Category: Literature Review

This literature review will be looking into how Social class inequality has effects on mental health. Mental health plays a major role in society today and studies have shown that it has different factors and falls into many categories, which changes a person’s behaviour drastically. It is said that social class and poverty has a profound impact in who mental health affects, as a household with low income are more prone to mental health issues, substance abuse, anxiety, physical abuse and suicide attempts. Studies have shown that children who fall under the poverty line, who are coming from poor family backgrounds are affected in a major way. This has effects on their education, behavioural skills, social interaction and their diet, as they are not getting the nutrients that are needed to maintain a healthy body and mind. This has a negative impact on their cognitive skills and physical health from a young age. Crime rates are high amongst those that are coming from poor or low-income families and homelessness is more predominant in the UK within the poorer community.

Social class and poverty

In an article ‘In bridging the gaps’, The world health organization (1995) have said extreme poverty “is the world’s most ruthless killer and the main cause of suffering”. Poverty in the UK can cause stress for people with poor health, low income and a less than average educational skill set. Lower income families do not have control over financial problems that they face, E.g. bills, shopping, debts, holidays, school fees, big purchases or just an everyday spend. This can start to affect a person or a family household mentally, where they are inclined to think about their financial struggle and try to think of ways to make things work with little or no income. This can often and more likely result in members of the lower-class population turning to substance abuse as the lack of financial stability is unbearable and try to find a way to forget their problems through drug use, whereas another set of the lower-class population may turn to alcohol, crime, prostitution or suicide affecting each person differently, mentally and physically.

Social inequality

In this article on Poverty and social inequality, according to (Smith et al, 1990) the gulf between the poor and rich of the world is widening. Society will have the working-class families in full-time jobs, however, on a minimum wage who are paying for childcare fees, full rent, council tax and regular household bills and who are finding it difficult to make ends meet. There are many jobs that do not offer enough promotional opportunities, sick pay, bonuses or pay increases that would make a difference to wages. Wilkinson (1997) believed that the income inequality produces psychosocial stress, which leads to deteriorating health and higher mortality over time. This could be that Job opportunities may become less available for those lower income families who have a lack of education and are not able to meet specific job requirements, leading them to be on a minimum waged job or unemployed.

Written in an article in the guardian (Dean Burnett 2016), the report by Lord Richard Layard suggests that addressing an individual’s illness before their financial or social class is more effective, though many would argue that the two are linked. This article states that there were disagreements with this suggestion and many who work in the mental health sector were infuriated by this. According to this, Lord Richard Layard’s report has not linked poverty and mental health in unison but has singled out the two major factors as separate issues and has also suggested that the mental state of an individual has a much larger effect on their happiness than their financial status.

Social class and personality disorders

According to this Journal, The interaction between impulsivity and neighbourhood on criminal activities indicates that the effects of impulsivity are stronger in poorer neighbourhoods than in better-off ones (Lyam et al, 2000). Based on crime rates around the UK, statistics shows that it is relatively high with a large percentage of it consisting with drug dealing. The United Kingdom country drug report for 2019 gives an overview on drug use, the supply of drugs and drug related health issues. This report shows that drug law offences for 2019 were 106,862. For many that may have grown up and in a low income or a poor family background believe that the fastest way to get a substantial amount of money is to sell drugs, with this ultimately leading them to have a different mentally from those in society who grew up in an upper class family. They will now see this as a way of life and being their only option, the only solution to their family’s hardship. This lifestyle can often lead to Gang crime, Burglary, theft and imprisonment.

The catacombs that Fortunato is led through are damp and dark, giving an eerie presence. The ancient catacombs are covered in nitre, the “white web-work which gleams from [the] cavern walls” (1), while the floor is scattered with bones, the air even having a particularly putrid smell. Such a mood creates both apprehension and suspense for the readers in the story.

“The Cask of Amontillado” is told by the narrator in the first person. This serves to make the “bone-chilling” events told in the story more realistic and easier to perceive. Had the story not been told in 1st person it would have been less down-to-earth.

Montresor’s close friend, Fortunato, is described as being a proud wine connoisseur yet a quack when it comes to painting and gemmary. Fortunato is also described as being rich, respected, feared, admired, beloved, and happy. As shown in the story, it can be concluded that Fortunato is enthusiastic, arrogant, foolish, drunken, and often acting in a ludicrous manner as well. Fortunato’s rather manipulative qualities explain why Montresor was so successful in laying his trap. Montresor succeeded in bringing Fortunato to his demise by getting him drunk and playing “friendly”, nothing more.

While the reader understands very little about Montresor, he is deranged or at least verging on being psychopathic. Montresor is cunning, remorseless, restless, and has been devoured by hate. The author, Edgar Alan Poe, is much like the characters he creates. They both have suffered and seek retribution, they may have extreme addictions or be mentally deranged, and they both have a troubling relationship with death as well as feel great guilt.

There are many possibilities for who Montresor might be addressing, if any, in telling the story. Perhaps Montresor is confessing to a Catholic priest as shown when he says “You, who so well know the nature of my soul, will not suppose, however, that gave utterance to a threat” (1). Another likelihood is that Montresor has written a letter or is telling someone close to him. Furthermore, the stories’ final words are in French: ‘In pace requiescat!’ (rest in peace), hinting that Montresor is either at his deathbed and is confessing or claiming yet another victim.

