Category: Linguistics

Introduction

Educational standards refer to the learning objectives regarding what learners should know and capable of doing at diverse grade levels. The standards assist teachers in ensuring that the learners gain the competencies and information essential for success. Additionally, the standards facilitate teachers efforts in assisting parents comprehend teachers expectation of the learners (Chaucer, 2012).

It is on these backgrounds that Common Core (CC) was founded. Fundamentally, CC comprise of a set of precise college- and career-ready values for nursery school children through the 12^th grade in English language arts (literacy) and mathematics.

This essay explores how common core and standardized testing issues impacts foreign language teachers and their teaching profession. It offers a direction on how foreign language teachers can react and handle these issues.

Main Body

Common Core and Standardized Test

The CC standards were designed by state education heads, governors, teachers and experts across 48 states seeking to offer learners equal platform for all students across the country. The CC would enable learners to prepare adequately for college, occupation and life in a uniform manner with high standards of quality education. Two subjects were selected for the accomplishment of the CC standard goals.

These are English language and mathematics. The subjects were purposely selected considering that they form the foundations on which learners form skill sets that are mandatory in all the other subjects (Chaucer, 2012). Learners must know how to read, write, talk, pay attention and utilize language efficiently in a multiplicity of content areas for easier internalization of all the other subjects.

The standards were designed by state education heads, governors, teachers and experts in education curricula. The CC standards stipulate the literacy abilities and competencies essential for college and career preparedness in a variety of disciplines for foreign students.

It is imperative to recognize that literacy standards in science, social studies and practical subjects for six to twelfth grades are aimed at supplementing content standards in those fields as opposed to replacing them (Harris, Smith, & Harris, 2011).

Standardized testing is important considering that high standards that are unswerving across all states offer teachers, parents and the leaners a set of vivid expectations. The approach ensures that all learners acquire the competencies and capabilities essential for success in college, occupation and life after graduating from high school irrespective of where they live, their family background, race, gender, sexuality or eco-justice.

The CC standards in intergration with standard testing align to the anticipations of colleges, employees preparation programs and employers. The CC standards play a central role in ensuring equity for all learners. The eventual standard testing guarantees that all the learners are adequately prepared to cooperate and compete with peers in the country and overseas.

It is imperative to acknowledge that unlike preceding state standards that varied extensively from state to state, the CC standards facilitate cooperation among states on a variety of tools and programs (Harris, Smith, & Harris, 2011).

The CC was established by advancing the best state standards from different states. The best standards were integrated. Additionally, the designers examined the expectations of other excellent-performing countries globally. The designers included teachers, education experts, district education heads and school administrators.

They prudently studied the researches and literature obtainable regarding what learners required to know and have the capacity to perform for success in college, occupation and life.

The designing panel did not require any state to lower the expectations for learners when implementing the CC. The empirical-based standards were designed in discussion with teachers, parents and education experts transversing the country. Therefore, the CC are realistic, practical, useful and viable for the classroom.

Common core and standardized testing effect on foreign language teachers

Any change in how education is handled affects a variety of stakeholders. These include governments that have to invest more resources in form of finances and human resources. Others that are significantly affected are teachers, parents and the learners. The parents and teachers require changing their perspective in view of previous systems.

However, teachers are greatly affected considering that they may have undergone a different system hence require changing their approach to teaching as well as their mindset to embrace the new system. The examination of the pros and cons of the CC and standardized testing will generate a clearer mental image of the effects of the CC particularly on teachers.

Pros

High education standards are important for individual learners if they are to be competitive in college, the increasingly competitive workplace and the increasing life challenges. The CC standards present learners with the opportunity to be competitive irrespective of where they live. The standards ensure that learners are excellently prepared to cooperate and compete with others in the country and globally.

Consistent Goals and Benchmarks

Common Core standards provide teachers with unswerving objectives and benchmark parameters. The parameters help teachers in ensuring that learners are developing on a route for success in college, occupation and life. The approach is essential since it places all the learners on the same platform that ensure that none is at a disadvantage.

In any case, the CC ensures that all the learners receive the best education competency that allows them to advance in college work and career irrespective of their physical location after high school. Additionally, the goals and objectives are not based on any aspect that reflects inequality such as gender or eco-justice. The learner breed that will emerge from the CC standards will be equally competent.

The fact is based on the fact that international benchmarks were utilized in designing the CC standards. One technique of analyzing education systems is the comparing of international assessments. These include Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).

