Category: Literacy

Assessment Summary Chart

Appropriateness of assessment tools for reporting progress, diagnosing reading skills, or providing outcome data

Informal reading inventories (IRI) and running records are effective to monitor the students progress in reading, paying attention to the specifics of word-recognition (Gunning, 2010, p. 77). IRI and running records help determine the changes in reading with references to the number and character of miscues made by students.

That is why, the results of IRI and running records are important to focus on the students progress while reading. These assessment tools can be also used by the teacher to diagnose the level of the skills development to implement strategies which can help students overcome difficulties in reading and achieve higher results.

Retelling is effective when it helps determine the students progress in comprehension and in grasping the main idea of the text. The progress is marked with references to the number and character of details which are reproduced by students while retelling. Retelling is also effective to diagnose the development of the students skills, orienting to their further improvement basing on the diagnostic results.

The level of the students understanding phonics and of the phonemic awareness is constantly changing that is why phonics tests and phonemic awareness assessments are necessary to monitor the general students progress and for the additional diagnosis of the individual students abilities to distinguish sounds or work with phonemes to receive the ability to develop and improve definite skills.

Observations are used as progress monitoring tools to watch the changes in the students development of literacy skills, and they provide the general picture of the students skills, interests, typical miscues, behaviors, techniques, strengths, and weaknesses. Reading logs are effective tools for the students self-evaluation.

The regular character of completing the assessment provides the teacher with opportunities to monitor the students progress in reading more difficult books, changes in reading interests and reactions, and involvement with reading. Portfolio is the specific assessment tool which can be used both for monitoring the progress and assessing the outcomes, depending on the type of the portfolio.

For instance, the process portfolios are effective to monitor the progress with references to the levels of the materials used and competency in completing the portfolio which can change during the definite period. The evaluation portfolios are necessary to assess the students results with references to the definite standardized samples used, and these portfolios are used as outcome assessment tools.

Fluency assessment is important to monitor the students progress in pace of reading or reading more letters and words (indicators of proficiency). Thus, it is used as the progress assessment tool. Fluency assessment is also standardized and based on benchmarks, and it uses fixed criteria to assess outcomes. From this perspective, it is a general outcome assessment (Gunning, 2010, p. 77).

Rubrics also belong to the outcome category because they focus on what is expected from students in order for them to meet a certain level of performance (Gunning, 2010, p. 86). Rubrics are necessary to assess the students results and compare them with definite standards adopted within certain institutions or states. Thus, rubrics provide evaluative criteria and information about students outcomes.

The effectiveness of usage in groups or individually

IRI, running records, phonics tests, and phonemic awareness assessment can be used to assess only individuals because the teacher should focus on reading or sound recognition presenting by one student at a time to take notes, to fix possible miscues, to concentrate on the individual skills which need to be developed or improved.

Fluency assessment is also effective when it is realized individually to pay attention to the students definite competencies to make conclusions about the level of performance. Rubrics can be used in a group of students to assess and compare their performance in relation to the definite criteria and standards presented in the rubric.

Retelling as the assessment tool should be used with individual students when retelling is oral, and retelling can be used within the group of students when it is the written assessment. Observations can be both individual and group, depending on the task of the assessment determined by the teacher before starting the observation of an individual or a group of students (Paratore & McCormack, 2007).

The usage of reading logs in a group or with an individual depends on a purpose to receive the information about an individuals progress and interests or the groups progress in reading at a time. Portfolios are effective as the tools to assess the individual progress of a student, but they can be also used to assess the work basing on the group when portfolio conferences are conducted.

References

Gunning, T. (2010). Creating literacy instruction for all students. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon/Pearson Education.

Paratore, J. & McCormack, R. (2007). Classroom literacy assessment: Making sense of what students know and do. USA: Guilford Press.

Executive Summary

Information literacy is essential in promoting learning and educational performance of students. Information-literate students can identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate information derived from various libraries. Emergence of information technology has led to explosion of information, which consequently has overwhelmed students.

Information literacy emerged as a means to enabling students overcome challenges associated with the information explosion in the 21st century. Since information literacy is a complex issue in education systems, education experts have been trying to come up with an appropriate definition of the same and outline effective ways of integrating it into education curriculum.

Integration of information literacy into the educational curriculum is beneficial to students, teaching staff, and librarians for it enhances the learning process and improves academic performance.

When students immerse themselves into the world of information, they find it a daunting process to obtain the relevant information. Specifically, new students experience numerous challenges because they have limited skills in information literacy. Hence, this report suggests that seminar provides an effective means of improving information literacy among new students.

Introduction

The emergence of information technology has led to explosion of information and advancement of education. Colleges and universities have been unable to keep abreast with information technology because information literacy levels of students have always been low. The level of information literacy among students reflects their learning abilities and educational performance.

Students with low information literacy level are unable to identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate the appropriate information, thus affecting their learning and performance in education. Hence, colleges and universities have been struggling to integrate information literacy into their curricula though various ways.

As information literacy enables students to access extensive body of knowledge in libraries, librarians play a critical role as they facilitate the process of information literacy among students. Edzan (2008) states, The continuous growth of high-quality research materials available online has made the importance of information literacy increasingly apparent (p.5).

In this view, the information literacy targets both librarians and students, as their relationships have a significant impact on the development of information literacy in a learning institution. Therefore, this report argues that colleges and universities should offer information literacy seminars for new students to promote learning and educational performance.

Information Literacy among Students

Basic View

Information literacy means the ability of students to identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate a given piece of information in a professional or academic manner by using relevant information technology tools. Information literacy enables students to immerse themselves into extensive body of knowledge available in various libraries.

It correlates with information technology competencies as significant learning materials are available in formats that require technological skills for students to access and utilise optimally. According to the Institute for Development Studies (2010), Information literacy is a sublime issue as skills of students form part of the information literacy.

For learning institutions to improve information literacy, they should not only focus on the skills of students, but also create a learning environment with information technology, online materials, strong organisational support, and increase awareness among students. Hence, a comprehensive approach is central in improving information literacy levels among students.

Information literacy among students prepares them to learn efficiently and improve their academic performance. Essentially, information literacy is the foundation of learning in educational institutions. Given that information in various fields has increased exponentially in the wake of information explosion, information technology has enhanced automated process of accessing and utilising the information.

Hence, students who survive in modern learning institutions are the ones who are information literate. Information literate students know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organised, how to find information and how to use information in such a way that other can learn from them (Thompson 2002, p.219).

Therefore, it implies that information literacy involves all aspects of information access and use during learning and teaching. A student needs to access the appropriate information, which is valid and reliable, and at the same time understand how to get across to other people. Thus, information literacy entails identifying, locating, evaluating, organising, and communicating acquired information in a professional manner.

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Current Debate

Definition of the information literacy is a subject of debate that has led to development of various definitions and theories to explain the concept of information literacy in the modern society. While some education experts consider information literacy as understanding of how to use library, others perceive it as technological skills that are necessary to access and utilise information constructively.

Variation in perception and definition of information literacy indicates that it is a complex matter, which has many intricate components. After realising that students use ample time when searching for appropriate information, colleges, and universities developed understanding of the relevance of information literacy in learning.

In 1989, the American Library Association defined information literacy as a set of abilities: recognising an information need and locating, evaluating, and using needed information effectively (Onwusu-Ansah 2005, p.368).

The definition set the stage for further debate that led to refinement of the definition to include other elements. The elements added into the definition include organisation of information coupled with integration and application in problem solving.

Currently, librarians and educationists have added more elements to keep abreast with information technology. Although the debate of defining information literacy is ongoing, education experts agree that it plays a central role in learning.

Information literacy has also been an issue in the library as librarians across the world have realised that it has a critical influence on learning and performance of students. Debate is going on regarding how information technology can be part of education curriculum.

While some education experts argue that librarians have the capacity to enhance information literacy, some argue that teaching professionals have a significant role of developing information literacy among students. Explosion of information in the modern society has made the process of learning become complex as students often experience confusion when selecting and determining the validity of the information.

In the contemporary world, only those who are capable of finding, evaluating, analysing, and conveying information to others effectively and efficiently are ones who will succeed in this information environment (Li 2006, p. 2). Students in various learning institutions perform differently as they have varied information literacy levels.

The role of information literacy in learning has prompted educated experts to agitate for inclusion of information literacy in curricula. Therefore, universities and colleges have been struggling to find ways of incorporating information literacy into their curricula to improve student learning and performance.

Potential Customer Base for Information Literacy Seminar

The customer base for information literacy seminars includes students, teaching staff, librarians, and learning institutions. Extensive body of evidence indicates that information literacy correlates with academic performance. Moreover, information literacy enhances learning among students because it increases efficiency of accessing information in various libraries.

According to Streatfield and Markless (2008), information literacy has significant benefits to students, which include improvement of the learning process, attracting and retaining students, promoting attitudes towards virtual learning environment, enabling distant learning, and ultimately improving academic performance.

