Category: Literacy

The concept of language is a complex one; it has been long ago discovered to be not isolated from the communicative situations and individual differences of speakers. The linguistic discourse has hence become a subject of close scrutiny, and the socio-cultural, individual, institutional and other implications of language usage have come to the forefront of scientific attention.

The connection of language, identity, and social practices of individuals has to be studied in the whole complicity of their revelations in the overall discursive essence.

There is much empirical evidence nowadays on how identity is reflected through language, and on the ways language becomes and indispensible part of the human social practices and experiences. There are also findings on how the connection between language and identity can be used to enhance language learning and acquiring linguistic proficiency.

The article of Joseph (2006) summarizes the main ideas of how language has become a useful tool in both expressing ones identity and evaluating the identities of other people on the basis of their language usage peculiarities.

Joseph (2006) emphasizes the fact that language is now used more in the function of representation than communication, and that the transformation derives from the cultural and individual diversity of speakers evident nowadays.

One more useful finding of Joseph (2006) is that the conventional vision of realization of only national identity in language is now actively debated because of the need to take into consideration the individual contribution every person makes into the linguistic usage and identity formation as well as realization through linguistic means.

The opinion about language representing identity in action is shared by Lane (2009); the researcher has made this conclusion based on the results of the survey conducted with two immigrant Finnish groups residing on the territory of Canada.

Their national identities reflected through language turned out identical, but the social practices they implied by language usage differed substantially, thus making them distinct. Therefore, individual identity becomes a significant component of linguistic usage patterns and is reflected though symbolic attributes in linguistic practices worldwide.

Language is also based on identity realization through the individual practices and experiences, both within the language learning and usage framework and beyond it. This point can be well illustrated by the work of Darville (2009) proving that true literacy in language learning can be acquired only in case when learned items can be tied to the learners real life experience.

It means that literacy should be perceived as practice, with the language representing a social construct that is exercised in the context of learners lives, perceptions, opinions and feelings (Darville, 2009).

Another finding in the field of tying the learning process to the students identity is provided by Hamilton (2009)  the author investigates the role of individual educational plans, and the role of teacher as a mediator formulating the plan according to the students educational needs, ambitions, and state requirements.

Another powerful work on the significance of identity considerations in language studies has been provided by Atwood (2007)  it is an account of the Nunavit training camp in which Indigenous women were taught their ethnicity, traditions, customs and crafts. At the same time, they were taught literacy, which was hard for teachers because of lack of self-esteem and understanding of the literacys importance for Nunavit women.

It became possible to engage the camp participants in learning to write and read only when the parallel between their customs and literacy was drawn, making them realize the power knowledge could give them (Atwood, 2007).

The author finally makes a conclusion that identity is a part of people that defines their paths, and the Nunavit historical context of oppression and traumatic educational experiences are also barriers in learning hard to overcome within knowing the history of each particular group.

Finally, it is vital to apply the findings on the relationships between language and identity in the practical sphere of learning and teaching languages.

The serious step forward was made by Fairbairn and Fox (2009) who outlined the major barriers in studying English for immigrants and non-citizens in Canada and the USA, and marked the regressive attitude towards their cultural, social and individual identity taken by the North American governments.

Their account shows how seriously the distinction in understanding and learning English is revealed by immigrants becoming victims of standardized and unified principles of learning and assessment.

The set of key changes needed to restore the adequate access to English learning for non-English speakers is provided on the basis of identity, social background, and individual peculiarities considerations. This account proves that identity reveals itself in speaking ones native language, and at the same time in learning a foreign language as well.

The topic of learning a language being indisputably connected with social practices is pursued by Alderson (2006) in his overview of the diagnostic testing type and its role in the adequate language testing.

The author makes the specific emphasis on the fields of knowledge tested by diagnostic and other tests, making a conclusion that the diagnostic test is of particular importance in language testing, providing the framework for assessment of the way students may apply their language knowledge, their reflection of knowledge obtained etc.

Because of the long time it takes to take the test, and lack of facilities for testing at educational establishments, the diagnostic test is not popular with teachers; however, it possesses the highest potential in multi-faceted testing and adequate assessment of knowledge farther from the formalistic, unified testing types that do not reveal the true knowledge of students.

Drawing a conclusion from the present set of articles, one has to note the close, organic relationship existing between human identity, experience and language (often realized through human literacy).

On finding out that relationship, researchers and practitioners in the field of linguistics have obtained a set of tools to assess the impact of identity on language usage, to identify the most constructive experience-based methods of learning and assessment.

In addition, nowadays literacy linguistic usage are obtaining social significance, so the application of various communicative means as well as their choice by speakers may add much useful data for the applied linguistic research, and enrich the modern vision about the discussed relationship and its causes.

References

Alderson, J.C. (2006). Diagnosing Foreign Language Proficiency: the Interface between Assessment and Learning. London (UK): Continuum.

Atwood, M. (2007). The Alphabet of Hope. Writers for Literacy. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Darville, R. (2009). Literacy as practices, teaching as alignment: A message in a bottle. Literacies, No. 10, pp. 14-18.

Fairbairn, S.B., & Fox, J. (2009).Inclusive Achievement Testing for Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Test Takers: Essential Considerations for Test Developers and Decision Makers. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, Spring 2009, pp. 10-24.

Hamilton, M. (2009). Putting words in their mouths: the alignment of identities with system goals through the use of Individual Learning Plans. British Educational Research Journal, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 221242.

Joseph, J.E. (2006). Identity and Language. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 486-492.

Lane, P. (2009). Identities in action: a nexus analysis of identity construction and language shift. Visual Communication 8(4), pp. 449-468.

Literature is one of the most amazing forms of art in the world. Words of different writers, their ideas, and unbelievable imagination  all this make each piece of literature unique and captivating. Nowadays, in the world of literature, there are no limitations, inequality, and other problematic issues. Everyone has the right to enjoy a story and learn something new. However, if a person is at the age of 7 or 12, the works by Dickens, London, or Ngai will be a bit complicated to comprehend.