Before the advancement of the CC State Standards, study revealed outstanding resemblances among the values in high-performing countries. There were stark variances between those world-class anticipations and the values embraced by most US states (Ryan & Frazee, 2012).

Consistent Expectations

Interviews conducted with teachers who have embraced the CC standards indicate that the CC provides teachers with unswerving expectations for learners who transfer into new districts and class settings from other states. Previously, the state standards varied widely. Learners who transferred from a state with different standards presented teachers with difficulties in the classroom.

Furthermore, learners encountered enormous challenges in catching up with other students particularly when they moved to states with higher state standards.

The CC offers a platform where students who move find no difference in the curriculum and the teaching approach giving teachers an easy time. The teachers can now expect students in the same grade to perform as well as others irrespective of the state of origin provided that that state has adopted the CC (Ryan & Frazee, 2012).

Opportunity to Collaborate

The states that have adopted the CC utilize a common curriculum in English and mathematics. The expectations of the designers is that all the students learning under the CC can communicate at the same level and solve similar mathematical problems as long as they are in the same grade.

Similarly, teachers across the country are presented with the opportunity to collaborate as they share a common platform for preparing the curricula. The opportunity to collaborate arises since the teachers develop syllabuses, materials, and tests connected to high-quality standards (Ryan & Frazee, 2012).

Professional Development

Prior to the design, adoption and implementation of CC by the practicing states, teachers were trained in accordance with the state standards. These teachers faced challenges when they moved to other states. They had to undergo retraining to conform to the standards.

The introduction of the CC allows teachers to freely move to other states where they can advance their professionalism in higher learning institutions outside their state of origin. They can attend teaching and other courses on part-time basis while still teaching in the local schools (Ryan & Frazee, 2012).

Cons

Despite the various advantages that the CC standards present to students and teachers, there exists the downside for the same. For example, Professor Grabar (2014) indicates that if all poetry, writing and gesticulations are correspondingly treasured, there is no need for literature instructors.

Therefore, she argues that the CC standard approach is a distortion of the idea of equality. She asserts that the designers pursuit of eco-justice invaded rational judgment and scrupulousness. Equality of mortal opportunity ought not to be confused with similarity of outcomes (Grabar, 2014). Other literatures examine the disadvantages of the CC standards and standard test pointing at the flaws that exist.

Transition difficulty

Before the commencement of CC standards, foreign language teachers found and continue to find it difficult to adjust to these standards (Manley, 2012). Teachers have to change the approach on how they teach to meet the set standards. The approach makes most of the teachers to take a step-by-step approach in dealing with students. They make alterations in their mode of teaching.

It becomes more complicated considering that the learners have to change their ways of learning. The CC standards, therefore, place teachers in a more difficult position to meet the stipulated standards.

The results of common core standards on foreign language teachers require sufficient time. However, once the teachers have adapted to the common core standards, the teaching process will be more efficient. The outcomes will be evident.

Career change

The instructors and teachers will prefer to pursue other career options that they may have if they find the set standards difficult to adjust to (Taylor, 2014). Many foreign language teachers may not accept to change the way they teach and, therefore, will pursue other options elsewhere.

Those that may be unable to find alternative career options will even prefer to retire than change their mode of teaching to meet the set standards (Kendiall, 2011). They may find this as a means of relieving themselves from the stress of coercing student to perform to the set standards.

The CC standards will also affect foreign language teachers in the sense that children will learn faster at a younger age. Teachers will have to up their game in teaching than they were doing before (Kendiall, 2011). Children will have higher level of thinking skills and this will make them learn at a faster rate.

The aspect requires foreign language teachers to be more articulate, charismatic and observant on how they teach. They must ensure they teach what the students need to know and not what they already know. The skills that students used to learn at higher grades will subsequently be taught at lower grade causing challenges in terms of teaching the foreign languages.

Change

The world is ever changing and so is the learning process which is even more dynamic. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to use set standards over and over again. There are circumstances where the entire learning system, process or even the language itself has changed and yet teachers still use the set standards (Mandel, Shanahan, & Wixson, 2012).

The change factor is closely interconnected with the effect of transition difficulties. The direction and magnitude of change is unpredictable, therefore, presenting challenges in foreign language teaching.

How foreign language teachers deal with common core standards issues

Evidently, despite the fact that the CC standards have presented benefits to learning as a whole, they also present diverse issues to foreign language teachers. These issues affect the world language classrooms as a whole. It is, therefore, imperative for teachers to understand how they can react to these issues.