There are many instances of irony in “The Cask of Amontillado” including the character’s names and setting of the story. Fortunato’s name, for example, meaning good fortune, implies that he will have good fortune yet he experiences one of the worst possible fates. When the reader learns that Montresor dismissed his servants early by using reverse psychology the reader immediately notices something off about Montresor’s character, this is an example of situational irony. Another example of irony is the fact that both Montresor and Fortunato are dressed up in disguise for the Carnival yet Montresor’s true intentions are also disguised. A final example of verbal irony is when Fortunato is chained up and before leaving him to die says “Once more let me implore you to return. No? Then I must positively leave you. But I must first render you all the little attentions in my power” (2)

Though entertaining, I believe “The Cask of Amontillado” is not told purely for enjoyment. Rather, I believe it reveals some truth about people who are consumed by a desire for revenge. Montresor, who had been friends with Fortunato, was most certainly sane before these events. Whatever drove Montresor mad, is unknown, but him becoming a psychopathic murderer proves that revenge, when kept kindled, changes people.

One theme in “The Cask of Amontillado” might be that those who seek revenge are often left feeling guilty, or in some cases, unsatisfied. This is shown when Montresor first addresses the person to whom he is confessing the story on page 1. Montresor however, is gleeful in recounting this story and shows little remorse except for when he says “My heart grew sick; it was the dampness of the catacombs that made it so” (3). One can speculate that such events had a lasting impact on Montresor, though it is likely that Montresor has become more antagonistic rather than regretting his deeds. Another theme in the story is that life has a way of punishing the foolish and the drunk. This is shown as Fortunato’s lust for wine led to his demise, his last regretful words being “a very good joke, indeed…an excellent jest. We will have many rich laughs about it at the palazzo…over our wine…The Amontillado” (3). Fortunato, who still reminisces on the idea of claiming the Amontillado, has most likely realized his foolishness and learned this important lesson much too late.

Throughout history, women have been victims of repression, because men comfort themselves with the idea that women need to be guided and looked after. But today, female oppression is worse because women have grown unaware since it has become a part of women’s identity. The destruction of the female character has been silently shaped by men’s desires and their diminishing view of the female character.

Marilyn Frye, an American feminist, focused her attention on the female role in today’s modern society. Frye’s article ‘Oppression’ revolts for female oppression, their diminished role in society, and the bars silently created around them. Frye was able to break down and interpret the word ‘oppression’. In her essay, she includes examples of men opening doors for women and metaphors that link oppression with birdcage social structures. In her analysis of oppression, Frye argues that members of oppressed groups commonly experience ‘double binds’, that they are daily faced with limited options to choose among. These binds are created and shaped by forces and barriers which are neither accidental nor avoidable but are systematically related to each other.

Frye believes that oppression can be surfaced unknowingly between men and women. The first example touches on the simple actions that men do for women, such as opening a door: “The arresting of vision at a microscopic level yields such common confusion as that about the male door-opening ritual. This ritual, which is remarkably widespread across classes and races, puzzles many people, some of whom do and some of whom do not find it offensive. Look at the scene of the two people approaching a door. The male steps slightly ahead and opens the door. The male holds the door open while the female glides through. Then the male goes through. The door closes after them” (12). This particular scenario happens to women often and can seem to many people that this is simply a helpful gesture between a man and a woman and is often defined as chivalry. Frye argues that these ‘chivalrous’ gestures are condoned oppressive behaviors: “The gallant gestures have no practical meaning. Their meaning is symbolic. The door-opening and similar services provided are services which really are needed by people who are for one reason or another incapacitated – unwell, burdened with parcels, etc. So, the message is that women are incapable. The detachment of the acts from the concrete realities of what women need and do not need is a vehicle for the message that women’s actual needs and interests are unimportant or irrelevant” (13). Frye seems to claim that when a man goes out of his way to perform such a simple task, he takes away any progress that a woman has made at that moment. The symbolism reveals the misconception that women need assistance, that women are unable to complete certain tasks for themselves, as they are weak and/or helpless. However, it should be noted that there is a certain detachment from these ideas, according to Frye: “The detachment of the acts from the concrete realities of what women need and do not need is a vehicle for the message that women’s actual needs and interests are unimportant or irrelevant” (13). In summary, oppression makes its way into our daily lives through simple gestures that appear to be harmless. However, Frye strongly implies that these gestures only keep women from making decisions and progressing. Frye poses some great questions to ask oneself to attempt to determine when oppression occurs within society: “Who constructs and what maintains it? Whose interests are served by its existence? Is it part of a structure that tends to confine, reduce, and immobilize some group? Is the individual a member of the confined group?” (15). By asking these types of questions, one can uncover the root of the oppression and oppressive behavior.

Women are caught in a double bind, either as being weak and unable to defend themselves or as cruel and selfish for making their own decisions. Marilyn Frye outlined the story of men who cry oppression and institutions that instill the double bind. But people must adapt to a macroscopic viewpoint for women to truly progress by being unconfined and mobilized. Society needs to be able to give women the power to choose and do as they would like.

In ‘Changing the Face of Poverty: Nonprofits and the Problem of Representation’, Diana George uses ethos and pathos to describe how poverty is trying to be solved in the United States. In this article, she talks about how poverty is advertised to many Americans. She also talks about how different organizations try to come up with solutions, but they are only temporary solutions. One nonprofit she talks about is Habitat for Humanity, which is an organization that builds houses for people who cannot afford to buy or rent their own house.

George wrote this article to inform American citizens that indeed there are people in this country who are poor and that one does not have to go to another country to see this. Many Americans forget this is happening in their country as well; they always want to focus on helping other countries, but they need to realize that this is happening here as well. Many of the people who are reading this article are people who want to figure out a way to change poverty but want to look at the ways that people are doing so now and see if they are working. This could also be people who do not realize that there are people in the United States who are in poverty like those in other countries around the world. Many of the ways people try to get everyone’s attention on this topic is by “[representing] poverty as something that can be seen and easily recognized” (George, 676). These advertisements use pathos to make many people feel bad and want to help others in different countries, instead of looking around the United States and knowing that it is also going on here. George wants to be able to show that in order to end poverty there needs to be better ways and ideas to solve it. Habitat for Humanity may build houses for people internationally for low prices, but this is not going to solve the issue because not everyone can afford houses, especially those in some Third World countries.