This is why literature may simply divided into adult and childrens one. One of the delights of childrens literature is that it does not fit easily into any cultural or academic category. (Hunt, 2001, p.1) Children literature deserves lots of attention; it provides the reader with an opportunity to investigate the worlds of different people, analyze oneself, and comprehend each piece of information because of such features as a friendly and simple language, captivating illustrations, and the length.

There are three brightest examples of childrens literature to discuss: Bridge to Terabithia by Katherine Paterson, Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge by Mem Fox, and Memorial by Gary Crew and Shaun Tan.

Bridge to Terabithia is one the best works written by Paterson. It is a story about a young boy, Jesse Aarons, his neighbour, Leslie Burke, and their imaginary world called Terabithia. Jesse has no friends and tries to find a kind of support from Leslies side. Leslie is fond of captivating stories and likes to create unbelievable things. The desire to invent something together leads to the creation of Terabithia. This is a wonderful world without enemies and quarrels.

Leslie, as a queen, and Jesse, as a king, decide to visit this country together only. However, one day, Leslie makes a decision to go there without Jesse (he has a meeting with a teacher he falls in love), and accidently, she falls into a creek and dies. Jesse cannot but blame himself. He has no right to leave Leslie alone, and now, she is gone, and he has to continue living, living in Terabithia without her. How could they dare? Leslie belonged to him. More to him than anyone in the world. (Paterson, 2004, p. 145)

This story is about friendship, love, trust, and fantasy. Our life is so unpredictable, people do not know for sure when it is their time to leave this world. This is what the author wants to tell the reader. Even if people have own worlds and share them with the others, nothing can save from the destiny, good or bad.

In 1989, Mem Fox presented Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge, another interesting work for and about children. This is a story about a boy with such a complicated name  Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge. One of the peculiar features of this character is his burning desire to know more and ask questions.

There was once a small boy called Wilfrid Gordon McDonald Partridge and whats more he wasnt very old, either. His house was next door to an old peoples home and he knew all the people who lived there. (Fox, 1989) Lots of them have some health troubles, the others just have no place to go. Wilfred befriends with one old lady, Miss Nancy, in order to help her brainstorm some memories. His actions are so naive and kind. His desire to help elder people is the best lesson the reader should learn.

The peculiar feature of this very book is that it can be interesting either adults or children. There are several types of children literature: books written by children, books for children, and children books for both parents and children. This story may be interesting to parents because it describes how children may be helpful. This book also presents several methods, which may help to train childs memory and even improve it.

Gary Crew and Shaun Tan present another amazing children story  Memorial. In spite of the fact that it is a short picture book, it calls lots of emotions and feelings. Illustrations created by Tan are really powerful and splendid. The attention to each detail, correct shapes, and sense of light  this all is about one little book, the book that will be interesting both for grown ups and children.

This story is devoted to soldiers and their families, who struggled for our future generation and happier life. Memorials, built in soldiers honour, remind people about the courage and fame that play a crucial role in this life.

With the help of such book, children get a wonderful opportunity to learn more about peoples duties and even comprehend deeper the sense of life. Illustrative examples and a simple language make this book clear for children. The structure of Memorial reminds a kind of box full of memories. In such case, this book serves as an artifact and comprises both functions as an educative device and a kind of entertainment.

There are so many worlds, people can share with each other. It may be an imagery country without evil (Bridge to Terabithia), a real world, where children and elder people live together (Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge), and a world of history, which is necessary to respect (Memorial).

It does not matter what kind of world you prefer, the major point is that they all are available within childrens literature pieces of art. The status of childrens literature as the focus of serious study is relatively recent. Indeed the definition of what constitutes a childrens literature has been a subject of debate. (Hawkis-Dady, 1996, p. 138) However, it is not quite reasonable to start arguing about the role of childrens literature and its position in the world of literature in general.

Childrens literature helps to investigate and analyze the inner world of any person from two possible perspectives: adult and child. It is important to have an opportunity to analyze and study life from early years. For lots of children, it is not that easy to comprehend the essence of all books, so they get a chance to learn the world of literature by means of children literature. It is a good beginning of something really important and crucial in this life.

Reference List

Crew, G. & Tan S. (2004). Memorial. Simply Read Books.

Fox, M. (1989). Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge. Kane/Miller Publishers, Incorporated.

Hawkins-Dady, M. (1996). Readers Guide to Literature in English. Taylor & Francis.

Hunt, P. (2001). Childrens Literature. Wiley-Blackwell.

Paterson, K. (2004). Bridge to Terabithia. HarperTeen.

How Does the First Language L1 Help Make Content Accessible in the L2

In teaching second language literacy to English-Language Learners (ELL), teachers must be aware of the similarities and differences of the linguistic features that exist in the students home language. Thus, for a student to acquire literacy in a second language, some form of literacy in the first language is also required.

The second language (L2) reading and writing process involves the interplay of two language system so that when reading or writing in second language readers often use their L1 as a reading strategy to access the material (Helman,2009).

This factor is particularly important for ELLs. Students who can read and write in their native language find literacy in English much easier than students who never learned to read and write in any language. ) The following literature review given the reader a background understanding of the how developing the L1 plays an basic part in helping student access the content in the L2.

Literacy

Literacy refers to the ability for comprehend and use printed information at work, home and all other daily activities. The ability allows persons to achieve their goals, enhance their knowledge and build their potential to acquire more knowledge. Since literacy has a wide definition, a more specific component, the functional literacy, will suffice for this review.

Street (1984) shows that functional literacy serves people by allowing them to solve their immediate problems. For example, literacy would enable farmers to take notes about the better ways of managing their crops. The same farmers should later be able to refer to what they wrote and use it to expand their knowledge, which may include listening or reading additional materials.

The extensive research by Street (1984) takes the reader through the different metamorphosis of theories and ideologies that shape the term literacy. The following sections of the literature review use the functional definition of literature as alluded before.

Richard (1993) examined the teaching of literacy to second language learners at a Municipal Workplace Language Training Program in British Columbia. He notes that, most programs are affected by the selection of teachers and their training. Teachers must have certain attributes, and these depend on their personality and attitude.

