would try to discover a weakness in the victim and exploit it.

Conclusion

There were similarities and differences in the short stories. The similar use of cunning and smooth-talking murderers is a good way to appreciate the story and at the same time understand why it was so effective. The concept of claustrophobia was used in both stories and this gave the feeling of suspense and this was deliberately used by the authors to create a feeling as if the reader was inside the catacombs or trap in a small house in a small town.

The differences on the other hand helps in distinguishing the way the authors tried to justify the reason why Fortunato and Connie were killed. Fortunato died because he was no sensitive enough to know that Montressor was angry and Connie died because she ignored her family.

Works Cited

McMaham, Elizabeth & Susan Day. Literature and the Writing process. 9^th Ed. Canada: Pearson Education, 2010.

The Souls of Black Folk is an early twentieth century book authored by William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) which had an influential impact on African American intellectual life. The novel, which is a compilation of fourteen prose pieces, responds to the Emancipation Proclamation set by Abraham Lincoln to deliver the blacks from the yoke of slavery.

In the novel, Du Bois addresses the movements and struggles of the entire black population in the twentieth century. Du Bois gives an evaluation of the advancement of the African Americans, the hindrances to that advancement, and the opportunities for future advancement as the U.S. entered the twentieth century.

The novel can be conveniently separated into three different sections. The first section consists of chapters one to three, which have a distinctively historical perspective. Chapters four to nine portray a sociological point of view. Lastly, chapters ten to fourteen express the authors efforts to capture the spiritual meanings of the black culture.

This complete seminal work endeavors to look into the black American mind while maintaining the message in the title of the novel. The implication of the title is evident in the early pages of the book. In the book, Du Bois depicts the condition of the blacks as separated from the whites. However, this separation from the repressive white culture is only by means of a metaphorical veil, which produced the effects of double-consciousness.

This implies that even though they were separated from the whites, the blacks were compelled to view themselves through the eyes of the whites as well as their own. In this sense, an African American always felt his or her twoness. This twoness included being an American and a Negro at the same time, having two souls or two imaginations, or two differing opinions in one dark body (Du Bois, 4).

The Souls of the Black Folks played a pivotal role during the Harlem Renaissance. The book achieved this by providing guidance and motivation to the talented young African Americans who were the vehicles for change during this period (Young, 96).

During the Harlem Renaissance, much progress was made in the community of African Americans. One such advancement was the privilege that the African Americans had of getting education, regardless of the fact that there were inadequate resources in most black schools. Most blacks made the most out of this opportunity.

During this period, changes in the political climate of the U.S. enabled the blacks to fight for their rights. In supporting black higher education, Du Bois criticized Booker T. Washingtons vocational education system by asserting that the system was too economical. Moreover, he argued that it would not provide the blacks with the opportunities to develop. Souls also call on the blacks to fight for their fundamental political privileges such as pursuing their right to vote and protecting their civil rights.

The symbolism in establishing the black identity as an important aspect of the American history portrayed in the novel served as a source of inspiration for blacks during the Civil Rights Movement of the mid-twentieth century (Horne, 223). Souls reinforced the stand of the black community in the United States. The success that Du Bois had in fighting for the rights of the blacks demonstrated to the leaders of the Movement the abilities they had in store which were just waiting to be released.

During the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War, everyone was dreaming about equality among the races. However, these dreams were blown apart at the turn of the century. Souls depict this deplorable condition. This reality resulted in a united cultural identity among the African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement. Therefore, this served as a conscious awakening for them to unite in fighting against racial segregation.

Works Cited

Du Bois, William E. B. The souls of the black folk: essays and sketches. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Publications, 1961. Print.

Horne, Gerald. Black and red : W.E.B. Du Bois and the Afro-American response to the Cold War, 1944-1963. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1986. Print.

Young, Mary. W.E.B. Du Bois: an encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2000. Print.

Introduction

Literary studies entail presentation of poems, stories, songs, and drama among other forms of art to the community. Literature and related studies date back to the time when language was first used as a medium of communication. Literature has a variety of uses in the society including transforming cultural practices and reflecting the conditions prevailing in the society. It achieves its functions through influencing the thoughts of readers in various ways.

Firstly, the stories or songs can influence the thoughts of an individual thereby enabling this individual to engage oneself in critical thinking about the facts presented in the story. The significance of literature in transforming cultural practices entails literary studies that enable individuals to compare their cultures and lifestyle with other individuals in other societies (Manzo & Perkins, 2006, p. 335).

This essay seeks to highlight the significance of literature in reflecting the conditions prevailing in the community as presented in the story, Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka. On the other hand, the essay analyzes the Lesson, which is a story written by Toni Cade Bambara with the aim of showing how individuals and societies affect each other in the context of literature.