In ‘Changing the Face of Poverty’, it states that “Diana George (b. 1948) is a professor of English at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University” (George, 675). She has also written many articles and books. ‘Changing the Face of Poverty’ is part of a bigger article where she goes into more detail about people living in poverty. The title of this article shows that George wants to improve upon how people impact poverty. It also sounds like she is going to talk about the misconceptions of poverty and advertisement of it. George seems to want to be able to change people’s minds, and she wants people to understand what poverty is and how to make poverty come to an end and not be temporary. In the article, George has two paragraphs formatted differently than the other paragraphs, and the first paragraph is the lines from a video shown to people about poverty, and the second paragraph is words from an impoverished woman. In the first paragraph, the video uses pathos to describe how people live in poverty and try to get people to change their minds to help these people out. It also talks about the difficulties these people go through like the different weather conditions and money situations. In the second paragraph, it is from a person who lives in poverty. She describes how her life is and what she thinks about the people trying to help them out.

George’s main claim is to explain that some of the ways these organizations are trying to grab people’s attention to this problem may not be the best way to do so. She does not believe that what these nonprofits are doing to help these should be stopped, but rather change their ways of going about it. Many of these organizations have ways to change these people’s lives temporarily but never have a permanent change. One of the organizations that George focuses mostly on is Habitat for Humanity. Habitat for Humanity is an organization that builds houses for people who cannot afford to build them and pay for them while interest grows. This organization receives donations and volunteers to be able to provide for these houses. The people also only have to pay the mortgage on their house. This sounds like a great idea, but many people who live in poverty can barely afford food, so many are not going to be able to pay for a house that is being built for them. Habitat for Humanity could help some of these people, but it would be just a small percentage of people, and it would be more of the people in the United States rather than Third World countries. Issues she talks about Habitat for Humanity has with its program is “who to choose for housing, how to support potential homeowners, and how to convince affiliates in the United States to tithe a portion of their funds to the real effort of Habitat” (George, 682). George uses ethos to explain why Habitat for Humanity is a great organization but is not going to be able to build houses for people who live in Third World countries and not be able to afford a mortgage for their house.

George believes in helping the impoverished but strongly advises them to change their ways. She also talks about how these bigger businesses and corporations draw attention to many of the people in poverty. These points she makes are valid, but one organization in this world is not going to be able to put an end to poverty. It is something that has to be helped out by everyone for this to permanently go away. One of her main claims in this paper is by showing how Habitat for Humanity is a great organization but has some flaws because not everyone can afford these houses. George is making a valid point because these people do have to work hard for the food they put on their tables, for their kids, and for their families. Not everyone has the money and support to be able to pay a monthly rent on a house an organization is building for them. In ‘Changing the Face of Poverty’, it states “more than 35 million Americans – one out of every seven of our fellow citizens – are officially poor. More than one in five American children are poor. And the poor are getting poorer” (George, 684). This is one example of how poverty is not just an issue in other countries, but also an issue in the United States.

Diana George gives many different examples of how poverty is in the United States and ways citizens need to help with it. One thing she focuses on is grabbing the reader’s attention by using emotion and senses to persuade them. She also uses words from people in these situations, facts, and her own knowledge to show how the impact of poverty can be changed. One thing from this article is people can still help out in the ways that they do, but other solutions and decisions need to be made in this country first in order to solve it here, before trying to solve it all around the world.

Commencing Margret Atwood’s revealing work of dystopian literature in ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’, Passage 1 acts as an introduction to Gilead’s oppressive state, as well as offering an inside look into Offred’s contemplations on rebellion; a sentiment that carries across the rest of the following passages. Sleeping in “what used to be a gymnasium”, a sense of longing and clinging to the past fills Offred (“we yearned for the past”), as Atwood showcases the importance of gender roles and hierarchy in a totalitarian state like Gilead; through brief mentioning that even Aunt’s “can’t be trusted with guns” to patrol. Present in the Passage are images of the past, with teams playing basketball on the court that is now used to control the Handmaids and visuals of “old sex”. Atwood emphasises the notion of a gender hierarchy with sights of sexuality coinciding with images of a harsh government force. Harking further into the brutish attempts at administering Gilead’s totalitarian regimes, the juxtaposition of innocence and brutality in the “sleeping inmates lying under fuzzy flannelette and military blankets” is clear; with Atwood blending images suggesting a fusion of militarism and gentleness. Challenging the idea of the Angels – “They were objects of fear to us, but of something else as well”, Offred’s sexual mindset comes into effect, as she ponders the concept of using her body to regain power; an idea that is translated throughout the duration of Atwood’s novel. Passage One openly showcases the damaging influence of Gilead’s totalitarian regime and its implications on Atwood’s central voice. Atwood’s use of barbaric visuals and the nostalgic gymnasium, as well as militaristic images of “army-issue blankets” juxtaposed with explicit sexual allusions, illustrates the idea of holding onto memories and Offred’s eventual rebellion to Gilead’s systematic oppression.