The teacher has to be trained on the ability to trust oneself to do the right thing. They need to believe in the learners and relate well to people. The main challenge is usually the schooling of the teacher. Richard (1993) observed with the workplace literacy education that, the active learner-centered teaching yielded the most benefits for workers, unions and management because it centers on students developing and using their own language.

The above observation was also apparent in the study by Benseman, Sutton and Lander (2005) who explained that, the involvement of the learner in the teaching allows students to increase their use of first language literacy in understanding the second language. Moreover, the method covers for the teachers shortcomings by allowing students to include cultural and social experiences in the classroom (Verhoeven, 1994).

Literature by Richard (1993) shows that, a good grasp of the first language and its usage led to useful attitudes and practices. This was contrary to the explicit use of the second language that was full of self-restrictive attitude and practices.

The first language use, leads students to use writing, to bring the wisdom of their earlier experiences into the new environment with the second language. Richard (1993) highlights the need to investigate the relationship between learner-centeredness and active teaching and their effect on developing the second language.

The general definition of literacy and the availability of many strategies for teaching may be a challenge for language teachers. Helman (2009) comes to the teachers rescue explaining that they must know the limitations of applying a specific strategy to teaching the second language.

One limitation is the difficulty in establishing comparison groups of those with and without L1 literacy ability, which means that one can normally describe correlations rather than direct effects. The wide range of factors, which affect literacy, must play a part, particularly for adults who have varied exposure, time constraints, prior educational experience, and so on, in addition to such personality variables as motivation (Helman, 2009).

Different Types of Literacy Students

The study conducted by Benseman, Sutton and Lander (2005) shows that the characteristics of learners influence their ability to learn a language. Therefore, they should be the focus of any language lesson plan. In general, learners have diverse needs. For example, English-speaking leaners may be good at speaking but average on reading and some may not be able to write.

Others could have no skill in any language and need to improve their spoken English. People who go back to school after previous failures have a low confidence while those who are learning a second language because of a change in environment have a high confidence (Benseman, Sutton, & Lander, 2005).

Post school participation periods also has an influence on the confidence of students. The language profiles of learners are usually different and in cases where they have had little schooling, their literacy profiles are distinct.

Different students will have unique abilities of commanding a second language. Various factors affect their abilities. These include length of stay in the country, their native language, age, experience and attitude towards the second language. The educational background of students also varies.

It is expected that learners at the university level will be very literate in their native languages. On the other hand, those who are illiterate are expected to have a maximum of two years of school in their indigenous language. Between the two extremes are semi-literate students who have at least eight years of formal schooling (Bell & Burnaby, 1984).

Bell (1995) says that studies done on the transfer of literacy have focused on children, or have involved learners where both L1 and L2 are European languages. She uses the experience in learning to be literate in Chineses script to suggest that literacy in one language or culture cannot necessarily be assumed as helpful in developing literacy in another.

A student may find that because the orthography of her first language was so distinctive from English, it does not help him or her. For example, a Chinese student will have a very different alphabet, and would probably think in Chinese. To transfer her literacy skills would require a translation.

However, since he or she does not know the second language, the translation will fail and so will the skill transfer. This student had the same experience as Bell (1995); the cultural differences add a layer of complexity to the learning experience. Therefore, it is important for teachers to consider the first language of the student in their strategies, for them to circumvent the challenges of skill transfer.

How Developing First Language Help Students to Develop the L2

According to Klaudia (1990), skills and knowledge learned in a students native language pass on to their learning of English as a second language (ESL). Klaudia (1990) studied the development native language literacy for minority adults who needed to learn both oral and written English as a second language.

Referring to her own work, the author notes that the linguistic strengths of the language already known to the adult from the first language determine how much they learn in the second language. Languages may have different writing systems.

Nonetheless, a transfer of the knowledge possessed in one language to the next always happens during the learning process. Therefore, as Klaudia (1990) and Benseman, Sutton and Lander (2005) show, a good command of the first language is important for the teaching and learning of the second.

Helman (2009) indicates that, the second language (L2) reading and writing process is the interplay of two language systems. When a person reads or writes in the second language, he or she mimics and rely on the first language (L1). Various observations by scholars support this claim especially for English-language learners (Helman, 2009).

Verhoeven (1994) explains that, when referring to the cognitive and social development of children, the acquisition of literacy relies on the linkage of instruction with his or her linguistic background. For the written communication, logical and ideational functions are essential.

Oral communication uses fewer formal characteristics. The explanation by Verhoeven (1994) shows that without a reference point to create logical and ideational similarities, language students will be at loss in their learning of the second language.

In another study, Verhoeven (1991) conducted an empirical study to determine the effect of first language, on the second language, in bi-literacy development. The study involved 138 first-grade Turkish children. It was conducted in the Netherlands. The participants were divided into two groups. One group went through a second language submersion curriculum and received L2 literacy instructions before L1.

The second group went through the same curriculum but received L1 literacy instruction before L2. Evidence from the research showed that the second group, which received L1 literacy instructions prior to L2, was superior in skill transfer from L1 to L2. It has a strong transfer of decoding and reading comprehension skills from the first language lesson to the next.

The first group showed a reliance on the L1 to decipher L2. This happened before they received guidelines on how to use L1. The group referred to their inherent knowledge of L1. The findings from the study show that the first language comprehension affects the development of the second language. It corroborates other studies by Helman (2009) and Klaudia (1990).

On the other hand, Jiang (2011) points out that, the transfer between first and second language does not seem to occur for all literacy skills. In the study, there is an indication of, transfer of pragmatic, phonological, and literacy skills from Turkish to Dutch. However, the study fails to obtain any handover of lexical and syntactic skills. In the previous study, Verhoeven (1994) did an investigation.

It was on the development of lexical, morphosyntactic and practical abilities. There were also phonological and reading abilities in the first and second languages. The study involved 98 Turkish children in Netherlands. Findings from the exploration show that reading skills are interdependent between L1 and L2. This supports the argument that reading skills in a general sense are transferable between L1 and L2.

Conversely, just like Jiang (2011), there was little evidence showing the interdependence for lexical and morphosyntactic skills. Fluent readers doing a reading assignment in their native language make use of information from three areas.