When students gain such benefits, they enhance their learning competence for they can identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate knowledge gained in the classroom in a professional manner. Hence, modern learning institutions should scale up information literacy for students to enhance their academic performance in their studies and shape their careers decently.

Additionally, information literacy seminars target teaching staff and librarians as potential customers. Normally, when teaching staff members instruct students to perform certain assignments, students are unable to perform because they do not have essential level of information literacy.

Teaching staff members require students to perform assignments by adhering to academic principles, which include identification of the reliable sources, retrieving information, avoiding plagiarism, and writing in academic styles. Since students do not have essential skills in information literacy, teaching staff members experience challenges in providing instructions and when marking their assignments.

Librarians also experience problems when instructing students to search for certain materials in their libraries because they cannot do it on their own, unless assisted.

Equipping students with information literacy promotes collaboration of the teaching staff and librarians, thus generating concerted efforts necessary for improving learning and academic performance (Thompson 2002). Information literacy creates mutual relationships among students, librarians, and teaching staff, which promote learning.

Information literacy seminars target learning intuitions for they influence the development of a suitable curriculum. Learning institutions across the world are striving to integrate information literacy into their curriculum, but they do not know how to incorporate it in a way that does not affect their current curricula.

Educational reforms revolve around information literacy as they have a significant impact in shaping learning process and academic performance. Institute for Development Studies (2010) asserts, Information literacy is central to raising institutional standards overall by improving the quality of research, teaching, and learning (p. 9).

Information literacy transforms institutional culture by encouraging development of information technology and enhancing the use of information effectively and efficiently. Hence, the embedment of information literacy into curriculum enhances quality of teaching, learning, and research to occur in tandem with the mission and goals of a learning institution.

Marketing Strategies of Information Literacy Seminars

Marketing among Students

Setting up seminars for students is a marketing strategy for information literacy. Information literacy level among students depends on their level in colleges and universities. New students usually have a low level of information literacy because they do not have enough experience in the use of information technology.

High school education involves the use of limited reading materials that are mainly in the form of hardcopies; thus, information technology is somehow new to the students. Moreover, the students have not developed advanced learning skills that are critical for their learning at advanced levels such as colleges and universities.

Li (2006) confirms that extensive body of the literature available indicates that students do not have essential information literacy level, yet it is critical for their learning.

Since new students have limited experience in the use of information technology, they have minimum levels of information literacy. Hence, the strategy aims at increasing awareness among students on the essence of information literacy at an early stage of their learning in colleges and universities.

In modern learning institutions, students who have advanced information literacy have the capacity to enhance their learning and academic performance compared to those who have basic information literacy. Information technology literacy correlates with information literacy because students use technological skills when accessing and utilising information from electronic libraries and other online sources.

Edzan (2008) posits, An IT-literate society must attain a higher level of information literacy so that one can identify, use, and manipulate information (p.266). However, new students experience challenges in information technology, as teaching staff do not emphasise on the importance of information literacy.

Many learning institutions have relegated the responsibility of equipping students with information literacy skills to librarians. Thompson (2002) asserts, with little emphasis by teaching faculty, undergraduates realise that learning library skills would not get them many points in the classroom (p. 219).

As library skills are not significant in earning points to students, attitude, and culture of negligence develop among students. When new students join a certain learning institution, they adopt the same attitude and culture towards library skills, hence prevent them from gaining information literacy skills, which are central in learning.

Eventually, the students and teaching staff contribute to poor levels of information literacy, which ultimately affect learning and academic performance among students.

Marketing among Librarians and Teaching Staff

Since librarians have appropriate knowledge and skills, they have the responsibility of assisting students to identify, search, evaluate, organise, and evaluate information.

Thus, the marketing strategy should focus on librarians and teaching staff because information literacy among students depends on their contributions. When students want to access certain information, they seek assistance from librarians because librarians work demands that they should have a high level of information literacy.

In this view, librarians are the custodians of information in learning institutions, and thus they have a critical role of enabling students to access pertinent information from various forms of libraries. Therefore, information literacy levels among students depend on the work of librarians.

If librarians do not equip students with essential skills of using a library, students will have a low level of information literacy.

Thompson (2002) argues that in the past decades, teaching staff in learning institutions did not consider library skills as an essential subject that should form part of education curriculum, because it had no significance in enhancing academic performance. Hence, librarians alone struggled to promote information literacy among students as teaching staff ignored it.

However, during late 20th century, explosion of information due to advancement in information technology triggered reforms in higher education and academic libraries. The teaching staff then realised that information technology plays a critical role in learning because it determines how students access and utilise information.

In a bid to improve information literacy among students, paradigm shift demands inclusion of teaching staff in improving essential knowledge and skills to equip students with information literacy.

Explosion of information has made it impossible for librarians alone to provide essential knowledge and skills, as a way of improving information literacy among students. Since information literacy forms part of critical reforms, which education systems require, collaborative approach of improving its level among students is critical.

In this view, Thompson (2002) recommends that accreditation standards should compel teaching staff and librarians to collaborate in promoting information literacy level among students.

Thus, librarians and teaching staff should understand that their collaboration in equipping students with information literacy skills is central in improving learning and academic performance of students.

Marketing among Learning Institutions

Learning institutions should instil information literacy in new students for them to access the vast learning materials in libraries. Since there are many ways in which students can gain information literacy, seminar is one of the many ways that are effective in introducing new students into colleges and universities.

New students normally do not have enough information literacy skills, which enable them to identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate obtained information appropriately. Hence, seminars prepare new students well so that they start their careers when having appropriate tools that form the basis of learning.

Lindsay (2003) states that seminar programs help students learn how to increase their problem-solving skills, develop research strategies, critically evaluate information sources, use technology to investigate and present information, and work as a member of a team (p. 23). Hence, through seminars, new students gain essential information literacy to pursue their careers befittingly.

Seminars increase awareness of information literacy among new students, thus transforming their attitudes and culture in learning institutions. A study indicates that, students who participate in seminars during their first year of study have higher retention rate than students who do not participate in information literacy seminars.

The study further indicates, First year seminar participants earn statistically significant higher GPAs compared to nonparticipants (Thomas & Tight 2011, p. 218).

The study shows that information literacy seminars have a significant impact in transforming the learning process and academic performance of students. Therefore, seminars provide an effective means that institutions should employ in promoting and enhancing information literacy among new students.

Conclusion

Explosion of information due to technological advancement has created challenges in how students access and utilise information. Information technology has enabled students to access a vast amount of information. However, identification, location, evaluation, organisation, and communication of the obtained information entail a complex process that students cannot comprehend easily.

In this view, information literacy enables students to gain critical skills for them to identify, locate, evaluate, organise, and communicate derived information in a professional and academic manner.

Colleges and universities that have realised the essence of information literacy have equipped their students with essential knowledge and skills, thus alleviating problems that teaching staff and librarians face when assisting students.

Moreover, learning institutions benefit from information literacy because it promotes teaching, learning, and research. Seminars have proved as effective means of introducing new students to information literacy.

Recommendation

Information literacy is indispensable in learning institutions because it has significant benefits to students, teaching staff, librarians, and institutions. Since new students have a low level of information literacy, learning institutions should formulate means of integrating information literacy into the educational curriculum.

Learning institutions have the responsibility of ensuring that students gain critical knowledge and skills during their studies. Therefore, it is recommendable that teaching staff and librarians collaborate in equipping students with knowledge and skills of information literacy.

As this report indicates, seminars effectively enhance information literacy level among students; therefore, learning institutions should ensure that their new students attend the seminars.

Reference List

Edzan, N 2008, Information literacy development in Malaysia: A Review, International Journal of Libraries and Information Services, vol. 58 no 27, pp. 265-280.

Institute for Development Studies: Strengthening Information Literacy Interventions: using creative approaches to teaching and learning 2010. Web.

Li, H 2006, Information literacy, and librarian-faculty collaboration: A model for success, International Electronic Journal, vol. 29 no. 24, pp. 1-10.

Lindsay, E 2003, A collaborative approach to information literacy in the freshman seminar. Web.

Onwusu-Ansah, E 2005, Debating definitions of information literacy: enough is enough, Literature Review, vol. 54 no. 6, pp.366-374.

Streatfield, D & Markless, S 2008, Evaluating the impact of information literacy in higher education: progress and prospects, International Journal of Libraries and Information Services, vol. 58 no. 102, pp.102-109.

Thomas, T & Tight, M 2011, Institutional transformation to engage a diverse student body, Emerald Group Publishing, New York.

Thompson, G 2002, Information literacy accreditation mandates: What they mean for faculty and librarians, Library Trends, vol. 51 no. 2, pp. 218-241.