Offred’s conflictions between rebellion and her desire for sexual liberty are uncovered in Passage 2 — centralizing the Commander’s morbid thoughts on the concept of love in correlation to Gilead’s religion-based regime. Musing generally about falling in love, Offred’s connection with Luke remains clear through her conversation with The Commander, but Atwood’s utilisation of biblical allusions from the First Epistle of John in “god is love” and “love, like heaven, was always around the corner” to institute her attempts at rebelling against the religious archetype that’s praised by Gilead’s theocracy. Moreover, Atwood’s dictation of Russian refugees fleeing countries after the Civil War in “white Russian drinking tea in Paris” acts as a foreshadowing to Offred’s eventual revolt and escape from Gilead, as the refugees were opposed by a similar political theocracy. In addition, the concept of memory and Offred’s desperate cling to nostalgia, which she uses as a rebellious device, is strengthened as she remembers a time void of strict government forces while focusing on the romance of another man; giving her a “good deal of comfort” (“You would look at the man one day and you would think, I loved you, and the tense would be past”). We see in Passage Two Atwood’s visceral juxtaposition of religious allusions continued, with notions of reminiscence and romance to visualise Offred’s quiet attempts at rebellion against the Commander and Gilead’s state. Atwood’s voice ushers contemplations of the past in an urgent manner (“Stopped in time, in midair, among the trees back there, in the act of falling”), as well as employing rhyme schemes and repetition in “still loving, still falling”, to further institute the foreshadowing of the novel’s biblical and sexual motifs that denounce Gilead’s oppression and preach individual freedoms.

Atwood’s third passages illustrate Offred’s desperate attempts at reminiscing a time before Gilead’s rise as a totalitarian state, but similarly, in Passage 3, she invokes a sense to validate and support the authority of Gilead in ways that subvert the conventions of individual freedoms. Acting merely as “guesswork”, Passage 3; appearing as a ‘partial transcript of the proceedings of the Twelfth Symposium on Gileadean Studies’, links further connections between biblical allusions and the concept of helplessness for the Handmaid’s themselves. Professor Pieixoto’s shift to an authoritarian tone and Atwood’s blend of metaphors and symbolism in “‘the human heart” to represent humanity and “Gilead society was Byzantine in the extreme”, acts as an ironic mocking of Gilead’s state while also promoting the act of freedom as Offred seemingly “retaliates” to escape her oppressive environment. The prominence of allusions to Greek Mythology in “We may call Eurydice forth from the world of the dead, but we cannot make her answer…” alongside Atwood’s inflexions of the motif of remembering “crumbs” memory showcases how all of Offred’s suffering and love in Gilead fade into the jumble of unanswered questions (“Was she smuggled over the border of Gilead, into what was then Canada, and did she make her way thence to England?”). As Passage 3 closes, Atwood shifts audience perception by way of a tonal change into a reflective yet ironic style of literature. ‘Historical Notes’ brings light to the unanswered questions Atwood presents throughout ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’, while also authenticating the style as an outlet for her repressed emotions (“She could have told us much about the workings of the Gileadean empire, had she had the instincts of a reporter or a spy”). Atwood’s atypical writing style highlights her values of individual freedom amongst Gilead’s domineering society (“perhaps she was among those escaped Handmaids who had difficulty adjusting to life in the outside world”) to close Offred’s rebellious journey.

Throughout each passage, Atwood depicts the tribulations of living through an oppressive government state and Offred’s desperate acts to recollect the past, and maintain her sexual freedom. While the first passage sees her contemplating rebellious acts in face of Gilead, the eventual last passage authenticates the oppression she’s experienced by way of a tonal shift against Atwood’s typical literary style. She acknowledges the concept of sexual desire and personal freedoms as for present in the first few passages but closes out the rich novel of ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’ a changed woman — no longer conforming to Gilead’s restrictive environment yet going against it in a bid to protect her individual wellbeing.

Asking who wants motherhood could be a little bit of a real understatement, in my opinion. Instead, we must always go deeper into it. What needs motherhood and why? Is it individuals, males, females, society or the world as a whole? Within the essay, ‘Motherhood: Who Desires It?’, written by Betty Rollin in 1970, I notice numerous unanswered questions and problems and my goal now’s to seek out the answers to them. What’s motherhood? Why precisely do, or don’t, we want the story? Ought to it even be thought-about a myth at all? However, will it have an effect on US in today’s society?

The ‘motherhood myth’ could be a little bizarre although I can see where she’s coming from. The myth, as Rollin states, is “the concept that having babies are some things that all traditional girls instinctively need and want and can relish doing” (286). It’s true that the thought of family relationship is pushed on females from a really young age, after they are bought pets and baby dolls to require care of whereas the boys are bought video games and sports gear on holidays. It’s embedded in our minds as females that caring for others a family are our job. However, not every woman within the world was raised up to believe that having a family and raising kids are a few things that they must want, need, or relish doing. Not everybody was raised the same and lots of guardians bring their daughters up to believe the exact opposite as so much as having children and starting a family goes, just so they won’t be curious or make mistakes soon in life because of being too eager to start a family. I am a part of that class, therefore, I couldn’t relate to the current article much. My mother never blew up the subject of bearing children or being around or taking care of them, although she continually did. Wherever is the reassurance, the parable and the argument for those like me, who weren’t accustomed to on the ‘myth’ that Rollin speaks of? I feel as if Rollin contradicts herself a little bit in her essay because in a sense you notice that she doesn’t wish all women to be placed during this bubble or conception of “having babies is what’s you’re supposed to do” or “all you’re sensible for”. However, she is placing all girls in a bubble of truly having faith this aforementioned narrative. Not solely will the myth change who it applies to on the premise of cultural values, however also by generation.

The motherhood story relates to completely different generations in several ways. For instance, it should have been relevant throughout the time this text was written, however in 2014 not as much. Considering my generation, and the way teenage pregnancy is something that’s universally seen and universally accepted, I begin to think if the motherhood story had something to do with that. I think that the solution is no. To most teen girls, having babies isn’t one thing they assume they must do, or one thing that they’re excited about or spend their time getting ready for; however, having sex is. Extremely rare may be a teen pregnancy planned and even once it’s you’re still not totally ready. This might not solely be true of teenagers however also of girls of all ages, pregnancy isn’t perpetually planned and simply because it’s on a conflict doesn’t mean that it’s intentionally. Another factor to think about is that Rollin’s piece was written in 1970, which was most likely towards the end of the ‘baby boom’ that the U.S. had around that time. Therefore, perhaps then it had been a trend to have children, and perhaps then each lady was being raised to need to have children, to extend the population and things of that nature. In present time however, the population is already increasing enough, and plenty of cities and states have become overpopulated, therefore having kids isn’t a big issue or goal for several folks right away. So, the motherhood story might apply in some places to some women, however certainly not all especially within the U.S.