They look at the spelling of the word, the order of words within a sentence and the meaning, of each word within the context. They then relate the experience with what they are reading. Thus, when the second language has a similar structure, they are able to transfer the skill to decipher the new information. Often the decoding builds on their cultural and social experiences.

How Teachers Can Use the First Language For the Benefit of the Second

Teachers who understand the influence of the first language on learning the second are at a position to accelerate student learning of the latter. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to base their teaching curriculums on the factual findings of how L1 literacy affected L2 literacy.

Teachers must understand that, learners make more progress when they spend more time doing spoken communication exercises. They learn basic literacy skills in their second language when the program focuses on oral language competence. This method would allow them to extend their first language literacy skills to the second language. The original language helps the learners to bring the outside in as explained by Benseman, Sutton and Lander (2005).

They show that bi-lingual teaching brings real gains to the student learning experience (Benseman, Sutton, & Lander, 2005). It allows teachers to explain concepts and learning tasks without overwhelming the learner. Most benefits occur when students learn reading strategies. These might include vocabulary acquisitions and comprehensions. Students rely on their familiarity with the first language.

In their report, Benseman, Sutton and Lander (2005) show that, learners will gain more when there are teacher aides, and the teacher works full time. In addition to the teaching time, they report that students benefit further when the teachers spend time to plan and undertake professional development. Furthermore, teachers should employ a variety of strategies in their teaching, which should consider the different challenges faced by individuals.

Conclusion

The various studies reviewed in this paper show an overwhelming support for the enhancement of literacy in the first language as a way of improving a students grasp of the second language. The review demonstrated that a blanket approach to teaching L2 is not desirable. Moreover, not all skills of L1 literacy can pass to L2; therefore, language teachers should have unlike strategies of enhancing the learning experience.

An understanding of the different reasons that compel students to learn the second language would help. Consequently, before developing the teaching strategies, it is important to profile students according to their current abilities in their native languages and their goals. The understanding of the inside world of a student assists in creating an outside world that would adapt and make learning possible.

References

Bell, J., & Burnaby, B. (1984). A handbook for ESL literacy. Toronto: OISE Press.

Bell, S. J. (1995). The relationship between L1 and L2 literacy: Some complicating factors. TESOL Quarterly, 29(4), 687-704.

Benseman, J., Sutton, A., & Lander, J. (2005). Working in the light of evidence, as well as aspiration: A literature review of the best available evidence about effective adult literacy, numeracy and language teaching. Auckland: Auckland UniServices Limited.

Helman, L. (2009). Literacy development with English learners. New York: Guilford Press.

Jiang, X. (2011). The role of first language literacy and second language proficiency in second language reading comprehension. The Reading Matrix, 11(2). Web.

Klaudia, R. (1990). Developing native language literacy in language minority adults. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse on Literacy Education.

Richard, D. (1993). Teaching literacy to second language learners. Web.

Street, B. V. (1984). Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Verhoeven, L. (1991). Acquisition of biliteracy. NLA Review, 8, 61-74. Web.

Verhoeven, L. (1994). Functional literacy: Theoretical issues and educational implications. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

In her article on literacy instruction among African American students, Glover stresses that the language issues, particularly the active use of African American English (AAE), are the reason for a concern and for even more trouble with studying, particularly, literacy acquisition.

Since public schools across America are failing to meet the literacy needs of students of color (Glover, 2012, p. 23), the time comes to reconsider the standards for literacy enhancement among African American students and come up with a new model for language literacy instruction.

To provide further avenues of addressing the problem in question, Glover isolates the facts that hinder literacy instruction among African American students and suggests the means to eliminate these factors. Glover also provides a peculiar definition of the AAE: AAE is a systematic, rule-bound, syntactic speech system that promotes cultural unity among its speakers (Glover, 2012, p. 24).

In addition, the author makes an impressive overview of the history of the AAE, therefore, proving its legitimacy and independency as a dialect. The research results state that the process of literacy instruction is hindered to an impressive degree by the misunderstandings between teachers and students due to the language issues. To address the issue, Glover suggests such techniques as code switching, contrastive analysis and communicative flexibility training (Glover, 2012, 32).

The information provided in Glovers article offers a lot of food for thoughts. Indeed, the representatives of the African American community, as well as national and ethnic minorities, face a number of issues in the learning process, particularly, during school classes and lectures, when they have to use code switching fast and efficiently in order to acquire the necessary information.

Therefore, Glovers article will help teachers enhance the academic progress of African American students, as well as the students with different ethnic backgrounds. It is important that the instructions provided by Glover were created with understanding of the actual capabilities of students; for example, Glover stresses that splitting the students speech into categories when they are in their everyday (home) environment is a good idea, which is, nevertheless, practically impossible to implement (Glover 29).

More to the point, Glover defies the aforementioned approach its benefits, claiming that it will only confuse younger students. Thus, Glovers recommendations can be considered adequate and applicable in a school setting.

The idea of using contrastive analysis is also going to be of much use in the school environment (Watson, 2013), since it will help students learn about the stages of their code switching process. Thus, knowing more about the cognitive processes that occur during code switching, the students will be able to speed the process up and improve it.

In the light of the facts mentioned above, it will be reasonable to suggest that the parents of the students should be instructed on how to teach their children to use the principles of code switching consciously. It is crucial that the given process should be controlled by the students; otherwise, they will not be able to apply it efficiently in their studying to improve their academic performance.

Another issue that the parents should be aware about concerns helping the students analyze their code switching process. It may be useful if some family members could encourage the students to experiment with the process of switching between the languages, from AAE to American English and back.

Reference List

Glover, C. (2013). Effective writing instruction for African American English speakers, Urban Education Research and Policy Annuals, 1(1), pp. 2332.

Watson, M. (2013).Solutions for urban education reform: Are common core state standards the answer? A commentary. Urban Education Research and Policy Annuals, 1(1), pp. 911.