More paramount is for teachers to comprehend and be innovative in the way they can resolve the issues. However, dealing with the issues is beneficial as opposed to maintaining the existing tradition state standards.

Foreign language teachers ought to reflect on what learners can do with the language to deal with the CC standards issues (Taylor, 2014). The outcomes of what the students can do with language should be taken into consideration. The teachers should not just focus on how the languages should be taught or the mode of teaching. They should also have the capacity to examine the students communication mode.

Through this approach, the teachers will be able to determine how well the students can use the foreign language. The teachers will know the level of understanding of the students and the skills they have when it comes to using foreign language.

Communication is one of the ways of determining how well a person is versed with a particular language. They should ensure that they are not seeking to breed learners who are equal in all aspects. They should strive to ensure that they breed learners who are competent despite their dissimilarities.

Conclusion

Fundamentally, CC standards are critical in ensuring that all students have an equal platform to learn in college, succeed in their careers as well as in life irrespective of other curtailing factors. It is imperative for foreign language teachers to have the capacity to solve the teething problems that accompany the introduction of any change in education systems since the learning, workplace and life environments are changing.

Inherently, the benefits of CC standards to the wellbeing of learners and the teachers outweigh the disadvantages. The standards ensure that teachers can advance their profession while learners can move to other states while experiencing minimal change in curricula expectations. The states and teachers who embrace the CC standards present the learners with better opportunities to be globally competent.

Foreign learners face challenges in grasping all the proposed aspects of CC standards with regard to English. They encounter obstacles as they grapple with first learning English yet they are further required to be as articulate and charismatic as the indigenous.

References

Chaucer, H. (2012). A creative approach to common core standards. Phoenix, Arizona: R & L Education.

Grabar, M. (2014). Education without representation. Retrieved from https://whatiscommoncore.wordpress.com/2012/04/27/education-without-representation-rebutting-5-claims-of-the-utah-state-school-boards-flier-46/

Harris, P., Smith, B. M., & Harris, J. (2011). The myths of standardized tests: Why they dont tell you what you think they do.. Chicago, Illinois: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Kendiall, J. (2011). Understanding common core state standards. New York, NY: ASCD.

Mandel, L., Shanahan, T., & Wixson, K. (2012). Teaching with the common core standards for english language arts. Raleigh,North Carolina: Guilford Press.

Manley, R. (2012). Making common core standards work. New York, NY: SAGE Publications.

Ryan, S., & Frazee, D. (2012). Common core standards for high school english language arts. New York, NY: ASCD.

Taylor, R. (2014). Leading, teaching and learning the common core standards. Chicago,: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

The examination of the use of Al Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language can be discussed as the promising opportunity for researchers to study the aspects of the language development. Thus, linguists can focus on examining the situation and on supporting their hypotheses about the origin of the language structure and its development with references to the observed language acquisition (Wade).

While examining the stages of the new languages development with the focus on the concrete social group, the researchers are able to resolve the dispute on the role of culture and nature in forming the language and its morphological and grammatical structures.

While studying the development of Al Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, linguists focus their attention on such important research questions as the following ones: Is the language mainly transmitted through the society and culture as a result of the social interactions?

Is the language usually generated from the innate neural circuits as a result of the genetic processes to state the specific elements of grammar? Is the language first developed from the complex of gestures?

The preliminary findings related to studying Al Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language can be discussed as supportive in relation to such a theoretical model of language acquisition as the Innateness Theory. According to the Innateness Theory, the individual develops the language skills because he or she has the specific innate faculty for language acquisition (Wade).

Referring to the experience of the users of Al Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language, it is possible to note that the development of their language is a result of using the specific abilities of their brains (Wade). Thus, focusing on the grammar structure of the used sign language, it is possible to assume that the users of this language have the specific innate faculty for language acquisition (Wade).

That is why, the discussed preliminary findings are rather opposite in relation to the arguments used by the linguists to state the particular role of the Social Interaction Theory and Behaviorist Theory in the language acquisition as well in the development of the language rules and principles because these theories principles do not work effectively within the isolated groups environments.

To discover the role of brain in the process of language development, it is necessary to focus on examining Broca and Wernickes areas. The examination of these brain areas contributes significantly to understanding the specific role of the brain in controlling the language functions.