I feel as if Rollin may have developed her argument more relatable to those that don’t seem to be directly affected by or exposed to the concept of the ‘myth’, and additionally perhaps go more into why the parable started, wherever it came from and if it had something to do with the events that were occurring at that point of time. When reading Rollins original essay, I can tell that she had coherent argument however I didn’t recognize exactly where she was coming from as way as information goes. She uses heaps of various evidence and while in some ways that it helps the article, in a lot of ways it doesn’t. for instance, she references a psychiatrist, however she additionally uses a great deal of anecdotal proof like when she uses quotes from the ladies (290). She did a great job supporting her argument with these evidences, however, she may have worded certain things differently or selected better transitioning technique that the reader won’t feel like she was just randomly bouncing around. She was referring to a very vital issue at the time and also one thing everybody can relate to in a technique or another, thus reliability is a crucial feature in her argument. She tries to seem trustworthy by not showing bias, etc. However, this is often a tough factor to try to when you are writing regarding or in favor of ladies and you may be a lady yourself. I think that she did the best job she could and whereas she may have done better, she additionally may have done worse, therefore I applaud her for putting in the effort. you’ll be able to additionally tell that she is passionate about what she is talking about, perhaps she has been a victim of the ‘myth’ herself.

Overall, I enjoyed reading Rollins’ essay. It gave me one thing to consider at analysis, it got my brain going, and it allowed me to envision things from her point of stance. It opened my eyes as a result of I never even thought of kinship within the manner that she delineated it. Although I personally have not been directly exposed to or taught this same ‘myth’, it absolutely was still fascinating to examine. Anytime I browse this piece I come up with a brand-new question or plan, and that’s however it’s speculated to be once reading. What’s motherhood, is it an idea? I don’t know; perhaps it’s all simply a story.

In ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’ Brecht undertakes a redefinition of motherhood. The true mother is no longer she who has borne the child, but she who is most useful to it: “What there is shall go to those who are good for it, / Children to the motherly, that they prosper”. Brecht’s notes to the play, which speak of ‘motherly instincts’, show even more clearly the ‘natural’ alliance he believed existed between women and motherliness, which may, however, be thwarted by adverse social conditions: “The motherly instinct of the peasant woman, who accepts the foundling child against the will of her husband, is limited and conditional” (Lennox, 91).

The modern European theatre was a space containing a plethora of ideas and techniques and was very experimental in nature. Bertolt Brecht, one of the forerunners of the modern drama, can be discussed as a primary contributor to it. Brecht was a German, Marxist playwright who contributed new ideas to theatre. He developed a new technique through his art, known as the ‘epic theatre’, which changed the way one looks at drama. Brecht transformed the idea of drama and what it entailed. Drama, for Brecht, should not only be for mere entertainment but should be a medium of educating and enlightening the mass to critique, question and be rational in their approach. “Brecht’s theatre would be ‘epic’ rather than ‘dramatic’, would not perpetuate dramatic illusion and spectatorial identification, but would encourage thoughtfulness and reasoned action in the audience” (Smith, 491). It provided the audience with a sense of political awareness, and required an amount of objectivity on the part of the viewers. This form of theatre which fostered the rational side of the audience came to be popularly known as an ‘epic theatre’ in the canon. Brecht was the pioneer figure in popularizing this form of drama, along with the likes of Erwin Piscator, Vladimir Mayakovsky and Vsevolod Meyerhold. The ‘epic theatre’ required certain techniques which Brecht employed in many of his plays. “The technical devices of alienation serve the main purpose by establishing a distance between the audience and the play, so that the spectators may be constantly reminded that they are viewing a play (hence an object lesson) and not a real event” (Alter, 61). The alienation effect aided Brecht in achieving his objectives. The alienation effect was a central tenet in Brechtian theatre. He stood as a prominent exponent of the v-effect. In ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’, the use of a narrator acts as an alienating force. The form of a parable with political undertones also helps raise a sense of political awareness which the epic theatre aimed at. The presence of songs by the chorus also creates a ridge between the audience and the characters. Brecht being a modern playwright, believed in the concept of ‘make it new’. He echoed T.S. Eliot’s modern thought throughout his works. Modern drama diverged from the traditional Victorian sentimentality and delved into the life of the modern society, where the bourgeoisie became the center. In ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’, Brecht advocates Marxist ideology in dealing with the issue of motherhood. The central conflict which covers the play lies upon the concept of the ideal mother. Brecht critiques and rethinks the idea of motherhood in this play, and puts forth an argument between biology and sociology in determining the stronger claim towards motherhood, by adding the Marxist flavor to it. This paper will analyze the very central debate which surrounds the play. Is the biological mother supposed to be the ideal mother for a child? The question which Brecht aimed at answering through ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’.

‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’ rethinks the entire notion of motherhood which has often been certified to biology. Motherhood is predominantly viewed as a biological construct. This myth is debunked by Brecht through his characters in the play. Grusha and Natella Abashwili embody the two sides of the argument. Michael, the child who is left behind by Natella and taken in by Grusha, becomes the object of the conflict which is eventually resolved by the ‘chalk circle’ test. Brecht, like most of his plays, makes women the central characters. His other popular dramas also have female characters at the center, like ‘Mother Courage’, and ‘The Good Person of Setzuan’. On the basis of these, one might also call Brecht a feminist, but his feminism is not devoid of certain fixed socially constructed identities which are associated with a woman. For instance, he believes that biological motherhood is not necessarily the strongest one, but he fails to dissociate the concept of motherhood with gender. As Sara Lennox in the article comments, “No men in the play are shown to possess motherly feelings in any way analogous to those of such women figures. The present sexual arrangement of childcare is thus presented as a natural one, though in the society Brecht envisions it may no longer derive from the fact of giving birth”.