Introduction

The importance of literature in intellectual development has generated discussions among various educational stakeholders and policy-makers (Sumara, 2002). What clearly emerges is that exposing children to the many different works of literature enhances their intellectual world-views and linguistic skills (Flint, Lowe, Kitson, & Shaw, 2013). To this end, various educational psychologists suggest that literature is an eye opener. Other than its role in phonological and vocabulary development, the study of literature enables young learners to nurture new ideas and moral stand-points (Chera & Wood, 2003). In fact, literature enhances childrens capabilities to appreciate languages and their contexts of literacy.

Literature and Linguistic Skills

To begin with, studying a work of literature heightens the developmental process of a childs linguistic skills (Chera & Wood, 2003). While in-depth study of books has attracted only a few people even in the most developed countries, the realization that it enhances a childs vocabulary has led to policies aimed at making children into to be active readers (Sumara, 2002). Due to the new words frequently employed by authors, most childrens linguistic competencies get better whenever they read literary works (Flint et al., 2013). Furthermore, any historical work of literature exposes young children to the philosophical suggestions that were popular in a particular society at a specific time (Campbell, Tompkins, & Green, 2012).

Literature Enhances Constructive Criticism Capabilities

In addition, exposing children to interesting works of literature enhances their unconscious love of related issues. Whenever children and teenagers get exposed to an intriguing literary work, they develop interests to look for more reading materials or studying a related issue (Flint et al., 2013). Moreover, computer-based reading programs enhance a childs phonological knowledge and reading skills (Henke, 2001). While the relationship between computer-mediated technologies and reading has not been investigated sufficiently, a computer-addicted child is more likely to hop from one e-book website to the other (Chera & Wood, 2003).

Although this multi-screening may be a prevalent crisis, it seems to be a suitable way of reading diverse texts and accessing various works of arts at the same time (Henke, 2001). In any case, many new works of literature are encouraging young readers to delve into more published facts for purposes of language-acquisition and enhancing intellectual abilities (Campbell, Tompkins, & Green, 2012).

Literature and the Social Environment

In addition, a work of literature on any social issue may influence how children respond to the demands of their learning environments. According to Annandale (2005), childrens cognitive abilities develop rapidly whenever they discuss the purposes of a text. For instance, a story that exposes the effects of laziness in schools may influence a childs unconscious resolve to be punctual and critical. Furthermore, children who find solace in deviant tendencies may reverse their habits when a piece of literature dissuades their intellect from such trends. More important is that some works of literature encourage a shared and interactive reading trend among children (Sumara, 2002).

Younger learners and children who are driven by views expressed in a story become more comfortable to deduce language elements such as punctuation marks and words (Campbell, Tompkins, & Green, 2012). In the end, their resolve to appreciate intellectual and linguistic contents is heightened.

Conclusion

Taken together, the growing importance of literature in learning and childrens linguistic development is unlikely to be averted. The scope of learning which is heightened by the need for intellectual reasoning and improved language skills has made literary works necessary for childrens educational processes. Conceivably, literary works and computer-mediated reading programs help children to develop insights into their contexts just as their language-acquisition abilities are improved.

References

Annandale, K. (2005). Reading map of development: Addressing current literacy challenges. Melbourne: Rigby Heinemann. Web.

Chera, P., & Wood, C. (2003). Animated multimedia talking books can promote phonological awareness in children beginning to read. Learning and Instruction, 13 (1), 33-52. Web.

Campbell, R., Tompkins, G., & Green, D. (2012). Literacy for the 21^st century: A balanced approach. London: Prentice Hall. Web.

Flint, A., Lowe, K., Kitson, L., & Shaw, K. (2013). Literacy in Australia: Pedagogies for engagement. London: Wiley and Sons. Web.

Henke, H. (2001). Electronic books and publishing. New York: Springer. Web.

Sumara, D. (2002). Why reading literature in school still matters: Imagination, interpretation and insight. Los Angeles: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Web.

For the tables and the analysis, I chose the two years that were closer together, 2005 and 2009. I made this choice because a lot of rather significant changes happened in this short period. First of all, after 2005 the internet actively started to win its popularity all around the world and I wanted to demonstrate how this tendency developed in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Besides, everyone still remembers the major financial crisis that affected countries all around the world in 2007 and 2008. This way, my other intention was to examine the impact it created on the countries under analysis.

Middle Eastern region is known for its rapid economic and social development that skyrocketed after the 1990s. The majority of the countries of this area managed to develop profitable trading relationships with Asia, Europe and the United States. Besides, many of the Middle Eastern states are focused on the development of tourism and the attraction of great numbers of visitors. Due to this, these countries have been involved into a lengthy and thorough improvement and renovation process making themselves attractive, creating unique sights and building beautiful and luxurious resorts to open themselves to the inflow of new capitals.

Analysing the data I noticed several factors and changes that impressed me. One of them was the rapid growth of the population of Qatar which jumped from 821 thousand to over one and a half million people. It doubled within just 4 years. Most likely, this demographic change occurred due to the economical improvement of the country which attracted hundreds of thousands of migrants from such countries as India and Pakistan who tried to benefit from the growing economy in the state.

One more noticeable change happened in Algeria. The countrys GDP growth per capita fell from 3.5 in 2005 to 0.6 in 2009. Besides, Algeria is the only one out of the five examined countries that showed a negative change in primary enrollment. While Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Morocco and Qatar improved their primary enrollment rates, Algerias numbers decreased by 3.7 %. Unfortunately, the data considering adult literacy in this country in 2009 was unavailable, though I would be interested to see how the primary enrollment rate affected that number. The drop in the growth of DGR per capita in the UAE was another noticeable factor. In my opinion, this can be explained by the impact of the financial crisis which affected the UAE a lot.

Finally, the most impressive growth can be noticed in the numbers of internet users in each of the countries. Even Algeria, which has the lowest number, demonstrates nearly 50% progress. The data for the UAE shows that in this area this state is superior to other countries in the list because its 2005 data equals that of the other countries registered in 2009.