In this paper, I would like to speak about one of the instructional techniques described in the readings. The authors describe the lesson developed by Mrs Firpo, who illustrates a set of techniques that can help children see the connection between graphemes and sounds. This topic is of great interest to me because I may also work on the development of students literacy skills. Mrs Firpo introduces the classification of words that end in the same letter, but sound in different ways. For instance, she prompts students to classify such words as funny, my, try, happy, shy, fussy, very, sticky (Tompkins, Campbell, & Green, 2012, p. 143).

Moreover, this teacher encourages learners to add other examples that show the different pronunciation of words ending in y. She introduces a set of words which illustrate the specific correspondence between sounds and graphemes. For example, one can mention such words as pay, may, lay, ray and pray (Tompkins et al. 2012, p. 144). Additionally, she develops exercises that can make learning activities more engaging. Students are also encouraged to use magnetic letters to practice the phoenix and word pattern (Tompkins et al. 2012, p. 145). Moreover, students are asked to do reading and listening exercises. Furthermore, her lesson provides students with opportunities for group work which is also important for the development of literacy because they are able to identify the errors of one another.

I think that the methods and ideas of Mrs Firpo are relevant to students. For me, the most important aspect is that she can teach phonemic awareness with the help of engaging exercises that can keep students interested in their activities. This issue is critical for Mrs Firpo because she does not want children to be bored with the tasks that are assigned to them. To some degree, their activities can be compared to cracking the alphabetic code which is challenging and thought-provoking (Tompkins et al. 2012, p. 146). The learners can see the patterns or rules which one should follow while reading or writing. Furthermore, a student can determine whether there are exceptions from the rules or not. Certainly, I know that there are many methods that can be used to teach phonemic awareness; however, the techniques described by Mrs Firpo are more productive because they support the creativity of children and theyre problem-solving.

It is possible that in the future, I will use some of the methods developed by Mrs Firpo. In my view, phonic awareness is one of the most important literacy skills, and it is vital for later academic achievements of students. I have learned that a teacher should design learning activities that can capture the attention of children. Moreover, one should give examples that can eloquently demonstrate the connections between sounds and graphemes. Admittedly, it may be necessary to modify the approach described by this educator because one may have to teach other phonemic patterns that were not mentioned in the reading. Nevertheless, these techniques should not be overlooked by students.

Reference List

Tompkins, G., Campbell, R., & Green, D. (2012). Literacy for the 21st century. A balanced approach. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Australia.

Social Literacy Perspective

Brandt and Clinton view literacy as a participant in local practices (Brandt & Clinton, 2002). They argue that literacy is not an outcome of local practices since there are social structures and technology in the global society that affect the acquisition of literacy skills. Literacy depends on technologies and agents of transformations which it cannot determine their directions.

Literacy practices are not usually invented by those who use them, but are invented by individual agents who may be in another far away society. Since literacy practices serves multiple interests including those in the larger society, their inventions influences the literacy practices in other regions across the globe. According to them literacy depends more on the powerful technological advances on literacy practices.

Therefore any technological transformation in literacy practices that is made, affects the functions, meanings, uses as well as values of literacy across the globe. This therefore implies that local practices in literacy adopted by a particular society are usually as result of responses to decisions that may have been made in regions far away from the local society.

Although technological transformations play a major role in determining the outcome of learning, this perspective does not provide the significance of other factors in the social environment that influence learning. Technology may not play a major role in helping a learner acquire morals, values or even attitudes which are the social goals of learning.

Democratic Perspective

Richard Darvilles theory of democratic adult literacy views literacy as aimed at developing peoples capacity to participate consciously in the society (Darville, 2001). He acknowledges that there exists an interrelationship between learning and the social environment of the learner which includes the learners life within and outside the classroom.

This therefore implies that literacy learning is influenced by political, social, religious, and economic among other aspects of the society. One of the theories that Darville uses to support his democratic theory of literacy is the Practice theory. This theory focuses on how learners relate to texts and how they interact amongst themselves during and after acquisition of literacy and even after accomplishing various literacy tasks.

Individual abilities of a learner therefore play a role in determining the actions that the learner takes after acquiring literacy skills. On the other hand, the social environment influences the learners perception and attitude towards issues that occur in the society. The social environment would always provide the learner with an opportunity to interact and acquire morals, ethics and values which are in line with the societys norms.

This perspective limits learning to occur only through written materials and interactions but neglects other important learning resources and the role of other aspects of learning such as learning methodologies.

Conceptual and Historical Perspectives

Olson and Torrence feel that literacy practices should be built upon the oral traditions of the particular society and that acquisition of literacy skills would be better achieved if the existing culture in that particular society is able to sustain the literacy practices (Olson & Torrence, n.d).

This therefore implies that the teaching and learning subject content, methodologies as well as the teaching and learning resources should be tailored to meet the norms and needs of that particular society. It is very important to consider the institutional context of the learner when planning the teaching and learning resources and the learning content.

The institutional context here includes the larger society and therefore the literacy practices put in place to impart knowledge and skills into learners should enable them acquire competencies which meet the developmental needs of that society. This view is true for societies which are still developing.

However, to modern societies, it may be irrelevant as learners are developed to play a global role in development. Modern societies focus on providing learning resources and learning contents which make individuals be flexible to adapt to the challenges in the global environment.

Reference List

Brandt, D. & Clinton, K. (2002). Limits of the local: Expanding perspectives on literacy as a social practice. Journal of Literacy Research 34(3): 337-356. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Darville, R. (2001). Adult literacy as social relations: a democratic theorizing. CASAE-ACEEA National Conference 2001- Twentieth Anniversary Proceedings. Ottawa: Carleton University.

Olson, D. R, & Torrance, N. (n.d). On being literate society: Conceptual and historical perspectives on literacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Working out Activities Modeled on Reading-to-Learn Program: Description of Learners

I am a teacher at the College of Technology. I have been training students for careers in commercial and technical fields for 10 years. Due to the fact that the English language prevails in the sphere of international business and technology, it is important for students to have a sufficient command of language. Therefore, students should take additional courses in the English language where the main focus should be made on computing technologies.

It is reasonable to evaluate students language proficiency with regard to the problems students often face at the college of technology. The age of students ranges from 19-23 years and the number of students in the class is about 30-35. This age category of ESL learners has week note-taking skills, week test preparation skills, insufficient language study skills, and improper exam-taking skills. In addition, nearly 25 % of students have difficulties with using a dictionary.

Judging from the above, the majority of my students are at the rudimentary stage. The problem is that most of the English textbooks are of lower-intermediate and upper intermediate level and the newcomers can hardly reach the elementary level. Judging from the exam results and my classroom observations, I have concluded that the problem is the most explicit when it comes to reading and literacy.

The situation is even more serious since it is first necessary to conceive cultural and social peculiarities because most students have English as their second language (Martin and Rose, 2007:2). Additionally, the cultural environment considerably influences the students who have to deal with various texts (Freeboy and Luke, 1990:9).

Regarding students grammar, most freshman students cannot construct a simple English sentence, except for standard expressions and phrases. The English language tenses and aspects provide students with serious problems. In particular, they often confuse Present Perfect, which is possibly predetermined by grammatical differences between English and Arabic, a students mother tongue. In general, students lack knowledge of grammatical structures, vocabulary, and functional words of English.

In order to level up students skills and abilities, it is advisable to implement the stages of the Reading-to-Learn program, specifically, its three stages that are more focused on reading and comprehension. Each stage is carried out with the help of a scaffolding learning cycle (prepare-task-elaborate) that enhances the final results.

Choosing a Text for Reading Activities

Due to the specifics of courses taken by ESL students, particularly courses on computing technology, it is reasonable to choose a text on a relevant topic. For this reading activity, I have chosen the text entitled What is inside a PC System that contains many terms and abbreviations related to computing technology. This text has been chosen from the textbook Infotech: English for computer users, (Santiago, R. E. 2007:12).

Judging from the above-mentioned problems, the chosen text is appropriate for reading and comprehension, although its level exceeds the students language level. The designed tasks will help students to better understand the grammatical peculiarities, structure, and meaning of an extract. While accomplishing assignments, the emphasis will be placed on reading, but writing and listening will be included as well to enhance the text comprehension.

The chosen abstract is accompanied by visual images and pictures. According to Stenglin and Iedema (2001), visual images are social and culturally constructed products which have a culturally specific grammar of their own (p. 194). In this regard, visual images, including their structure, events, and objects play a significant role in comprehending the text under analysis. In addition to the above, the text fully corresponds to the genre and sphere of students specialization.

Identifying the segment of the text that will be used for detailed reading

For practicing reading activities and comprehending the information presented in the text, I have chosen the segment entitled RAM and ROM. The extract begins with the words: The programs and data which pass through the processor& and end with the sentence: The BIOS (Basis Input/output) system uses ROM to control the peripheries (Santiago, 2007:12). This extract encompasses a lot of specific terms and abbreviations and, therefore, it will be quite challenging for students to read it. At the same time, the presented passage has a logical and clear explanation of the notions.