The characters also demonstrate class struggles and inequalities in the play. Grusha epitomizes the modern working-class peasant class who struggle for a living and are looked down upon by the aristocrats. Brecht is well-versed in Marxist studies and employs the same in his play. The character of Natella Abashvili not only portrays a biological mother figure, but also becomes an epitome of the shallow, materialistic mentality which plagues the high-class aristocracy in modern times. The entire journey of Grusha and Michael show not only how Grusha earned her right to be claimed as Michael’s true mother, but also uncovers the hardships which a peasant girl has to face in order to raise a child. The immense amount of sacrifice which is required on the part of Grusha to raise Michael on her own, only highlights the class inequality which persisted in the society. Grusha is advised not to take the abandoned Michael, but she does it anyway, as her maternal instincts overpower her class and social reality.

In the play we see the relationship between Grusha and Michael blossoming at the cost of the sacrifices made by the former. Brecht advocates how motherhood should be earned by love, care and sacrifices. The character of Grusha evolves from a young, peasant girl to a mature, caring mother of her adopted child. Brecht narrates the developmental stages which Grusha goes through in order to achieve her status as a fit mother for Michael. She makes ample sacrifices for Michael and this is what constituted an ideal mother for Brecht. Grusha takes the abandoned Michael which initiates her journey into an ideal motherhood. She buys milk for Michael which becomes her second developmental stage in nourishing Michael. The intrusion by the musicians in the play highlight Grusha’s maternal side towards Michael: “In the corn fields the rosy dawn/ Is merely cold to one who has not slept. To the fugitive/ The merry clatter of milk pails from the farm where the smoke rises/ Sounds menacing. Carrying a child, she/ Feels its weight and little else” (Brecht, 169).

Grusha’s constant conflict between her maternal instinct and her own survival instinct is vivid in the play. She decides to part with him, much against her will, because she can no longer sustain him. This forms a drastic contrast with her counterpart, Natella Abashwili, who abandoned her son even if she had the money and resources to raise him properly. Therefore, Brechtian idea of motherhood supported the sociological approach rather than the biological one. Grusha passes the test of motherhood further when she risks her life for Michael, adding to her list of sacrifices made. She also marries against her own wish, even though she knew it might jeopardize her relationship with her lover, Simon. Unlike the narcissistic, self-obsessed Natella who abandons Michael and is more concerned about material wealth, Grusha is portrayed as a metaphorical Mary. Brecht shows Natella as the careless, biological mother who has no concern for her child, even though shares the same blood as him. She only claims Michael for the property which is to be acquired in his name. Even her claim of motherhood lies on a materialistic, and economical approach.

The concept of motherhood is thus contested through the play and the dilemma is finally solved at the end after the verdict by Azdak is passed. He gives Michael to Grusha with the help of the Chalk circle test, and produces one of the rare happy endings by Brecht. The speech by the first lawyer will become significant in analysing both sides of motherhood as shown by Brecht: “…Of all human ties of blood are the strongest. Mother and child: can there be any closer relationship? May a child be taken from its mother?”. Grusha narrates her hardships and posits her claim over Michael which aids Azdak in his judgement and also redefines the concept of motherhood from its usual reductionist biological approach. “I brought him up the best I knew how, I always found him something to eat. He had a roof over his head…I let myself in for all kinds of trouble for his sake, and expenses too. I didn’t worry about my own convenience”.

Thus, ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’ rethinks the concept of motherhood through a Marxist lens. Brecht’s epic theatre allows the audience to witness the loopholes of upper-class modern society. According to Brecht, one who sacrifices and is concerned about her child’s well-being is an ideal mother. Motherhood had a sociological function for him. He rejects the mere blood ties in determining a true mother. He portrays Grusha as the well-deserved mother of Michael, even though she belonged to a lower class. To adapt the lingo of Simone De Beauvoir, I would opine – “One is not born, but rather, becomes a mother”. Brecht believed in the same idea that one has to earn the ideal of motherhood by means of sacrifices, showcasing human sacrifices and prioritizing the child over anyone and Grusha ticked all these boxes in the play and hence, emerged victorious. As Brecht comments, “Grusha changes slowly, under the weight of sacrifices, and through the sacrifices, into a mother of the child, and, in the end, after all the losses she has risked or suffered, she fears, as the ultimate loss, that of the child”.

Works Cited

1. Alter, Maria P. “The Technique of Alienation in Bertolt Brecht’s ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’”. CLA Journal, vol. 8, no. 1, 1964, pp. 60-65. JSTOR. Web. 18 November. 2019.
2. Brecht, Bertolt, et al. “On ‘The Caucasian Chalk Circle’”. TDR (1967-1968), vol. 12, no. 1, 1967, pp. 88-100. JSTOR. Web. 18 November. 2019.
3. Brecht, Bertolt, et al. “The Caucasian Chalk Circle. London: Methuen”. 1963. Print.
4. Lennox, Sara. “Women in Brecht’s Works”. New German Critique, no. 14, 1978, pp. 83-96. JSTOR. Web. 18 November. 2019.
5. Smith, Iris. “Brecht and the Mothers of Epic Theatre”. Theatre Journal, vol. 43, no. 4, 1991, pp. 491-505. JSTOR. Web. 18 November. 2019.