Table 1. Data for 2005

Table 2. Data for 2009

The following two tables demonstrate some data connected with Arabic countries. Table 1 obtains information about the state of affairs peculiar for selected countries in 1980 while Table 2 presents more modern data which was obtained in 2010. Having compared these two tables, it is possible to make certain conclusions. First of all, it should be said that all countries have a significant population increase. Sometimes, it is more than 50 per cent. That is why it is possible to suggest that such rates of the growth of population can lead to overpopulation of these countries. However, very often this fact does not mean significant growth of the economy of a state. Moreover, very often countries show negative exponents of the GDP rate. That is why this phenomenon can be taken as the main evidence of the problem of poverty peculiar for the majority of these states. Nevertheless, access to the Internet can also prove this statement.

Being the richest state in the list, the UAE has the widest accesses to this technology. It is obvious, that the Internet is not a cheap service and people, who live under horrible conditions, cannot afford it. Besides, showings of the literacy rate can also be rather interesting. With the help of these tables, we can see that there are no showings in Table 1. It is possible to suggest that this issue was not interesting and peculiar for researchers in those times. Additionally, the absence of the interest can be taken as evidence of the fact that the majority of people were uneducated. However, there is a positive shift in the situation nowadays. Table 2 shows that the number of people who have at least some knowledge increases. This fact can serve as a sign of the improvement of the educational sphere in these countries. There is one more surprising fact. Being one of the richest states in the world, the UAE has poor showings of the GDP growth per capita. This fact can introduce some discussion about the main reasons for this process.

Table 1

Table 2

Preparing to Read

PreP

The Pre-Reading Plan involves formulating a central concept of the text, dividing the class into groups, and having students group ideas related to the topic into logical categories, reflecting upon their relationships, and eliminating redundant words from the list before reading. PreP can be used before reading various texts to uncover students prior knowledge and relate them to the text.

Brainstorming

Involves the examination of the title of the text and, possibly, the subtitles inside it; students then write out all the information that comes to their mind as concise bullet points. This can be used to uncover students prior knowledge and restructure it, as well as to agree upon central notions or ideas.

Pre-questions

Students are asked questions about the contents of the text. These may include definitions of the key concepts, examples of related situations, key traits of the phenomena involved, or students own experience with the topic. Also, students may be asked leading questions to better predict the contents of the text (Yang, Newby, & Bill, 2005). In a social studies classroom, these may be used especially when discussing topics that are related to phenomena existing today.

Discussing the purposes of reading

The teacher may ask students about for what purpose they think the text is provided to them to engage them in critical thinking, or the teacher may offer several purposes to be discussed. It is also possible to discuss the desired outcomes of the reading. This strategy can be used before reading virtually any text.

Discussing the author

It is possible to consider the author of the text and discuss the students knowledge about her/him. It may help to put the text in a broader context and help relate the students knowledge about the author to the ideas given in the text. This strategy can be used when reading works of any prominent authors that students are already familiar with.

Reading to Learn

Contextualizing

Students may be asked to place the text in its historical context. The learners should reflect upon the contemporary values they are adherents of, and the values and perceptions of the time during which the text was written. The strategy can be used while reading any works that were written a significant amount of time ago.

Reflecting upon challenges to students convictions

Students may be encouraged to compare the perceptions expressed in the text to their ones, and analyze the arguments for and against the new perceptions  both the ones provided in the text and the ones students can think of. This can be used with any text expressing non-mainstream perceptions.

Summarizing the text

While reading, students may be encouraged to take notes of the text by writing out key ideas and supporting arguments from the text in a concise form. For example, it is possible to write out the main idea of each paragraph. This can be done along with outlining the text, which will allow learners to better navigate their notes (Sporer, Brunstein, & Kieschke, 2009). It can be used with virtually any text in a social studies class.

DRTA

Direct Reading Thinking Activity involves discussing what students know about the topic before reading, predicting what the text could contain from the title, subheadings, and illustrations, discussing what has been read, and modifying predictions about further contents after reading a subsection. DRTA can be used only with a text none of the students have read before.

Asking the author

Students are encouraged to formulate questions related to the contents of the text or the author of the text. The learners may then attempt to discuss these questions and guess the authors probable viewpoint. These guesses can be verified or refuted with the further parts of the text. Best used with a text the context of the creation of which is familiar to the learners.

Reflecting

Reading slips

After finishing reading the text, students are given questions related to their understanding of it (asking about how the text can be used in the real world, a surprising fact they learned, something they would like to know more about, etc.), and write brief responses. This can be used with virtually any text.

QAR

Question-Answer Relationship Strategy involves asking students questions about the text and encouraging them to explain how the answer is presented in the text (directly in the text as a fact, implied, derived from the text and the students background knowledge, or not given). QAR can be used with almost any text and teaches students to differentiate between facts given in the text and answers the learners found on their own.

Scales

Students are given several questions and are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with a statement based on the text by using a continuous line or a Likert scale. Learners then defend their positions; they can also engage in dialogues (Gunnlaugson & Moore, 2009). This strategy can be used with most of the texts.

Very important points

Students, who were asked to mark key points while reading, discuss these key points after finishing the text. They defend their perceptions of why these points are paramount. This can be used with almost any text and teaches students to differentiate between key points and details.

Answering pre-questions

If students generated pre-questions (see above), they may be asked to answer these questions based on the text. The strategy can be used with any text to which pre-questions were asked.

Vocabulary Building

Purposefully dedicate time to vocabulary learning

Vocabulary instruction should be a distinct, clear part of a lesson, for new lexis is a necessary part of students learning, and it is what allows them to become independent readers (Beers, 2001). Approximately 10-15 minutes of each lesson are recommended to be dedicated to learning vocabulary (Robb, 2014), in particular, is a social studies classroom.

Vocabulary previews

New words should be taught to learners before reading. The words should be listed, and their definitions should be provided. The relationships between words can be shown, as well as their connections to some already known words. This strategy should be used with any text containing new vocabulary.

Discussing new words and drawing maps.

Students discuss the new words before reading and also draw maps, charts, Venn diagrams, etc. This allows for better relating the new words to one another (Allen, 2006).

Writing paragraphs or short essays with key terms

This should be done after the reading is complete. Students should be encouraged to use as many new words in their paragraphs or essays as reasonably possible. This can be used in most social studies classrooms.