The discovery of Broca and Wernickes areas responsible for producing language provided the researchers with the idea that the damage to a concrete part of the brain can lead to losing the language abilities.

Thus, it is possible to conclude that such brain areas as Broca and Wernickes ones are responsible for producing the language in spite of the fact that such processes as the language perception and understanding cannot be influenced by these areas activities.

As a result, the study of Broca and Wernickes areas help the researchers understand the biological origins of the language and find the ways how to cope with different language problems caused by the damage of this or that brain area.

The observation of the children with epilepsy whose parts of the brain were removed to control seizures is important for linguists and other researchers to understand the language development because such observations support the ideas about the role of the concrete parts in controlling the language functions.

Depending on the part of the brain which was removed to control seizures, it is possible to control the childs language activities and to conclude about the role of the certain brain area in affecting the language development.

Such observations help in answering the question about the role of the nature and culture in developing the language skills. It is often noted that the children whose brain parts were removed suffer from lagging in relation to the language development.

Brain imaging techniques used in working with bilingual children are the sources of the factual evidence for the researchers on the role of the brain in the language functioning and development. It is effective to use the brain imaging techniques to understand the role of the brain in the language development because the researchers can observe the activity of the brain different parts while perceiving and producing the language.

To understand the boundaries between the role of the society and nature in developing the language, it is reasonable to use the brain imaging techniques. The focus on examining the brain activities of the bilingual children is important because the researchers receive the opportunity to compare the brain reactions in relation to the perception and use of two different languages.

Linguists are inclined to state that the process of the second-language acquisition differs significantly from the process of acquiring and understanding the first language. That is why, the brain imaging techniques can contribute to understanding the specific nature of these differences and to understanding the important features of the language development.

Works Cited

Wade, Nicholas. A New Language Arises, and Scientists Watch It Evolve. 2005. Web.

English language learners have a diverse range of needs that should be met by educators. This paper is aimed at examining the way in which my school supports these students as well as their parents.

In particular, it is necessary to compare the current strategies against the best practices recommended by researchers. Overall, it is possible to argue that such students should be supported by various professionals working in educational institutions. This thesis should be elaborated in greater detail.

First, it is critical to have school-wide commitment to the needs of students who are not native speakers of English. To some degree, this requirement is met in my school because the linguistic background of learners is considered by educators who do not teach English or literature. For example, one can speak about educators teaching mathematics, biology, or history.

They often modify their instructional methods when they interact with such students. However, this requirement is not met by all teachers. Some of them are not willing to consider the difficulties faced by these people. This is one of the challenges that should not be overlooked by school administrators.

In turn, it is establish connections to the culture and home of immigrants. For instance, the parents of these people should be able to express their views about education. The partnership with these stakeholders is important for the successful educational outcomes of students. In my school, the parents of immigrant children have this opportunity.

This argument is particularly relevant to individuals who speak Spanish. However, in some cases, a parent may find it difficult to communicate with educators, especially if they speak languages that are not widespread in the United States. Therefore, their children may have to act as translators. This is one of the main problems that parents and students struggle with.

Apart from that, it is critical to remember about the use of best methods in teaching English as the second language. In particular, one should speak about instructional practices that make English language learning both challenging and safe (Krashen & McField, 2005). In turn, they want to make sure that English language learners have an opportunity to use language for various purposes.

Moreover, they make sure that a students academic performance is not impaired due to their linguistic background. Additionally, the teachers often take part in the workshops that enable them to improve their instructional methods. Thus, to some degree, my school meets the standards, set for educational organizations.

In turn, my major task as a teacher is to create an environment in which students can effectively develop their English language skills. First of all, it is critical to develop a set of exercises that can enable people to elaborate their linguistic skills.

Yet, at the same time, I need to focus on the inclusion of these students (Reed, 2003, p. 36). They should not be alienated from other students. The problem is that they do not always interact with other learners; as a result, they cannot improve their command of English. Additionally, I will need to work closely with other teachers who do not know much about the linguistic education.

On the whole, these examples indicate that English language learning can be a very challenging and interesting process, especially if they are supported by the educators. The main goal is to create an environment in which English language learners are not excluded from classroom activities.

Reference List

Krashen, S., & McField, G. (2005). What works? Reviewing the latest evidence on bilingual education. Retrieved from http://users.rcn.com/crawj/langpol/Krashen-McField.pdf

Reed, B. (2003). Strategies and Resources for Mainstream Teachers of English Language Learners. Retrieved from https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/ell.pdf

The proposed study touches upon the effects of multilingualism on childrens language behaviour, this is why the research locale should be properly chosen.