Highlighting the wordings for students to analyze

Once the text segment has been identified, it is necessary to recognize and underline the meaningful wordings and phrases within each sentence. The text can be divided into the following meaningful parts.

Taking into consideration the above approaches, the Reading-to-Learn program encapsulates a mixture of those methods where the top-down approach is mostly used at the first stages and the bottom-down approach is applied largely at the final stages. With regard to this, let us split out texts into meaningful parts that comprise the cues and symbols:

1. The programs and data which pass through the processor must be loaded into the main memory in order to be processed (Santiago, 2007:12).
2. Therefore, when the user runs a program, the CPU looks for it on the hand disk and transfers a copy into the RAM chips (Santiago, 2007:12).
3. RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile  that is, its information is lost when the computer is turned off (Santiago, 2007:12).
4. However, ROM (Read Only Memory) is non-volatile, containing instructions and routines for the basic operations of the CPU (Santiago, 2007:12).
5. The BIOS (Basic Output/Input System) uses ROM to control communication with peripherals (Santiago, 2007:12).

The highlighted parts are the ones that bear a sense load and that construct the semantic framework of the entire text segment. These words serve as the keywords bearing the main information about each sentence.

The Script of Questions and Explanations

In order to pursue the steps of teaching reading, it is necessary to present a detailed analysis of the first sentence. Before proceeding with the scaffolding reading activities, I have organized a situational conversation disclosing concrete questions that will be asked during the classes:

• Teacher (Preparing): So, what are the main keywords in the first sentence? This part describes the process of information monitoring. What do you think about which word includes this process?
• Student (Select): Probably the processor and the main memory?
• Teacher (Elaborate): What about programs and data? Do they refer to the technical terms?
• Students (Select): Yes because data and programs are a part of software and computing technologies.
• Teacher (Affirm and Preparing): Ok, that is right. While reading the next sentence, which words are going to choose as keywords?
• Students: I believe these are abbreviations because they are also specific.
• Teacher (Underlining): Yes, they are specific.

As our learning task will be based on the Reading-to-Learn program, the stages of literacy acquisition will be presented as follows:

1. First, students should accomplish an assignment on recognizing the genre and the purpose of the text.
2. The next assignment will be dedicated to reading each sentence in a highlighted sentence for students to understand the main meaningful parts of the sentence.
3. Then, I will ask students to recognize the keywords in a sentence, namely the ones that construct its meaning. For instance, if to take the first sentence, the meaning words will be programs and data, processor, and main memory. It should be noted that the last word combination is a specific term and, therefore, reading these words separately will change the meaning completely.
4. At the final stage, I will advise students to write down briefly the main idea of an abstract with regard to the keywords found in a sentence. The new text should coincide with the meaning of the original text.

Pertaining to the top-down approach of teaching reading and to the text chosen for analysis, it is necessary to work out a list of questions and situations that will take place in the course of a lesson with regard to scaffolding the learning cycle scheme.

Designing a Sequence of Activities in Accordance with Reading-To-Learn Program

Learning Task #1: Preparing for Reading

This assignment is aimed at defining students understanding of the genre of the text. For this assignment, it is necessary to revise the main characteristics of each genre, placing an emphasis on the usage of terms.

The task:

1. Put the following sentences in the correct order. Which words can be used as links between sentences? For doing this assignment, it is necessary to choose the keywords and identify the way they are connected with each other.

• The BIOS (Basic Output/Input System) uses ROM to control communication with peripherals (Santiago, 2007:12).
• Therefore, when the user runs a program, the CPU looks for it on the hard disk and transfers a copy into the RAM chips (Santiago, 2007:12).
• The programs and data which pass through the processor must be loaded into the main memory in order to be processed (Santiago, 2007:12).
• However, ROM (Read Only Memory) is non-volatile, containing instructions and routines for the basic operations of the CPU (Santiago, 2007:12).
• RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile  that is, its information is lost when the computer is turned off (Santiago, 2007:12).

2. Read the proposed passage and decide the genre with regard to its application in the social sphere.

Learning Task #2: Detailed reading and analysis of the text

1. Read each sentence attentively and try to single out the words that seem to be the most difficult for you. Try to find an explanation for each word presented below:

• the central processing unit, read-only memory, random access memory, volatile, control and communication, environmental pollution, wild nature, biological sex, corporate governance, the processor.

2. Split the following words and word combinations into groups of similar nature of social sphere:

• the central processing unit, read-only memory, random access memory, volatile, control and communication, environmental pollution, wild nature, biological sex, corporate governance, the processor.

Learning task #3: Detailed Reading, part 2

Read each sentence attentively to grasp the main idea. Correlate them with visual images presented in Figure 1. In what way textual information corresponds to what is depicted in pictures? Try to explain in your own words what you have learned from the passage. Pay attention to the spelling of such words as the processor, access, volatile, etc.

Learning task #4: Preparing for the writing

1. Accomplish the exercise. Try to revise the main peculiarities of the English tenses and those of grammatical structure of the English sentence.

1. When the user runs a program, the CPU looks after it on the hard disk and is transferring a copy on the RAM chips.
2. The programs and data which pass through the processor must be loaded in the main memory in order to process.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile  that is, its information is lost when the computer is turned off.

2. Accomplish the spelling exercises to get a better idea of the meaning of some specific words. Remember the words you have unscrambled and note them down into separate cards. After completing the assignment, make up meaningful sentences using the unscrambled words.

• Unscramble the words:
  • Ropessorc, moryme, litevola, ramsgpor, psich, sibac poreanoits.

• Insert the right word into the sentence:
  • & is volatile  that is, its information is & when the computer is turned off. However, & is non-volatile, containing instructions and routines for the basic & of the CPU.

Analysis of Designed Activities with Regard to Reading-to-Learn Program and Related Theories

The presented three stages of reading activities are subjected to the theory of scaffolding learning cycle including preparing for a reading, detailed reading phase, and preparing for the writing stage. Each is predetermined by theoretical concerns and patterns established by the Reading-to-Learn program.

A special consideration deserves the second stage that includes identifying the meaning parts and patterns of each sentence. This process is followed by text marking where a student should highlight the main points. This is the stage where ESL students master the process of note-taking. The detailed reading phase also presupposes the usage of a three-step pattern, including preparing, identifying, and elaborating (Rose et al. 2003: 45).

The identification of the patterns is important because students should be able to independently deduce the meanings and chief words in the sentence. This can be achieved through discussion and elaboration. The results will be considered as great if students demonstrate a high level of abilities in rewriting the text of their sets readings.

In the course of the learning process, it is imperative to establish favorable relationships between a teacher and a student to foster the process of literacy acquisition. According to Rose (2006:3), the best method to achieve this goal is to devise an effective theoretical method of teaching reading as being a viable basis for practice. The scholar argues the necessity to make a considerable shift in teaching practices (Rose, 2006:3).

Apart from the main principles and stages of this program, other models of teaching reading have been taken into account. Hence, while compiling the first learning task, Martins genre-based approach has been analyzed (Martin and Rose, 2007:3). According to this pedagogy, the language is composed of several systems such as lexico-grammatical, semantic, and stylistic ones.

In this regard, the clause can be presented in various dimensions. Hence, one dimension can depict different processes that involve things, places, and people whereas another dimension introduces a flow of information by means of interactions, relations, and attitudes.

The genre-based approach is also essential at the stage of understanding and rewriting a text. Hyland (2004:5) believes that genre methods provide great benefits for writing teachers since this concept allows them to analyze the broader context of textual forms. In this respect, writing and reading processes can be viewed as attempts to communicate with readers. A reading process, therefore, is aimed to understand the purpose and to achieve some results and this helps learners to complement some literacy gaps (Hyon, 1996: 696).

While compiling the writing task, special attention has been focused on the learning theories of closing the gaps through scaffolding (Rose, 2007:4). Applying to this approach, the students should use their background knowledge to recall the missing parts of readings while writing a new text. At this stage, a teachers main task is to provide support for students. In addition, these theoretical concepts have considerably contributed to designing a set of learning tasks where the main emphasis is put on reading.

The above-presented curriculum has also been highly influenced by Bersteins ideas on the principles of classifying knowledge (1975: 86). Although the studies are dedicated to the analysis of the learning process in general, it has provided a solid platform for classifying the reading objects and events.

In particular, the scholar presents a three message system allowing to determine the structure of a text and its context. Such an approach also permits the definition of the boundary relationships between the known and unknown patterns. Such a relationship can be analogous to those between a teacher and a learner.

Conclusion

In conclusion, numerous approaches and theories have been considered for working out viable strategies of literacy enhancement among ESL students who specialize in computing technology. The text chosen for reading and analysis corresponds to students grade level and abilities. It is aimed at understanding and recalling the main terms as well at checking the level of students listening and reading comprehension.