Reviewing the terms

Students review the terms they learned during a class in the following classes. This may be done by employing various techniques, such as the ones described above, as well as by giving texts where the learned terms would be used. It should be done in any class where students are to remember new terms, for they will forget most of the new terms without revision.

References

Allen, J. (2006). Too little or too much? What do we know about making vocabulary instruction meaningful? Voices from the Middle, 13(4), 16-19.

Beers, K. (2001). When readers struggle. Voices from the Middle, 8(4), 4-5.

Gunnlaugson, O., & Moore, J. (2009). Dialogue education in the postsecondary classroom: Reflecting on dialogue processes from two higher education settings in North America. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 33(2), 171-181. Web.

Robb, L. (2014). Vocabulary is comprehension: Getting to the root of text complexity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Sporer, N., Brunstein, J. C., & Kieschke, U. (2009). Improving students reading comprehension skills: Effects of strategy instruction and reciprocal teaching. Learning and Instruction, 19, 272-286. Web.

Yang, Y.-T. C., Newby, T. J., & Bill, R. L. (2005). Using Socratic questioning to promote critical thinking skills through asynchronous discussion forums in distance learning environments. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 163-181. Web.

Purpose and Context of the Text

The main aim of the text is, according to the author, to review the records of literacy among the lower orders during the Qin and early Han dynasties. Although it is not clear to what extent the members of the lower orders could be considered literate and what graphs and signs they could recognize, Yates argues that literacy was demanded from the state so that the lower orders could be able to understand specific documents and ideologies (341).

Moreover, literacy was also used by the resistance groups who approached it as a source of power (Yates 341). The text is written for students and scientists who are already familiar with the history of Early China, and, preferably, at least partially understand Chinese, since the author provides quotations from the original text (translations are added too). The text also focuses on previous studies of Early China, e.g. disputes with the work of Mark Edward Lewis.

As the author states, there is not enough evidence of what was understood by literacy during the period of the Early Chinese Empire, so Yates tries to provide new information about it (340). The research was completed in 2011 and refers to the articles written in the 1990s and 2000s. Thus, much new information is provided.

The Kinds of Reasoning

The text is divided into several parts, where the author examines different pieces of evidence from the book Mozi, scribes (legal documents), reports and letters from soldiers, and state documents directed to women of lower orders. Yates theory is based on the evidence that suggests members of the lower order could read and write, although to a limited extent. The chapter begins with a suggestion that is examined in the sections mentioned above (Yates 341).

Yates proceeds, introducing the first evidence from the book Mozi. The next extensive chapter is devoted to the scribes, legal documents that bureaucracy operated with. Yates also presents the brief history of the scribes and their role in the life of the citizens and the state (345). In this section, Yates examines and analyses several documents that had various functions, but all confirmed that lower orders needed writing and reading skills to communicate with the authorities. In the section named Soldiers, Yates presents evidence in the form of military reports and letters that soldiers wrote during their duty. Yates concludes that soldiers also possessed writing and reading skills, although they were limited, enough to fill out a report (362).

Women from the lower orders were also literate to some extent since they were able to understand or edit some of the documents that belonged to them or their husbands (Yates 366). Thus, Yates can conclude from the evidence he presented. The logic of these conclusions is clear, but not all sources are valid enough to support Yates conclusions. At the end of the chapter, Yates provides a conclusion briefly summarizing the results of his analysis.

Evidence in the Text

Yates approaches different pieces of evidence to support his theory. In the first section, he examines the chapters from the book Mozi, which could be considered literary evidence, although it does document the life of the lower orders and provides detailed descriptions of their life. However, this book was badly damaged, and not all chapters of it were found, so the accuracy of this source remains partly doubtful. The next texts, i.e. scribes, military reports, and letters from soldiers, as well as statutes addressed primarily to women and their households are historical evidence.

The main advantage of the evidence that Yates uses in his text is that he provides the original, Chinese texts or abstracts from the texts too. Thus, readers can get acquainted with the primary sources without any mediator. However, for those who are not able to read the original texts, Yates provides accurate and correct translations.

The sources Yates uses are primary, although he also refers to studies of other scholars to support his views.

Evaluation

Although the arguments Yates uses are strong, the author himself states that the evidence he provides might be circumstantial; it is also not clear how literate the ordinary people were. Supposedly, they possessed basic skills in writing and reading; some of them could read and complete more complicated texts than the others (Yates 345). The method of analysis seems to be unproblematic, although the author often refers to his works to support some of the evidence.

More diversity in sources would improve the texts credibility. Judging by the title of the chapter, a reader will imply that scribes and military evidence, as well as the evidence from female members of the lower orders, will be extensively presented; nevertheless, the author focuses mostly on the scribes, leaving several pages of analysis to letters from soldiers and womens literacy. It is comprehensible since scribes provide the biggest amount of historical data. However, the expectations of a reader may not be satisfied because of the partly misleading title of the chapter.

Works Cited

Yates, Robin DS. Soldiers, Scribes, and Women: Literacy among the Lower Orders in Early China. Writing and Literacy in Early China: Studies from the Columbia Early China Seminar. Ed. Li Feng and David Prager Branner. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2011. 339-369. Print.

Introduction

The changes experienced in the world today explain why people should be keen to develop superior competencies and skills such as literacy. Literacy is a concept that has gained new meanings in the recent past to ensure that more people realize their potential. Personally, I define the term literacy as the ability to advance the manner in which I do certain things. The improvement should be completed within a specified period.

The concept has also attracted the attention of many scholars in different fields. The development of ones literacy can ensure that specific personal goals and career objectives are realized efficiently. Within the past five years, I have acquired new skills that make it easier for me to move through different communities and societies with ease and fluency. This discussion gives a detailed analysis of this personal literacy development.

Scope and Purpose: Intended Audience

The outlined literacy is significant since it makes it easier for me to network with many people, learn from them, and widen my competencies. I always use the insights gained from different individuals to redesign or improve my personal philosophy. Additionally, this literacy can be implemented in different fields to support my career and professional goals. This achievement will make me successful in the future.