How does literature reflect the community?

Most literary studies and forms of art provide a brilliant description of the economic, social, political, and familial factors in various societies. In this way, literature brings a reader to the context of the real life experiences in the community.

The community reflected in the story is not necessarily the readers and in most cases, such stories present facts about other communities thereby enabling the reader to compare and contrast the conditions in the two communities. On the other hand, literature presents the conditions within the family, which reflect the practices in the whole society.

The story Metamorphosis, unfolds as the author presents the life of a normal family under the protection of a hard working father and husband. However, as the story progresses, the author tells of a tragedy in which the family man transforms into an insect (Diyanni, 2007, p. 612). This means that this individual may no longer provide for his family. The author further notes that this man had never complained about having to provide for the whole family including his parents and siblings (Diyanni, 2007, p. 613).

The negative side of the story is that the man who was a slave for his family becomes isolated, neglected and abused by the same people he cared for before his transformation. The morale of the story is that it brings the readers to reflect on their respective families and societies in order to root out any vices reflected in the community and family in the story.

How does literature reflect the impact of individuals and societies on each?

Literature has another very important function of showing how individuals influence others in the society thereby contributing to the progress or failure of the societies.

A good example is the story The Lesson, which entails a narration of the life of a young girl and her neighborhood. The girl lives in a less comfortable neighborhood and her family is unable to provide for themselves because the author indicates that others were helping them (DiYanni, 2007, p. 428).

The situation is not any different from that of other kids in her neighborhood making these kids to hold a negative attitude and impression towards others especially outsiders. The author indicates that their attitude changes when one of the kids neighbors takes them to a different neighborhood where life is much different.

The first stop they made was at a toy store whereby the prices of various commodities shock them. At this point, the story brings the reader to seeing the change in the kids wanting. The change in the childrens attitude is attributable to their neighbor who had been away from the neighborhood and thus she had the experience of live in the outside world.

This shows the significance of literature in terms of allowing the reader to travel to a world away from ones own in order to explore new experiences in life. It is thus evident that an individual cannot realize the needs or endearments of others without this individual interacting or having a glimpse of the situation from the perspective of other individuals.

Reference List

DiYanni, R (2007) Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, and Drama (6^th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.

Manzo, L.C., & Perkins, D.D. (2006). The importance of literature to community participation. Journal of Planning Literature, 20 (4): pp. 335-350.

Written by William Faulkner, As I Lay Dying is a masterpiece addressing different societal issues that were pertinent in 1930s and have even persisted to contemporary times. This story is intriguing given the numerous numbers of narrators involved, each upholding different views from the others.

To some extent, each character is pursuing his/her ambitions and does not seem to care about the rest. Nevertheless, even though dead, Addie Bundren stands out in this story. She determines, controls, and directs the entire story. All events result from her, if not so, they revolve around her. Her perspective determines the novels structure and most of the themes of the story.

Addie Bundren

Addie dies shortly after the story starts; however, the short period she appears in the play and her dead body directs the structure of the story setting themes in place. From the short stint that Addie appears in the play, it is evident that she is a strong-willed and well-informed woman whose only shortcoming is disillusionment.

She is unloving and unfaithful mother too. She does not love her husband; children, save for Jewel; and her surrounding. Her unfaithfulness comes out clearly when she cheats on her husband, sleeps with Whitefield; a local church minister, and bears Jewel out of wedlock.

She clearly points out her disinterest in life by saying, the reason for living is to get ready to stay dead a long time (Faulkner 46). This caps her character. Someone whose purpose of living is to prepare for death cannot be interested in anything and this describes Addie. Nevertheless, as aforementioned, Addies perspective determines and dictates the plot and most themes of this story.

Addies Perspective in Plot and Themes of the Story

Addies perspective toward life that, the purpose of living is to prepare for the long time one spends in death, coupled with the fact that she does not love her environs makes her request to be buried in Jefferson; the land of her people. The journey towards Jefferson is the storyline of this story.

The bigger part of the plot and structure of this story revolves around this journey. If Addie had not asked to be buried in Jefferson, the story would end soon after she dies. However, the story carries fifty-nine sections most of them revolving around the journey to the town of Jefferson.

In this journey, many events unfold that are core to this story. The motives of all the Bundrens come out because of this journey. For instance, Jewels love for Addie comes out as he takes care of her dead mother including rescuing her corpse from being swept away by water and burnt by fire. Darls caring character comes out for he wants to fulfill his mothers will.