The learning tasks designed specifically for the group ESL students are largely based on the Reading-to-Learn program that involves several stages of the text analysis. But I have chosen the first three steps for my teaching reading activities because of the target students insufficient reading skills. The presented program includes three learning tasks whose main purpose is to check students understanding of grammatical and spelling peculiarities of the English language.

In addition, the program is also focused on developing students writing and narrative skills. The text under consideration is evaluated in accordance with genre, stylistic, semantic, and grammatical aspects. According to this learning program, students can better comprehend the material if going through such stages as listening, reading, writing, and recalling.

It should be noted that the designed task will be successful if a teacher manages to establish favorable interrelations with the learners because it will allow knowing the actual level of their abilities and skills. In addition, a teacher should take into consideration all the social and cultural aspects of the learning process. He/she should be aware of the main stages of the reading process that make a successful reader.

A teachers main task is to foster the readers penetration into the cultural and social context of the text. Therefore, this process should be supported by the teachers knowledge of actual students competencies.

Reference List

Bernstein, B. 1975. Classification and Framing of Educational Knowledge. Changes in the coding of educational transmissions. London: Routledge. pp. 85-144.

Freebody, P. & Luke, A. 1990. Literacy Programs: Debates and Demands in Cultural Context. Prospect. 5(3), pp.8-16.

Hyland, K. 2004. Why Genre? Genre and Second Language Writing. US: University Press. pp. 4-23.

Hyon, S. 1996. Genre in Three Traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 30, pp. 693-722.

Martin, J. R., and Rose, D. 2007. Interacting with Text: the role of dialogue in learning to read and write. Foreign Studies Journal.

Rose, D., Lui-Chivizhe, L., McKnight, A., and Smith A. 2003. Scaffolding Academic Reading and Writing at the Koori Centre. Australian Journal of Indigenous Education. 32, pp. 41-48.

Rose, D. 2006. Towards a reading based theory of teaching. 33^rd International Systemic Functional Congress.

Rose, D. 2007. Preparing for Reading and Writing. Reading to Learn.

Santiago, R. E. 2007. Infotech: English for computer users. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sterling, M., &Iedema. R. 2001. How to analyze visual images: a guide for TESOL teachers. Analyzing English in a global context. London: Routledge, pp. 194-208.

The role of the teacher is a basic requirement for the achievement of an effective learning process. In the context of second language writing several theories have been established; which are commonly the process theories and the genre theories. The process theories use the ideas and assumptions of cognitive psychology and literary composition. On the other hand, genre writing is more focused on purposes, and socially positioned responses to particular contexts and society. Even though, the two methodologies of second language writing have various critics; genre theories have proved to be more effective in the learning process. This paper will focus on the various strategies of achieving successful second language writing (Bakhtin, 1986).

The topic of second language writing is a much-contested area that requires expertise in the mode of selecting a successful methodology. On this aspect, many teachers have been in a dilemma on which way to take between the process approach and the genre theories. In the learning environment, different situations require different situations; whereby teachers require expertise in handling various phenomena. The issue of learner difference, as well as achievement of set objectives, should be given ultimate attention. The various theories are however essential though not the final solution to the effective learning process. Research on efficiencies of the processes has shown varied results on the strategies in different social environments as well as different writing topics. In this case, the genre theory is more appropriate and effective in varied learning situations (Bakhtin, 1986).

Based on the failures and critics of the process approach, the genre approach seeks to give solutions to the various writing challenges. Various schools of the genre have all tried to establish realistic strategies which help in realizing a successful writing process. The genre theories are more realistic in that they are more literal in composition and encourage students to share wider social contexts. Though, the different schools of the genre theories have established and explained regulations of purpose, structure, and social influence; their emphasis on the context and research methods differ significantly (Bizzell, 1992).

Importantly, it is evident that genre theories expound on the understanding of individual learners on the use and interpretation of certain communicative cases. This is a big boost to the individual writers knowledge and skills thus helping in the achievement of efficient and effective writing. In addition, genre theories and strategies are consistent with the aspect that; writing is positioned and investigative of general societal practices. From an analytical point of view, its realized that; genre strategies of second language writing are effective in making critical writing in relevant contexts. Despite the various strings and advantages, genre theories have had varied criticism (Bizzell, 1992).

The topic on second language writing should not be narrowed to genre theories; rather, integration of teacher skills, ideas from process approaches, and genre theory. The genre theories dont consider the existence of learner differences in the essence of applying uniform structures. In this case, the theory is very exclusive in that it limits individual expressions and creativity. In this situation, the setting of specific contexts for writers to write on may lead to critical discussions but fails to encourage innovations and originality of writers. The intervention of teachers is always welcomed but should be regulated to avoid instances where writers efficiency and competency are compromised. This theory is also based on null assumptions regarding restrictions on contexts and purpose of writing as a strategy of successful writing (Bakhtin, 1986).

Each of the approaches of the second language has its critics; whereby teachers expertise is greatly essential for the success of the process. In this regard, teachers should take note of integrating the strengths of the process approach with those of the genre theories to achieve an efficient and effective learning process.

Reference list

Bakhtin, M. (1986). Speech genres and other late essays. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Bizzell, P. (1992). Academic discourse and critical consciousness. Pittsburgh: University Of Pittsburgh Press.

Abstract

This paper is a report on a research project that builds on the course readings and interviews regarding financial literacy in ordinary citizens. The goal of the project was to examine the levels of financial literacy in ordinary citizens and their implications for financial literacy education.

The paper incorporates a literature review, methodology, results, discussions, and implications in a single research project. The effects and implications of the respondents financial skills and decisions for financial literacy education and regulation are discussed.

The past years were marked with the growing amount of scholarly literature about financial literacy. Professional educators and financial regulators are increasingly concerned about the low levels of financial literacy in the developed world. Thousands of people lack skills and abilities needed to take even the simplest financial decisions.

In the meantime, promoting financial security and raising financial stability and wellbeing in families is impossible without fostering effective, productive, and quality financial decision-making.

Families and consumers that can take relevant financial decisions further contribute to continued economic growth and community development. Therefore, financial literacy is not merely a matter of individual consumers and their families but a reliable factor of sustained community development and economic growth.

Unfortunately, the body of information regarding financial literacy behaviors in individual consumers is rather scarce. Little is known of the modes and patterns of financial decisions in young populations, e.g., students. There is an emerging consensus that financial decisions and behaviors have far-reaching implications for financial literacy education and research.

Yet, how to design effective financial literacy programs is still one of the most problematic questions. The goal of this paper is to explore how ordinary people make financial decisions and read financial documents.

The debate on whether financial literacy is important continues to persist. This paper will create a general picture of financial literacy and its implications for education. The recommendations for the future research will be provided.

Research Aims and Questions

The aim of this research is to examine how ordinary people take financial decisions and deal with the daily financial tasks. This information will help to understand whether or not financial literacy is important for individuals and communities and how financial literacy should be taught. This paper will answer the following research questions:

• What is financial literacy?
• How do ordinary people read financial documents?
• Do ordinary people have abilities and skills needed to successfully cope with their daily financial tasks?
• Education vs. regulation: is it worth teaching individuals the basic financial literacy skills?
• How to develop effective financial literacy courses for individuals and community groups?

Literature Review

Financial literacy remains one of the most popular topics of scholarly research. Much has been written and said about the poor state of financial literacy in the developed world and its implications for social and economic development. Researchers and scholars in literacy studies suggest that financial literacy must become one of the top social priorities for the developed world (Hogarth, Beverly & Hilgert, 2003).

Simultaneously, only a few authors were able to define financial literacy and its implications for education. According to Yates and Ward (2011), financial literacy is the ability to use knowledge and skills to manage financial resources effectively for a lifetime of financial well-being (p.66).

Simply stated, financial literacy is a complex set of skills, abilities, and knowledge that help to manage financial resources in ways that promote individual and collective financial well-being. Buckland (2010) conceptualized the notion of financial literacy around three different theoretical perspectives: behavioral economics, neoclassical economic theory, and institutional theory.

These theoretical perspectives can become a useful way to understand financial literacy implications for financial knowledge and decision-making in ordinary consumers (Buckland, 2010). Unfortunately, the data on financial literacy in the developed world is relatively scarce (Buckland, 2010).

The argument on whether or not differences in financial literacy contribute to great social divides continues to persist (Collins, 1995). Contemporary scholars suggest that literacy is an essentially social skill that produces heavy impacts on the course and direction of social development (Olson & Torrance, 2001).

Literacy is an important predictor of complex social organizations and democratic formations (Olson & Torrance, 2001). Therefore, the impacts and significance of financial literacy for the future of economic stability in the developed world need to be understood.

Education or regulation?  this is one of the most popular topics of professional discussion. More often than not, education is considered as the vital source of financial literacy knowledge and skills for ordinary citizens. Hogarth, Beverly and Hilgert (2003) write that financial education increases financial knowledge and improves financial behaviors.