The purpose of this narrative is to describe how I have managed to develop this kind of literacy. The discussion will go further to explain how my classmates and friends can focus on the best approaches to develop this kind of literacy. This means that the targeted people can embrace similar approaches, read widely, and cooperate with other individuals. By so doing, the targeted audience will acquire new skills that can be applied in different settings (Trejo et al. 279).

The practice will ensure that more people learn how to interrelate with friends and colleagues from diverse backgrounds. Additionally, the readers will understand how to communicate efficiently, use different technologies, embrace the power of social media, and implement appropriate decision-making processes.

Influential Events

Literacy should be pursued by people who want to achieve their goals (Sereni-Massinger and Wood 261). Personally, I have acquired and developed meaningful skills that empower me to associate and communicate with individuals from diverse ethnic, religious, and cultural backgrounds. This kind of literacy is a powerful strength that has the potential to support my current and future goals. The most outstanding observation is that various events and experiences have made it easier for me to develop this kind of literacy.

To begin, my parents used to encourage me to respect others and treat them fairly. This concept always guides me to support my colleagues without looking at their religious or cultural backgrounds. My siblings have friends from different races. I have always emulated the way my siblings relate with them. This practice has made it possible for me to appreciate, respect, and befriend more people from different backgrounds. Consequently, I have learned how to communicate, ask questions, and address conflicts whenever dealing with people from various cultures.

My schooling environments have also empowered me to develop this kind of literacy. For instance, I have attended different learning institutions whereby the concept of diversity is always taken seriously. This argument explains why I have managed to develop this type of literacy over the years. Currently, my class is composed of learners from diverse cultural backgrounds. I always interact with them effectively in order to learn new ideas. My schooling compliments my literacy practices and achievements. It is also notable that my classmates have not limited my development of the literacy.

I have also been reading different books and novels that have equipped me with adequate communication skills. For instance, I have learned the importance of respect, attentive listening, choice of words, and tolerance. Different television programs and movies have taught me how to associate with others, solve emerging problems amicably, and support one another. I have also been visiting different websites that educate people on how to relate with others and promote peace. For instance, I have learned numerous concepts from such websites such as cultural competence, diversity, and inclusion. This argument shows conclusively that different media outlets have empowered me to develop this kind of literacy.

Since I have interacted with people from different communities, I have managed to develop adequate skills and models for dealing with problems. For instance, my association with Muslims has taught me how to love one another, promote peace, and respect peoples religious believes. On the other hand, my association with people from Latin America has made it easier for me to appreciate their beliefs, the use of traditional medicine, and meaning of grieving or mourning.

This analysis reveals that I can relate positively with more individuals depending on their cultural values, beliefs, and attributes. It is, therefore, appropriate for persons to communicate with their colleagues effectively and engage in constant questioning (Hale and Stanney 39). This strategy will ensure that people develop this kind of literacy and realize their aims in life.

The other important issue is how my literacy practices are exhibited in different communities or environments. It should be observed that I associate with individuals in accordance with their backgrounds. For instance, I would not be willing to discuss religious topics with persons from an Islamic background. At the same time, I would be ready to focus on different religious ideas whenever associating with Christians.

The important thing is to create a desirable environment for exchanging concepts and pursuing various goals (Mulder 81). It is also notable that my literacies have developed efficiently in both academic and online environments. Those who want to achieve this objective should respect one another and learn to listen attentively. The move can make it easier for them to learn more about their colleagues. Since my literacies function similarly across different contexts, I have been able to achieve my goals, support more people, and develop superior skills.

Powerful Insights and Arguments

Human beings can learn a lot from others in an attempt to improve their philosophies and eventually become successful (Mikhaylov 7). The above discussion shows clearly that any person can develop a similar literacy practice and function efficiently in different communities. That being the case, several lessons and insights can be learned from my experience by individuals who want to develop this kind of literacy. The first lesson is that individuals should be ready to respect others and listen attentively. They should also be willing to identify strangers, ask questions, and update their philosophies of life. The concept of constant questioning can result in lifelong learning. The move can ensure that more people learn how to relate with others, address their needs, and establish peaceful societies.

From my personal literacy development, it is evident that language functions as a complex manner. Human beings should be able to develop powerful competencies such as listening, problem-solving, and decision-making (Padhi 22). This achievement can make it easier for them to use the right words depending on the person they are interacting with. It is also evident that this kind of literacy is something that can be improved by socializing with more people.

My experiences also speak to the manner in which education functions in this country. The discussion reveals that people learn a lot from their neighbors, workmates, and friends. The narrative also indicates that education is a social function that takes place continuously. When people understand this fact, it will be easier for them to identify new concepts and skills that can improve or support their personal relationships (Sereni-Massinger and Wood 262).

Finally, this narrative is important since it explores the importance of different literacy practices. When a person develops a specific literacy, he or she will be able to achieve various goals or objectives. People should, therefore, focus on this idea in an attempt to widen their literacies in different fields or areas.

Conclusion

This literacy has empowered me to collaborate with many people from diverse backgrounds and learn from them. I have used the above concepts to improve my philosophy of life. People should coexist with other effectively, respect them, and focus on the best ideas that can support their goals. This discussion explains why it is appropriate for human beings to engage in continuous learning in an attempt to develop superior literacies that can support their aims in life.

Works Cited

Hale, Kelley S., and Kay M. Stanney. Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications. CRC Press, 2015.

Mikhaylov, Natalie S. International Business Students Cross-Cultural Competence Development: The Influence of the Educational Environment. SAGE Open, vol. 4, no. 1, 2014, 1-15.

Mulder, Martin. Competence-Based Vocational and Professional Education: Bridging the Worlds of Work and Education. Springer Shop, 2017.

Padhi, Prasanta K. The Rising Importance of Cross Cultural Communication in Global Business Scenario. Quest Journals, vol. 4, no. 1, 2016, 20-26.

Sereni-Massinger, Christine, and Nancy Wood. Improving Law Enforcement Cross Cultural Competencies through Continued Education. Journal of Education and Learning, vol. 5, no. 2, 2016, pp. 258-264.

Trejo, Bianca C., et al. Cross-Cultural Competence: The Role of Emotion Regulation Ability and Optimism. Military Psychology, vol. 27, no. 5, 2015, pp. 276-286.