On the other side, Anses selfishness stands out for he only wants to go to Jefferson to get some false teeth whilst Cash and Vardaman want to get phonograph and toy train respectively. On her part, Dewey wants to abort and the only way she can do this is being on journey for she would meet new people, probably experts in abortion. Therefore, Addies perspectives underpin the plot of this story; moreover, its themes revolve around her and her perspectives as exposited next.

The four main themes of this story viz. mortality; disillusionment, religion, and duty revolve around Addies perspective and character. Mortality takes centre stage in this story. After Addie dies, some of her children have many questions about existence and mortality. For instance, Vardaman does not understand all this; actually, he compares his death mother to a fish he had cleaned into, pieces of not-fish (Faulkner 29). Mortality brings transformation similar to that of cleaning a fish.

Darl understands mortality as transformation from is to was because that is how Addie is being referred. By having sex with a church minister, Addie exposes the challenges facing men of the cloth. Religion is only in words, not in actions. Addies perspectives portray the theme of disillusionment. She does not seem to understand anything going around her.

Her husband and children are disillusioned for they do not understand maternal love that she does not offer. Finally, the theme of duty is hinged on Addie. After she passes away, her family realizes that it is their duty to bury her despite the fact that they have ulterior motives of going to Jefferson.

Conclusion

Addie Bundren passes as a strong-willed, intelligent, unfaithful, disillusioned, and unfaithful woman. She cheats on her husband and shows no love towards her many children. Nevertheless, her perspectives drive and shape the plot and themes of this story. The storyline of this story lies in the journey to Jefferson to burry Addie and fulfill her dying wishes. She only wants to rest with her people and this perspective and request sets the story in motion. Themes of religion, duty, mortality, and disillusionment revolve around her.

Addies affair with Whitefield exposes cynicism in religion. If it were not for Addies perspectives in life, readers could never know of Jewels love for his mother, Anses selfishness, Deweys inhumanity, Cashs selfish ambition and Vardamans innocence and gullibility. Therefore, Addies perspective in life makes unfolds a lot in this story; defines its plot and presents its themes. Without Addies perspective towards life, the story would end after her death.

Works Cited

Faulkner, Wiliam. As I Lay Dying. New York; Vintage Books, 1985.

At one time or another, philosophical questions arouse in the mind of any individual. By the way, these questions do not change, no matter whether it is the French Revolution or the 21^st century.

In his play The Persecution and Assassination on Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade, Peter Weiss also makes an attempt to answer some philosophical questions such class conflict, life and death by means of the main characters  Jean-Paul Marat and Marquis de Sade. From the two positions presented in the play, I am more inclined to support Marquis de Sade and his moderate and more humane ideas.

In fact, both Jean-Paul Marat and Marquis de Sade were real historical figures. Jean-Paul Marat was one of the most famous and important people in France in times of the French Revolution. He was better known for his radical journalism, support of radical social changes and reforms, uncompromising position towards French authorities and enemies of the Revolution.

In 1789, Jean-Paul Marat established own paper that was called The Friend of the People where he attacked and expressed suspicion to the influential French officials and those in power. Marat was assassinated in 1793 exactly for his too radical views by a young woman Charlotte Corday, whose main motivation was to save thousands of people from Marat.

Marquis de Sade is another character of the play and another famous historical personality. We all know de Sade for his liberal sexual views, lifestyle, and his erotic novels. He used to support freedom, life free from restrictions imposed by morality or religion. De Sade had the same liberal political views. He opposed radical measures that were taken in the name of the French Revolution.

He hated tyranny, was a strong opponent of the death penalty and mass executions, which were so popular during the Reign of Terror. These are the main reasons why his writings were condemned and de Sade was imprisoned for several times. Charenton asylum was his last prison where he directed several plays and died.

In his play, Peter Weiss describes events, which take place in 1808 in that asylum. As one of asylum inmates, de Sade decides to make own play and chooses Jean-Paul Marat as the main character. Throughout the play, Marat and de Sade discuss various philosophical issues, express and exchange their ideas. Some of those ideas I will consider in my essay.

Class Conflict

Class conflict was one of the biggest problems and, actually, one of the main causes of the French Revolution. This is also one of the main themes de Sade and Marat discuss in the play.

As I have already mentioned, Marat was an advocate of the Revolution and supported radical revolutionary methods. He did not trust authorities, and through his paper expressed his distrust so that people were also aware the governments dishonesty. Marat did not believe in fairy tales about the ideal state. He would never believe that rich people could feel compassion towards poor or would give away their property of their own free will (Weiss 54).

Marat also did not believe in some slight improvements that took place in the revolutionary times. From his point of view, it was just another insidious plan of the authorities on how to deceive people. Marat calls people not to be taken in when they pat you paternally on the shoulder and not to believe politicians when they say there is nothing to worry about (Weiss 55).