Financial education courses and programs do not merely provide financial information but support ordinary citizens in setting realistic financial goals, managing scarce financial resources, and promoting lifetime financial well-being (Hogarth, Beverly & Hilgert, 2003).

Financial education programs are a relevant source of peer support that increases individuals motivation to manage their cash flows more effectively (Hogarth, Beverly & Hilgert, 2003). This is, probably, why employers in the United States have begun to develop financial literacy programs for their employees (Don et al, 2010).

However, not everyone agrees that education is the best instrument of developing financial literacy skills in ordinary citizens. Financial literacy is impossible without developing and implementing effective regulatory mechanisms.

For example, Canadian Finance Minister Jim Flaherty suggests that financial literacy programs are only a part of the problem, and effective regulation must ensure consumer protection in complex financial decisions (Schmidt, 2009). As a result, financial literacy continues posing a serious challenge to financial literacy educators and regulators in the developed countries.

The current body of literature regarding financial literacy, education, and regulation is very scarce. There is no consensus on how to define financial literacy (Roseman, 2009). Also, whether or not financial literacy education must occur over entire lifetime or operate through a well-developed system of programs and courses is difficult to define (Roseman, 2009).

No single set of instruments to measure financial literacy has been developed so far (Lusardi & Mitchell, 2009; Yates & Ward, 2011). These are just some of the reasons why the picture of financial literacy and its implications for education/ regulation remains uneven. Obviously, there is a need to define and conceptualize financial literacy.

The need to develop a system of objective, reliable financial literacy measurements is urgent. Financial literacy has far-reaching implications for the social and financial well-being of the entire societies, and it is imperative for governments and institutions to make a collective effort and develop complex financial literacy programs and lifetime education courses for ordinary citizens.

Methodology

For the purpose of this research, the benefits of qualitative methodology were used. Interviews were used to develop a clear picture of financial literacy and the ways ordinary citizens use their knowledge and skills to manage their financial resources. Interviews served the main instrument of primary data collection. Interviews as the method of data collection can benefit any study.

First, interviewing exemplifies a certain style of social and interpersonal interaction. [&] in-depth interviews develop and build on intimacy and resemble the forms of talking one finds among close friends (Gubrium & Holstein, 2002, p.104). Interviews favor the discussion of the issues of literacy and possible barriers to literacy education in ordinary citizens.

Face-to-face interviews are the best way to develop in-depth knowledge of the issue and obtain relevant information directly from subjects. Interviews favor the development of trust and rapport between researchers and interviewees; they allow creating a complex picture of the interviewees reactions and emotional responses to various issues and questions.

Certainly, face-to-face interviews are not without limitations. They are extremely time-consuming and do not allow anonymity (Gillham, 2000). Interviews are unsuitable, whenever sensitive information and questions need to be discussed (Gillham, 2000).

However, interviews present excellent research opportunities in the context of financial literacy. This is, probably, why contemporary researchers use interviews to look deeper into the issues and implications of financial literacy problems and their effects on social development (Buckland, 2010; Lusardi & Mitchell, 2009).

The sample of participants included 10 ordinary citizens of different socioeconomic status, education background, and cultural belonging. Face-to-face interviews were conducted, to explore and measure respondents financial literacy skills and evaluate their implications for education and regulation.

Each interview included standard questions and a simple financial task. The latter was borrowed from Lusardi and Mitchell (2009). Each interview lasted between 30 to 50 minutes. All participants had the fullest information about the purpose and objectives of the study. Participation in the study was voluntary.

All participants had the right to withdraw at any stage of the research project. All participants had the right not to answer any question they deemed inappropriate.

The goal of the interview was to decide whether the participants could read financial documents, take financial decisions, make investments, and whether or not they were mislead by the information in the simplest financial documents. The questions for the interview are included in Appendix 1.

Results/ Discussion

In total, 10 participants agreed to participate in the study. All participants were ordinary citizens, who had never dealt with professional finance and had no experience working in financial industries or institutions. All participants were randomly selected and their participation was voluntary.

None of the participants withdrew from the study. None of the participants refused to answer any interview questions. Interview questions had been distributed among all participants before the actual interview took place. As a result, all participants had enough time to prepare for the interview.

None of the research participants had professional financial knowledge or a degree in financial studies. 8 participants (80%) confessed that they had the basic knowledge of finances from the school/ college/ university. 7 participants (70% of the sample) categorized themselves as low-income citizens; 3 others (30%) called themselves middle-class citizens.

At the beginning of each interview, all participants had to resolve a simple financial task. The task had been borrowed from the study by Lusardi and Mitchell (2009), who explored the patterns of complex economic decisions in ordinary consumers. The task was as follows:

Suppose you had $100 in a savings account and the interest rate was 2% per year. After 5 years, how much do you think you would have in account if you left the money to grow: more than $102, exactly $102, or less than $102? (Lusardi & Mitchell, 2009, p.5)

Only one out of ten answers was correct. Using the task as the measure of financial literacy in ordinary citizens, it is easy to see that the level of financial literacy in ordinary people is extremely low and does not depend on the level of their income or education.

Regardless of the presence or absence of the basic financial skills from college/ university/ school and irrespective of their income and socioeconomic status, 90% of the research participants failed to cope with the discussed financial task. These results are further supported by Lusardi and Mitchell (2009), who confirmed that respondents performance on this financial literacy question was strikingly low.

Ordinary citizens lack financial literacy abilities and skills and cannot take relevant financial decisions. However, that the respondents cannot make simple calculations does not mean that they cannot cope with other financial tasks. Structured interviews included questions regarding respondents financial decisions, the use of financial services, financial accounts, bills, and credit cards.

Structured interviews had to facilitate understanding of the most important financial mechanisms, including credit mechanisms, investment decisions, and institutional practices affecting their incomes.

Seven out of ten respondents (70%) said that they used their knowledge, intuition and family advice as the principal sources of financial decisions and support. Simultaneously, 90% of respondents confessed that they had never used outside financial services and would never trust their financial resources to outside professionals.

Even if reading and understanding financial documents was a serious problem, the participants would never ask for professional help. Three study participants (30%) said that they found it shameful and inappropriate to ask for external financial assistance. These findings have far-reaching implications for the future of financial literacy education in the country.

It is clear that the respondents are aware of the low level of their financial literacy skills. Simultaneously, they experience the fear of stigmatization for being unable to cope with even the simplest financial tasks. Yet, the fear of stigmatization and the lack of appropriate financial literacy skills are just one side of the coin.

Pringle (2005) suggests that, apart from the need to develop comprehensive literacy skills, ordinary citizens require readable information. According to Pringle (2005), hard-to-read documents for people with low financial literacy are essentially the same as steps for handicapped people in wheelchairs.

Therefore, low financial literacy is a serious challenge for educators, financial and credit institutions, and the society in general. The latter, instead of letting illiterate people improve their financial skills, isolates and separates them from available education opportunities.

Why ordinary citizens refuse from using financial services is yet to be discovered. In the meantime, it is important to analyze how ordinary people use their knowledge to deal with various financial tasks and take financial decisions on a daily basis.

Questions in the structured interview forms were roughly divided into three basic categories: (1) questions related to cash flow decisions; (2) questions related to savings; and (3) questions related to investments and institutional policies.

In terms of cash flow decisions, all respondents had to answer questions regarding their accounts, credit cards use, and budgeting planning and decisions. 100% of respondents confirmed that they had a bank account and a credit card. However, only 3 respondents (30%) said that they paid monthly credit sums in full.

Six respondents (60%) said that they knew of the fines and penalties for late credit payments but did not know how much money they would have to pay. Only 2 respondents (20%) said that they planned their budgets long-term. All respondents said that they calculated their taxes on their own, and 80% of them faced considerable difficulties with reading tax regulations and requirements.

Whether the lack of financial planning is the result of poor financial literacy skills is difficult to define. The future research must focus on the analysis of financial planning difficulties, the complexity of the regulatory documents and financial language.

Most respondents are absolutely satisfied with the quality of family advice in financial decisions. Moreover, they accept difficulties with reading financial documents for granted. Low-income respondents suggest that they do not need relevant financial skills, since their financial resources are scarce and even professionals cannot manage them effectively.

These results contradict to those of Buckland (2010), who found that low-income citizens could successfully diversify their activities, use these activities to raise their income, and constrain the use of credit. By contrast, all respondents, irrespective of their income and status, use credit card opportunities but rarely pay their credit obligations in full.

They may be unaware of the penalties and other punitive measures that are used by banks to deal with irresponsible clients.

Financial education and comprehensive regulatory guidelines could help citizens to develop better awareness of the banking and credit mechanisms and their effects on the individual budgeting decisions. Financial literacy education could help ordinary citizens to plan their limited budgets in ways that minimize the use of credit resources and help them to cope with their financial obligations on time.