It is reasonable to find 20-50 children from age 4 to 16, who grow or grew up in a bilingual or multilingual society (e.g. with parents, who may use different languages or have to live in one language-speaking society and do not want to neglect their native language); they usually live in particular blocks with their own cultural and ethical history that is supported by their parents or other relatives and fellows.

A multilingual society is not a new issue nowadays, and children have to live in it without understanding its true essence and possible outcomes of their further development.

The effects of multilingualism on childrens language behaviour may vary considerably: from the inabilities to apply specific cultural norms to the current living conditions to the ways of how a communication process may be organized.

Children, who have to grow up in a multilingual society, may face a number of problems that define the quality of their language behaviour and influence the styles of life considerably.

This is why it is very important to investigate the effect of multilingualism on children in order to learn how to overcome possible problems and threats, improve the living conditions of such children, and assist parents in identifying the main components of communication that have to be considered in a childrens educational process by parents or other care givers and teachers.

The theory called the ethnography of speaking (or ethnography of communication), offered by Dell Hymes, will be used to situate the problem of multilingualism and its effect on childrens language behaviour as it helps to comprehend the components of communication and their role in the process of education.

According to this theory, speech behaviour should be analysed in two types of contexts, social and cultural , in order to identify a number of culturally relevant features of possible variation, explicit and implicit norms of communication, and verbal and nonverbal parameters of interaction (Hymes, 2013).

Hymess theory (the ethnography of speaking) and the identification of the main components of communication) seem to be an appropriate idea that helps to address the problem and find out the most appropriate solutions.

His speaking model is a good chance to promote the analysis of speech events within a particular cultural context (Johnstone & Marcellino, 2010). The identification of the components like the genre, purpose, setting, etc. is an important step in understanding childrens language behaviour that cannot be neglected.

In case all the components are clearly identified and the categories for analysing a speech event are mentioned, the effect of multilingualism on childrens language behaviour cannot be negative, but turns out to be positive for a future development of a child.

Reference List

Primary Source: Hymes, D. (2013). Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. New York, NY: Routledge.

Secondary Source: Johnstone, B. & Marcellino, W. (2010). Dell Hymes and the ethnography of communication. In B. Johnstone, R. Wodak, & P. Kerswill (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of sociolinguistics (pp. 57-66). London: Sage Publications.

Introduction

This treatise offers a comprehensive critique of the lesson taught by Bill, the teacher, in an elementary classroom. The lesson is about speaking and pronunciation of English words by learners who are learning to speak in English.

Bill makes good use of the dialogue frame as the primary tool for practising speaking and pronunciation in the multicultural class environment. Bill also uses the white board in an interactive lesson delivery approach to the young adult learners.

The lesson in taught in English language through the use of productive and receptive skills via the ESA model of lesson delivery. Bills lesson was perfect since it was angled on complete learner engagement in an interactive process that accommodates the learning needs of each student.

At the end of the lesson, the learners showed competency in speaking and pronouncing the English words taught in the most appropriate manner.

Theory

The entire framework of Bills lesson in based on the inductive approach. Bill begins the interesting lesson through displaying series of facial expressions that depicts different moods after which the learners are expected to speak before he offers the correct pronunciation and explanation.

This approach works perfectly in the elementary class as all the learners are engaged and seems very interested in what Bill has to say next.

This approach may also be referred to as the Practice, Production, and Presentation Model as the focus of the lesson is on the ability to properly pronounce and speak some English words with the right tone (Harmer, 2007).

Explicit Talk about Language

The lesson delivered by Bill was created to test pronunciation and reading skills among the learners of English as a secondary language. The lesson was delivered in a progressive manner within the Practice, Production, and Presentation model.

The learners seemed to enjoy the topic and were fully engaged from the beginning to the end since Bills style of lesson delivery was characterised by humour and use of very practical examples. The pronunciation was made very simple through application of tonal variation to create different meaning for words in a sentence.

Bill used the example of describing an experience in the cinema hall through person reflection about immediate environment and occurrences during the event. This gives Bill the opportunity to introduce different descriptive words since the learners could relate to the topic (Harmer, 2007).

As the lesson begun, Bill allowed the learners to read the words written on the whiteboard without interjection.