It should also be pointed out that all these were not just empty words of Marat. As a real patriot, he was not only ready to talk, but also take necessary actions. Such ideals of Marat characterize him as an idealist and voluntarism advocate, and Weiss puts such words into Marats mouth, Against natures silence I use action. In the vast indifference I invent a meaning (26). At a glance, Marats views indeed seem a bit idealistic, but maybe idealists who blindly believe in something are those who actually can make changes.

Now, people might wonder what de Sade thinks about the class conflict, Revolution, struggle? Actually, he shares a lot of Marats ideas. He supports the Revolution and quite the same as Marat hates aristocrats, monstrous representatives of a dying class (Weiss 46). In the play that he is directing in the asylum, de Sade reveals all the flaws of the Napoleonic France, describes bad conditions in which people live, which is much disliked by the director of the asylum Coulmier.

However, de Sade is not ready for some concrete actions. At least, he is not ready to kill people in order to achieve revolutionary goals. De Sade admits that I couldnt bring myself to deliver the prisoners to the hangman (Weiss 48). Marquis de Sade simply realizes that revenge and revolutionary ideas are only so romantic in his fantasies.

When it comes to the real world, Revolution appeared so bloody and horrible. Marquis de Sade definitely was not ready for a bath full of blood and the bloodbaths still to come (Weiss 15). He did not want to see thousands of corpses, unlike Marat who was sure that thousands were still too few (Weiss 15).

To sum everything up, both men can be called patriots who cared about the destiny of France and its people. Yet, one of them was strong in his actions, while another one, probably, only in his thought.

Should we blame de Sade of being too weak or should we accuse Marat of being too cruel and bloody? These are not easy questions to answer. On the one hand, Marats views can be shared and supported by somebody. At least, it is pretty obvious that only strong intentions and concrete actions can change something. It is also obvious that such events as revolutions cannot go without blood and peoples deaths. Those who are not ready for this should just stay away.

On the other hand, I am sure that a lot of people will agree with Marquis de Sade as well. Humanism and pacifism are not the worst features in persons character. When de Sade was asked about his tailor who actually in a very brutal way killed a man, the answer was a gentle cultured man who liked to talk philosophy (Weiss 32). As for me, it means de Sade simply realized that judging and deciding someones destiny is not one his rights. It is Gods privilege.

Life and Death

In Act 1, Scene 12, Marat and de Sade had a conversation about life and death. From my point of view, it was one of the central conversations in the play.

So, once Marat asked Marquis a question concerning the meaning of his writings. De Sades explanations of his works ended up into a log speech about life and death. By the way, it seems like in his speech, de Sade contradicts his own beliefs. In the example with his tailor, we can see that de Sade looks like rather a compassionate man.

Yet, in his speech, we see quite a different attitude of de Sade to life and death. He views death as just another aspect of nature, as a pretty normal process that we should not pay so much attention to. He even provides a very detailed example of how nature a passionless spectator (Weiss 25) works. De Sade describes an execution very explicitly, meaning that death can be so easy and quick. Just in a couple of minutes, a human life means nothing any more, and nature goes on.

It seems like such words of de Sade sound a bit weird even for Marat who says that de Sade lacks of compassion. De Sade answer was Compassion is the property of the privileged classes (Weiss 26). Besides, Marquis is surprised a little with such a reaction of Marat and says that they both know he is really an extremist (Weiss 27).

How such attitudes of de Sade to life and death can be explained? The answer is simple. Like Marat was a Revolution extremist, de Sade was an extreme materialist. He believed only in the real body, its pain, even when he described the horrors of the revolutionary events like women running by, holding in their dripping hands the severed genitals of men (Weiss 49).

So, whose attitude to life and death is more acceptable or, to be more specific, can be understood? Or, there is even a better question. Who can be called a monster  de Sade with his passionless attitude to death or Marat who was ready to kill hundreds of people in order to achieve his goals?

I think none of them is monster, and positions of both men can be understood. Marquis de Sade is certainly right in his materialism. After all, body is just a capsule, a capsule for our soul and spirit, which can be much stronger. If a body dies, then perhaps it should be this way indeed.

While for somebody Marat can be a monster, and this is why he was killed, I can understand his actions, but do not justify them. It is true that radical changes require radical steps and methods. Yet, can peace, justice, prosperity be built on so much blood and deaths? Marat/Sade can give answers to some philosophical questions, but a lot depends on who reads the play and his/her own worldviews.

Bibliography

Weiss, Peter. The Persecution and Assassination on Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade. London: John Calder, 1964.