In terms of saving, 100% of respondents said that they tried to save their money. However, 8 respondents (80%) confessed that they lacked knowledge and abilities needed to save money effectively. One female respondent told a story of her financial literacy endeavors: she said that she tried to enroll in financial literacy courses, trying to improve their financial decisions and family wellbeing.

However, her husband was against her decision to improve her financial education. This story supports Horsmans (2006) thesis, which suggests that gender and violence prevent women from improving their financial literacy skills. All respondents confessed that they wanted to improve their financial decisions but did not know how to do it.

Based on these results, (a) ordinary citizens want to develop better financial literacy skills; (b) ordinary citizens are aware of the lack of financial literacy abilities; (c) it is not enough to develop effective financial education programs and complex regulatory mechanisms  rather, it is essential that the most serious barriers to improved financial literacy are eliminated.

Ordinary citizens need better knowledge of saving schemes proposed by banks. They must be able to weigh the pros and cons of various financial mechanisms. They must take relevant decisions about their financial resources and the ways to improve their wellbeing.

Improving the state of financial literacy is impossible without a complex effort that involves financial literacy programs, financial support, and comprehensive regulations that can be easily understood by ordinary consumers.

That respondents lack sufficient financial literacy skills and cannot take relevant financial decisions is further supported by the fact that only few (20%) respondents make investments and only few (30%) respondents are aware of the institutional policies affecting their incomes. Both respondents who had ever made investments categorized themselves as middle class citizens.

The resources they had invested in bonds, stocks, and various projects were not significant and would not cause any serious impact on their wellbeing. All study participants recognized that making investments was often an unachievable task, since they did not feel optimistic about their chances to earn additional profits. Two respondents said they lacked knowledge and awareness of the investment law and legal requirements.

Most respondents (80%) said that they had a fear of losing their scarce financial resources as a result of improper financial decisions. When asked about the lack of professional financial support, most respondents (90%) said that they needed such a support but did not think that any financial agency or institution would provide such assistance for free.

These results have far-reaching implications for financial literacy education and regulations. First, most ordinary citizens encounter serious difficulties with reading and interpreting even the simplest financial documents. This is particularly the case of credit cards: individuals apply to credit cards as the source of additional financial resources but fail to meet their credit obligations on time.

Many of them are unaware of the penalties and fines that may follow. Second, most respondents fail to cope with the simplest financial tasks but do not feel optimistic about using outside financial agencies and support. The fear of stigma, the lack of trust and awareness about the institutions providing such support explain these results.

Third, most respondents never make any investments and are unaware of the institutional policies impacting their incomes. Contrary to Bucklands (2010) findings, ordinary citizens have little knowledge of the institutional and financial policies that can help them to improve their financial wellbeing.

These results do not support Hogarth, Beverly and Hilgerts (2003) findings with respect to education and its implications for financial literacy. The results of the present study suggest that education is hardly a reliable correlate of saving and investment decisions and most respondents, irrespective of their education status, express similar financial literacy concerns.

It goes without saying that this research is not without limitations. First, the sample is too small. Second, given the difficulties with measuring financial literacy, the interview questions and financial tasks may not provide an adequate picture of financial literacy in ordinary citizens.

Third, when ordinary individuals recognize problems and difficulties with reading and understanding financial documents, it is not always clear whether these difficulties are the product of low financial literacy or are due to the complexity of financial language. Nevertheless, these results could change the future of financial literacy, literacy education and research.

To begin with, no financial literacy program is effective, unless it helps to reduce the public stigma of financial illiteracy and eliminates the barriers to enrolling in financial literacy programs. Financial literacy education alone cannot suffice to move ordinary citizens to a more advanced level of financial literacy.

Roseman (2009) writes that there is plenty of useful information published by banks, investment dealers, and credit unions that must help take relevant financial decisions, but it is essential that this information is communicated to people at times, when they are willing to hear it and use it to improve their financial wellbeing.

A balanced combination of education and regulation is the key to improving the state of financial literacy in society. The future research must focus on the analysis of financial language in financial documents and the effects, which the complexity of financial language produces on the quality of individual financial decisions.

Conclusion/ Recommendations

The aim of this research paper was to explore the levels of financial literacy in ordinary citizens, the ways they deal with daily financial tasks and read financial documents. The research had to facilitate public understanding of the difficulties, which ordinary citizens encounter while reading financial documents. The results of the research suggest that ordinary citizens are aware of their poor financial skills.

They want to improve their financial literacy but do not know how to do it. The fear of stigma and shame are the principal barriers to obtaining financial literacy education in ordinary citizens. Thus, regulation alone cannot improve the quality of financial decisions and contribute to sustained economic growth in society.

Effective financial literacy education must eliminate barriers and stigma and help ordinary citizens to improve their financial decisions and skills on a lifetime basis. This is the best way to ensure that ordinary citizens can understand the meaning and complexity of financial regulations and manage scarce resources in ways that improve their financial well-being.

This research paper is not without limitations. First, the sample is too small. Second, the results of the study analysis do not help to understand how exactly financial literacy courses must be designed and delivered. That ordinary citizens face serious barriers to obtaining and improving financial literacy education is obvious.

Yet, how to remove these barriers is not always clear. Nevertheless, the results suggest that regulations alone cannot improve the quality of citizens financial decisions. Regulations and punitive measures will not help ordinary citizens to solve their daily financial problems. Given that financial literacy contributes to economic and social growth, financial literacy education must become one of governments top priorities.

References

Buckland, J. (2010). Are low-income Canadians financial literate? Placing financial literacy in the context of personal and structural constraints. Adult Education Quarterly, 60(4), 357-376.

Collins, J. (1995). Literacy and literacies. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 75-93.

Gillham, B. (2000). The research interview. Continuum International Publishing Group.

Gubrium, J.F. & Holstein, J.A. (2002). Handbook of interview research: Context and method. SAGE.

Hogarth, J.M., Beverly, M.A. & Hilgert, S.G. (2003). Patterns of financial behaviors: Implications for community educators and policymakers. Paper presented at the 2003 Federal Reserve System Community Meeting.

Horsman, J. (2006). Moving beyond stupid: Taking account of the impact of violence on womens learning. International Journal of Educational Development, 26, 177-188.

Lusardi, A. & Mitchell, O.S. (2009). How ordinary consumers make complex economic decisions: Financial literacy and retirement readiness. National Bureau of Economic Research. Web.

Lusardi, A. & Rooij, M. (2010). Financial literacy: Evidence and implications for consumer education. Netspar Panel Papers. Web.

Olson, D.R. & Torrance, N. (2001). On becoming a literate society: Literacy in developing societies. In D.R. Olson and N. Torrance, The making of literate societies, Wiley-Blackwell, 123-140.

Pringle, J. (2005). No justice without clear language. Literacies, 6, 12-13.

Roseman, E. (2009). Reading up on financial literacy. Task Force on Financial Literacy. Web.

Schmidt, S. (2009). Flaherty emphasizes financial literacy over restrictions. Canwest News Service. Web.

Yates, D. & Ward, C. (2011). Financial literacy: Examining the knowledge transfer of personal finance from high school to college to adulthood. American Journal of Business Education, 4(1), 65-78.

It is important to note that literacy is not limited only to reading and writing because there are key elements of being able to share ideas as well. By observing the activities during Literacy Night, it is possible to describe them as enriching since they reveal various dimensions and intricacies constituting literacy. The core observations should be noted on the essentiality of decoding strategies and reading aloud, both of which enhance ones literacy.

Firstly, Literacy Night was highly useful and insightful in illuminating the connection between reading and writing. The decoding activity was impactful in shifting my understanding of how to derive meaning and key pieces of information from the body of text. The latter directly improved my literacy when it comes to writing since decoding capabilities directly translate into encoding skills. My key observation was that writing could incorporate complex vocabulary while remaining easy to read and understand at the same time. Secondly, a major observation should be noted about the activity of reading aloud, which showed the deep connection between reading and idea-sharing skills. For the most part, my reading was limited to silent context, which is why when I engaged in an aloud reading activity, I observed how important the intonations, accentuations, and pauses are for better communication.

In conclusion, activities on decoding strategies and reading aloud practices enriched and enhanced my understanding of literacy elements, such as reading, writing, and speaking, and their interconnectedness with each other. By observing their effects during Literacy Night, it is possible to describe them as insightful in enhancing dimensions and intricacies constituting literacy. Therefore, I learned that literacy is not limited only to reading and writing as they are commonly understood.

Despite the seeming simplicity of literacy education, it requires multiple competencies and skill sets to provide efficient tutoring. In this sense, a qualified teacher who has sufficient knowledge and experience is the most critical factor in any literacy program. Moreover, working with children and adults with limited English proficiency requires unique approaches to teaching, making the role of the educator even more crucial. The current essay shows why a qualified teacher is critical in literacy programs and examines three factors that can improve student outcomes.