Bill was keen on allowing the learners to pronounce the words with periodic interruptions whenever he noticed gross misspelling since the lesson was focused on checking the learners ability to correctly pronounce some words and read them properly.

As indicated by Harmer (2007), allowing learners to pronounce words on their own without constant interruption is instrumental towards building the self confidence and oral proficiency of the students.

Though Bill encourages free participation of all the learners, he is careful to apply the guided participation approach to ensure that the learners remain objective in contributing in the class.

In order to keep learners from feeling out of place, the lesson objective adopts an inclusive education and interactive lesson session where every student is expected to contribute equally.

During the practical assessment of the learners through direct participation, Bill was careful to pair the learners and gives room for higher Student Talking Time (STT) while regulating the Teacher Talking Time (TTT). Bill was very successful in ensuring that every learner participates in the STT.

Through description of how each learner spent his or her previous evening, the confidence level of each learner was strong as they freely express themselves with their pronunciation skills (Harmer, 2007). The instructor is careful to guide the learners when he proposes the STT.

The success of Bills lesson could be attributed to his ability to give clear instructions, application of guided participation, and proactive delivery methods.

The focus of Bills lesson captured series of concepts on pronunciation and speaking of different English words within the right tonal variations. Through use of the cinema experience, Bill was able to introduce different tonal variations in pronouncing certain words that have different meanings.

Bloom outlined the hierarchy of cognitive objectives of learning; from simple to complex as knowledge (remembering information), comprehension (ability to acquire meaning from the information), application (ability to use the information), analysis (ability to break information into parts to understand it better), synthesis (ability to consolidated materials together to create something new), and evaluation (ability to check, judge, and critique materials) (Harmer, 2007).

Due to bilingual nature of learners in this class, several instructional challenges were encountered by Bill in the process of implementing the lesson objectives. To begin with, basic understanding of English as an art varied among.

Therefore, it was important to incorporate simple English vocabulary and sentence structure in explaining some words used in the class. The lesson adopted a practical, interactive, and inclusive learning to minimize impact of the above impediments.

In addition to STT learning, Bill applied flashcards, cue-response drill, and brainstorm to teach vocabulary to the learners. For instance, Bill constantly used different facial expressions to describe their meanings such as sadness, smile, and happiness among others.

Moreover, Bill instructed the learners to apply the dialogue simulation through oral presentation. When correcting the mistakes made by the learners (inability to correctly use present and past tenses), Bill uses oral presentation to ensure that the students internalise construction of different English words and phrases (Harmer, 2007).

In addition, Bill has been successful in applying the repetition approach to improve the memory of the learners through repeated pronunciation of certain words. Through stressing some words and balancing the intonation in application, Bill was successful in applying the freer and controlled practices in delivering the lesson.

The teachers role

The lesson delivered by Bill was systematically structured and delivered in a humorous way to maximize level of learner engagement.

As the instructor, Bill was clear, practical, and focused in delivering the lesson content through the STT format. Bill does not shy away from the interactive learning. Besides, Bill uses facial expressions and practical examples to ensure that the lesson in a success.

Inclusion

Bill applied flashcards, cue-response drill, and brainstorm strategies to teach the learners on proper pronunciation and speaking correct English. Through the whiteboard, Bill was able to apply the Presentation, Practice, and Production approach to ensure that the STT is maximised.

Concluding Sentence

The lesson delivered by Bill is a perfect example of a pronunciation and reading class that demonstrates the significance of STT and PPT in lesson delivery as part of scaffold learning in a dynamic classroom environment.

Reference

Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching (4^th ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearsons Longman.

Introduction

English language is considered a foreign language in the Kingdom of Saud Arabia (KSA). Learners are introduced to the English language using EFL teaching materials at the sixth grade in public schools and at kindergarten to students who attend private schools.

Teaching materials for EFL in the KSA are developed by the ministry of education. These materials are then distributed to schools and bookshops. According to Shawer (2010), inequity in EFL materials in the KSA is that teachers and learners are not involved in the development of learning materials.

Curriculum developers are employees of the government who are solely involved in all the development stages of learning materials, namely textbooks, radio programmes, and television programmes. Lack of inclusion of teachers and learners in the development of EFL teaching materials in the KSA has resulted in poor relations between teachers and the materials.

Teachers cannot completely internalise the materials or fully integrate them into their teaching. Shawer (2010) recommends that it is important to evaluate EFL teaching materials before adapting them into the teaching and learning system.