The environment of an individual’s identity shapes the community’s identity due to isolation. When coming together everyone has so much to express and share as everyone has missed out on so much due to being Australian bush men or women. ‘Our Pipes’ and ‘The Drover’s Wife’ explore the culture, identity, and language on both an individual and community aspect. The individual identity explored by Lawson through both texts is the characters and in which they affirm, ignore, challenge, reveal or disrupt the Australian culture. The community aspect Lawson explores is the theme of a white Australian male living in the bush.

‘Our Pipes’ and ‘The Drover’s Wife’ by Henry Lawson show an insight of an individual identity of femininity and women. Throughout ‘Our Pipes’ the mother was put in a positional representation as she is the first female character in the text and is away from everyone else part taking in stereotypical female activities. This is represented in the saying, “Mother was at work out in the kitchen at the back, washing up the tea-things”. This quote suggests to the reader that the mother has been put in a position where her role is removed from the general masculine activity and she is to carry out the normal everyday jobs of a female.

‘The Drover’s Wife’ extensively uses verbs to present the physical nature of the women. Henry Lawson constructs her character as a resilient woman without making her sound harsh and distant towards others. Henry Lawson purely depicts her from the title ‘The Drover’s Wife’ which is the use of irony to express her. The text implies her realization of her limitations of being a bush-women and taking over the stereotypical female activities. Being the wife of a drover brings out cultural assumptions towards the reader and adds identity towards women. This is shown through the quotes “gaunt, sun browned bush women” and “she put on an old pair of her husband’s trousers”. The descriptions present the reader with an insight into the hardship of the bush especially for women and not as much men. The representation seen in these quotes is that young women are being wasted in the typical landscape that a stereotypical woman should be in taking on the responsibilities of parenting children all day, experiencing grief and threats of being in isolation. Furthermore, the saying “she made bullets and fired at him through cracks in the slabs with an old shot-gun” represents the imagery of what is happening through the hands of the Drover’s wife. She is represented through actions as heroic and stands up for herself while facing the many dangers of the Australian outback where she lives while her husband is away from home. The identity has been extended and shows that rural women are harder on themselves and more tough than the city women.

The short story ‘The Drover’s Wife’ by Henry Lawson is about a mother who is left alone in isolation to take control and care of her four children. The mother faces many threats while living out in the Australian bush and is put in the shoes of a typical Australian bushmen which is out of the normal women roles in society to fend for herself and her four children. In the opening paragraph of ‘The Drover’s Wife’, Henry Lawson establishes the hardships of the isolated environment the mother and her children are living in. Negative visual and auditory images are expressed through the quotes “The stunted, rotten native apple trees” and “a few she-oaks… sighing above the narrow almost waterless creek”. These quotes are juxtaposed by “The gaunt sun brown women” and her “four legged dried up looking children”. Henry Lawson focuses on exploring the environment and the surroundings of the environment which shapes our meaning of the Australian values within our culture and being able to survive out in the relentless Australian bush environment.

‘Our Pipes’ short story approaches and provides and insight into isolation and how the environment impacts that isolation differently to ‘The Drover’s Wife’. “Fringe of mulga” represents the use of slang language, “timber proper, which is very thick and dark” shows the visual imagery of where the scene is set and “the moon looked like a big new copper boiler set on the edge on the horizon of the plain” represents the use of colloquial language. These quotes emphasize the use of different language that an average city man would use compared to an Australian bushman. The visual imagery creates a harsh environment where the swagmen come to rest at the end of the day after being out working for numerous extended hours which shows the determination that they have. This gives the reader an insight as to how their isolation differs to ‘The Drover’s Wife’. In ‘Our Pipes’ the isolation is depicted more throughout the day as they are working and then come together in a small community at the end of the day to share stories and experiences throughout the day. The effects of the swagmen’s journey are ongoing throughout the night giving them little to no time for relief.

This challenges my beliefs and perspectives of the Australian outback and swagmen and women. I have always seen and been in the Australian outback and know how hard people work to get what they want. It challenges me though as the isolation does not feel so bad doing what you love and being away from the wider community.

The parable is widely used in literature. Centuries ago, it was used only as a religious didactic story, but today the writers want to give a lesson for people hiding it under the cover of a nice story. Reading ‘The Lottery’ by Shirley Jackson and ‘The One Who Walks Away from Omelas’ by Ursula Le Guin, I was expecting the sweet and kind stories; the ending of both was an unpleasant surprise to me. The authors clearly used parables as a way to illustrate how spoilt our society is. In ‘The Lottery’ the author definitely used the irony; beginning to read we expect a winner and happiness from the luck, but what we get is a wild and crazy annual event that I can’t even comprehend. The aim of it is to pick the pieces of paper from a black box and so-called winner (who is definitely not a lucky one) is killed with stones by all the members of the community to provide a good harvest next year. A warm sunny day of 27th of July, playing children and happy people create a contrast to a tension that flies in the air and desire to end the lottery as soon as possible. The lottery itself is the tradition that takes place every year and all the 300 citizens of the city know the rules. One man even tells that it is his 77th lottery. The lottery itself is a symbol of traditions that exist in our society, passed down from time immemorial. We celebrate hundreds of holidays annually, some people don’t even know about the origin and meaning of them, following them because everyone does. The community of the village is afraid of giving up the lottery, even though northern villages already did it. The reader does not know if the sacrifice and bloodshed were justified (no murder can be justified). What if not? People don’t know whether it helps or not. They have always blindly believed without even trying to live at least one year without it; the northern villages are some kind of coward apostolate. What was meant by the lottery? Is it the traditions or religion? Was it an intention to show that people’s faith is not as pure as it may seem? The black box from which people draw their pieces of paper is very old and shabby, but the community is against refreshing it, it’s like some kind of relic that shouldn’t be touched.