Discussion

Literacy education is a complicated task that requires multiple teacher competencies. For instance, Oliveira et al. (2019) specify that knowledge in various areas of reading and writing, such as phonemic awareness, spelling, orthography, and syntax, is necessary to provide high-quality tutoring. In other words, simply being a native speaker does not guarantee that the teacher can be an efficient literacy instructor. Consequently, the first thing that educators can do to enhance learning outcomes is to understand the audience. A static approach with no games or interactions might be ineffective while teaching literacy to children, but it might be more practical for adults with limited language proficiency (Oliveira et al., 2019). The second factor is to personalize education as much as possible. Every student is at a different level of proficiency, and teachers should address their needs individually in case the school provides sufficient resources. Lastly, teachers should continually learn more about innovative learning strategies and approaches in literacy education (Oliveira et al., 2019). It can imply both evidence-based practices and new technologies, all of which require significant teacher competencies.

Conclusion

There is a large variety of approaches, techniques, and strategies that can improve learning outcomes in literacy education. Nevertheless, the one common variable in all of these methods is the teacher. It is the primary role of educators to convey relevant information to students in an engaging manner, and it requires numerous competencies and skill sets. Ultimately, teachers should continually hone their skills to provide high-quality tutoring and address the needs of a diverse student base.

Reference

Oliveira, C., Lopes, J., & Spear-Swerling, L. (2019). Teachers academic training for literacy instruction. European Journal of Teacher Education, 42(3), 315-334. Web.

Introduction

Approaches to learning and teaching have often been subjected to changes due to the continuous need of achieving the best educational outcomes for students. Thematic and cross-curricular approaches to curriculum planning gave been recently brought up to educators attention due to their innovativeness and attention to factors that have the potential in making a change in students understanding of subjects, their literacy, and overall knowledge development. This research paper will focus on exploring the benefits and challenges of thematic and cross-curricular approaches to curriculum planning in primary education with the focus on student literacy.

Cross-curricular or thematic instruction planning raises many questions for teachers, especially with regards to connecting their perceptions about teachers with students understanding (Rowley & Cooper 2009). Therefore, the lack of balance can significantly limit the success of integrating a cross-curricular approach towards learning. It has been recommended for schools to pay closer attention to the needs of teachers in planning a thematic curriculum and facilitate the establishment of policies that will help support teachers and their students in the process of implementing a cross-curricular approach.

Thematic Approach Toward Early Literacy Teaching

The effective teaching of literacy has been subjected to extended debates for over five decades, with a variety of approaches coming in and out of curriculum development procedures (Harvey 2013). Because modern classrooms are complex and dynamic environments for learning, there is a need for identifying the most beneficial approaches to teaching that can help students achieve the best learning outcomes (Harvey 2013). Cross-curricular and thematic learning for facilitating the development of literacy skills can be applied to promote students learning and introduce new strategies targeted at the improvement of teaching strategies (Curriculum Development Council 2017). In the context of primary school learning, thematic cross-curricular instruction is likely to help students develop new literacy skills based on previous knowledge while integrating innovative strategies that connect literacy learning with other disciplines.

A thematic approach to curriculum implies the organization of material taught during a class into themes, which can include different disciplines such as literacy, sciences, math, and so on (A thematic approach 2015). Such themes explore broad subjects, the use of which can be disseminated into several disciplines. For example, chocolate can be the theme for planning a curriculum; in this case, each subject (math, science, literacy, etc.) will integrate the topic of chocolate. An option for this may be planning a trip to a chocolate factory and developing assignments for each week. While during a math course students will be taught on the use of money, charts, and numbers in the process of making chocolate, a literacy class is likely to focus on experimental writing, watching a movie about a chocolate factory, and so on. It should be mentioned that a thematic approach goes hand-in-hand with cross-curricular teaching since it implies establishing connections between different subjects that all focus on exploring a particular theme, like, for example, chocolate (Centre for Global Education 2014). When it comes to literacy, the thematic cross-curricular instruction is expected to broaden students vocabulary, enhance fluency in writing and reading, facilitate a better comprehension of new subjects, as well as improve their overall awareness in learning (Hayes 2010).

Benefits of Thematic Cross-Curricular Instruction

Literacy refers to a combination of skills that students need to learn to facilitate successful reading and writing, which are essential for their further learning and functioning in modern society (Nordquist 2017). According to the findings of the Centre for Global Education (2014) (funded by the UK government), cross-curricular approaches to curriculum planning are expected to bring the following broad benefits:

• Creating rich environments for a variety of learning opportunities;
• Making the process of learning more meaningful;
• Building opportunities for the development of new cross-curricular skills;
• Allowing learners to create links between subjects.

In the context of primary school learning, cross-curricular instruction is likely to create a basis for students future learning. Since a thematic approach is linked to cross-curricular instruction, it is also important to mention its advantages. According to

Tuffelmire (2017), a thematic approach to curriculum planning has the following benefits:

• Establishing motivation through integrated theme units;
• Building new knowledge on prior knowledge;
• Demonstrating the understanding of subjects through using multiple methods;
• Involving a cross-curricular approach.

Theme units allow students in primary classes to use their knowledge across several disciplines. Under a specific theme, students can use different skills to further their knowledge. During literacy development, primary school learners are encouraged to use non-scientific knowledge to discover new skills that they can use in the future; however, the non-scientific knowledge during literacy development is expected to be supported and reinforced by skills learned during such subjects as maths or sciences (Scottish Government 2014). A thematic and cross-curricular approach to curriculum development is considered motivational because it encourages educators to be very creative in encouraging the adaptation of new skills (Tufferlmire, 2017).

If to provide an example of successful integration of cross-curricular instruction, it is essential to mention the study conducted by John (2015) who focused on exploring a new thematic, integrated curriculum for primary schools of Trinidad and Tobago (p. 172). After the integration of the thematic curriculum into students learning, teachers at primary schools where the study was conducted mentioned that the new approach solved several problems that they used to have. To be specific, the teachers mentioned that the thematic approach was extremely effective in developing literacy and numeracy skills through the use of cross-curricular instruction development (John 2015). Also, it was found that the thematic approach helped teachers develop systematic differentiated instruction to meet the needs of a range of students (John 2015, p. 173).

It is important to mention that teachers should choose topics that will be interesting to young learners; for example, everyone loves chocolate, and probably a lot of young students have seen or heard of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. By integrating familiar topics into learning when developing a curriculum, teachers are highly likely to capture students attention and achieve successful learning outcomes. Therefore, building on prior knowledge is a benefit of thematic and cross-curricular literacy that is highly likely to bring the most success to the process of learning.

Challenges in Thematic Cross-Curricular Instruction

First, the most common complication associated with the successful integration of a thematic cross-curricular approach toward instruction refers to the pressure of teachers to meet timetables and avoid overloading the curriculum (Savage 2010). Importantly, this challenge has been placed in the center of the educational reform in the United Kingdom where teachers reported the lack of confidence in integrating cross-curricular themes in their practice (Savage 2010). Second, due to teachers lack of self-confidence, cross-curricular instruction requires an emphasis on teacher development first before implementing this innovative approach to practice.

In curriculum planning, a thematic cross-curricular approach toward literacy development presents several challenges for both students and their teachers. First, developing such an approach implies a complex process planning that should take into consideration every detail regarding the use of logistics for navigating between different subjects. This means that communication between teachers of different subjects should be clear and transparent to ensure the alignment of a theme within and between skill sets (Earp, 2016). According to the National Research Council (2012), an additional challenge within this framework refers to getting both students and teachers on the same page with regards to the demands of the thematic curriculum. When developing literacy skills, teachers should explain clearly what are the expected outcomes regarding reading, writing, and comprehension, as well as how these outcomes will be achieved through the use of thematic learning (Earp, 2016). It is sometimes hard to communicate such expectations because students may get confused or scared or possible challenges.

For students, a cross-curricular approach toward literacy teaching in primary school is challenging because of the risks of confusion (Jones 2010). Because students learn the same topic, but from different perspectives, they may often get confused between different subjects, which creates some difficulties for the learning process. Therefore, teachers should be clear about the differentiations between learning similar subjects in different disciplines and help students assign specific skills to the expected learning outcomes (Coe, Aloisi, Higgins & Major 2014).

Conclusions and Recommendations

It can be concluded that thematic cross-cultural instruction in teaching literacy at primary school can bring a variety of benefits such as building new skills on prior knowledge or making connections between literacy and subjects such as maths or sciences. Because of the existing connections between subjects, teachers may experience the lack of integration within the curriculum while students may get confused between subjects.

It is recommended to teach literacy by using familiar topics and information that students have already encountered. If, for example, the topic is chocolate, literacy assignments can include retelling episodes from a movie (e.g., Charlie and the Chocolate Factory), writing letters to Willy Wonka, and so on. Due to the all-encompassing nature of cross-curricular instruction, teachers are encouraged to use their imagination and be clear about their expectations of students skills.

Reference List

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Tuffelmire, D 2017,What are the benefits of using the thematic approach with kindergarten students?, Web.