The atmosphere in the story is odd. The story begins with kids, who are playing with stones, collecting them; everyone is relaxed and busy with their everyday affairs. The reader expects something positive and sweet, but not the wild murder that is not even perceived as something horrible. The striking fact is that throwing stones is not necessary for everyone, the participation is free, but every citizen does it; even innocent children that were playing a moment before. The absurdity of the situation is intensified by the fact that the people that were sweet talking to Mrs. Hutchkinson now are furiously killing her. I had strong feelings rereading it. Every detail looked different because the innocent kids’ game with stones turned out to be a preparation for the terrifying events. The tension between people before the lottery is not because of the anticipation to get a prize sooner. The murder of the woman is not even a sacrifice; it’s evil for the sake of common advantage. I cannot justify it.

The characters in ‘The Lottery’ have names, while in ‘The One Who Walks Away from Omelas’ do not, they are mainly generalized into two groups – the first are happy people and the second are the ones who can’t be happy understanding how dreadful is basing the wealth on the misery. They don’t accept any sacrifice. Omelas is a truly utopian city. Every single citizen of it is extremely happy and free to do whatever he wants. The beginning of the story resembles the beginning of ‘The Lottery’, but it is more intense, brighter and even abnormal. Everything got mixed in an insane mess– the sun, grass, singing children, drums, horses; it makes head spinning. The reader cannot imagine what hides behind this lively picture – child, who lives in a dark and dirty basement. Everyone knows about it and must be sure that he suffers. More suffering means more happiness for citizens. It reminds me of Jesus Christ, who suffered to save mankind. At least this story avoids the bloodshed like the ‘The Lottery’. I don’t fully understand why this particular child was chosen. Who had the right to define his fate and make him suffer? The child sometimes screams, “I will be good…Please let me out. I will be good!” (Le Guin, Ursula, 128). He doesn’t want to be a scapegoat.

In ‘The Lottery’ everyone was responsible to pick a piece of paper to choose the destiny and not even for once. The volunteered or forced sacrifice is a pretty popular plot-point in the literature. The first example that came to my mind is ‘The Lord of Flies’, where Simon involuntary sacrificed his life; his death opened eyes to kids that there is no monster on the island scaring them to death and turning them into the savage animals. Billy Budd in Herman Melville’s novel is another great example. His sacrifice was made because of the will of the community, which reminds me of the death of Mrs. Hutchkinson.

In our modern world, the word ‘sacrifice’ is mostly associated with heroism. Giving life for the others is the bravest thing a person can do. I can mention hundreds of heroes’ names that have saved thousands of lives sacrificing their own. Heroes are just around us, they saved people during the attacks of 09/11, protected kids during shootings and terrorist attacks. Sacrificing traces back to pagan times and then could be observed in the Bible. The modern society also uses sacrificing but in a more humane way. For example, the rich countries exploit the poor ones. They buy raw materials for the low price, avoiding the environmental contamination in their own territories. Developed countries import the products of industrial livestock raising, despite the fact that this industry causes huge water pollution and greenhouse gas emission. Everyone knows that it is unfair and the exploited countries are in the unbeneficial position, but nobody cares if it doesn’t affect them directly. It definitely reminds us of these two stories; the misery of ones for the benefits of the rest.

Works Cited

1. Jackson, Shirley ‘The Lottery’. Introduction to Literature. Russell. Boston: Pearson, 2008. 105-112.
2. Le Guin, Ursula. “The One Who Walks Away From Omelas”. Introduction to Literature. Russell. Boston: Pearson, 2008. 124-129.

Guy de Maupassant wrote his story ‘The Jewelry’ in 1887. This discusses the social aspect of the society. It explains how people find happiness and love in different situations of life, along with different roles played by the society. The story is simple and has more societal message. The psychological character is also here in the story it is a realistic story.

The reality of Lantin’s wife is not well understandable in this, just because as the Lantin and her wife is right and wrong in the story. Lantin is a poor person and does not have enough returns, but his wife wants to go to theatre to watch movie. She goes to theatre with her rich friends. On her way back, she has a lot of valuable jewelry. In the evening, she used to show off her diamond jewelry. One day she went to see the movie and was back home coughing on the cold. The next day she was saying a bad trumpet and in a week she died. Lantin are so traumatic to his wife’s death that his hair will turn white in a month. It is very difficult for him to make both ends meet in a small amount of salary. Later he realized that his wife had a box of jewelry. He doesn’t know to whom that valuable jewelry belonged and it remained a mystery for Lantin after his wife’s death he decide to sell it out. He went to a jeweler who told him that the goods had been purchased from his shop. He sold the property for 20,000 rupees, but now he will purchase it 18,000 rupees after knowing the value of the jewelry, he sold it and decided to sell all the jewelry to become rich, but could not find peace in life.

Maupassant was a writer from France. He was born on 15th August 1850. He was a story writer, dramatist, poet and novelist. He was a simple person and became famous because of his writings. The character script is well shown in Maupassant’s story, ‘The Jewelry’. The human needs are discussed. Maupassant shows the desire of Lantin wife, Lantin’s carelessness with social point of view very well. Maupassant discussed about Lantin’s wife wants and her negligence. The society’s point of view is discussed very intelligently. Its character is very emotionally described, with moody personality and rejoicing abilities. The writer’s capabilities fully show that he gave a life to his character in which pain, emotion and feeling are also added. Maupassant shows the character’s physiological and emotional conditions that make a sense in the mind of the reader. He also showed that the rest of mind is not only in the luxuries or in price worthy things the peace of mind is only in the fare love and happiness when Lantin belongs to a poor grade, he was separated from pain and grief, but when he marries another girl after becoming rich, he found a wife who is opposite of his nature Maupassant shows the situation emotionally and out cover the painful and peace less life of the Lantin.