To begin with, EFL teaching materials are developed without the input of the teachers and the learners who are the main consumers. As such, materials that are presented by the ministry of education lack inclusivity. It is also important to note that most of the teachers are not first speakers of English.

The materials used by such teachers as guides and textbooks should be easily understandable. Secondly, most of the learners in the KSA take English as a second language. Such learners may have difficulties in reading and appreciating these textbooks.

Therefore, evaluation will ensure that EFL textbooks appeal to their language levels. Based on this background information concerning EFL in the KSA, this paper uses Traveler 1 Students Book by Malkogianni to gauge its suitability as the first English textbook to the KSA learners.

A TEFL in Saudi Arabia

Educational policy for teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

Educational policy for Teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in the Kingdom of Saud Arabia ensures regulation at all levels where EFL is taught. EFL was introduced in the Kingdom of Saud Arabia by the ministry of education in 1925.

Shawer (2010) confirms that the ministry of education has the power to dictate that EFL be taught from grade six through to the university. Most of the subjects in the KSA schools are also taught in English language, thus making it an important language of instruction and evaluation.

In addition, several immigrants from western and other countries of the world use English in their communication. This observation makes it important for learners to understand the English language. Interaction between the KSA and other nations in diplomacy, peace, trade, aviation, and research also makes English important.

The curriculum of teaching English at the secondary level

The ministry of education develops the current curriculum for TEFL in conjunction with the directorate of curriculum. The current TEFL curriculum was developed in 1999. As a policy, TEFL was aimed at meeting the need for language skills in speaking, listening, reading, and writing in the KSA.

Learners of EFL were then supposed to communicate in English with all speakers of the language. The foundation of TEFL in Saudi Arabia was on two-policy documents, namely teaching English in Saudi Arabia 1408H of 1989 and 1421H of 2000. The Saudi Policy of Education is responsible for enforcement of curriculum for TEFL. Teaching of foreign languages such as English in Saud Arabia is engraved in this policy document under Article No. 50.

Under this article, one of the functions of education is to furnish students with at least one of the living languages, in addition to their original language, to enable them acquire knowledge and sciences from other communities and to participate in the service of Islam and humanity (Al-Hajailan, 2003, p. 23).

This function implies that TEFL is an objective and policy that is undertaken by the government. Therefore, learners appreciate English as a language for interaction and cultural exchange both at the national and international level. The policy is also aimed at achieving national goals of transfer and acquisition of scientific, technological, and cultural knowledge under the spirit of Islam.

The EFL curriculum adapts an excellent instructional design assessment (WIDA) in evaluating learners skills in listening, speaking, writing, and reading. The EFL curriculum also dictates new students joining the system to take a compulsory test that indicates whether they need ESL and if so the level of their conception. Learners also take WIDA-ACCESS test at the end of every year as an indication of their suitability for the next level.

According to Al-Kharabsheh, Al-Azzam, and Obeidat (2009), at level I, English as a second language begins by emphasising the basics of language and its structures. Learners are also taught the basic tenses and vocabularies at this level. This plan enables learners to write simple English statements and paragraphs.

Learners should also be taught how to write a topic sentence and support it using simple details. Teachers also emphasise the capitalisation and use of punctuation marks. Learners are also introduced to simple discussions to aid in their listening and speaking skills. At this level, the curriculum directs that EFL have two lessons per day.

At level II, learners of English as a second language are introduced to fiction and real stories. This content aids to gauge their ability to understand and discuss stories in English. Learners are also introduced to visual cues, references, inferences, and prediction in reading.

Properly written and punctuated sentences are also taught at this level. Learners should write correct sentences while at the same time ensuring proper punctuation. Finally, learners at this level are taught how to write complex sentences and/or make paragraphs. Learners should also know how to differentiate general ideas from specific ideas.

At level III, complex ideas are introduced. Shawer (2010) asserts that learners are supposed to not only read and understand complex issues but also discuss them. Learners are also taught how to write complex essays. Such essays should have varying themes and structures.

Skills for research and complex writing are also introduced at this level. At level IV, the curriculum recommends teachers to emphasise learners skills in communicating in proper English. Teaching and assessment of advanced reading, listening, and writing are done at this level.

According to Al-Kharabsheh et al. (2009), the curriculum also recommends learners to be involved in journal writing where they should compose at least two journals every week. Such journals should have varying themes. Besides, they should portray comprehension of language and arguments. Development of vocabularies and observation of standards in English language are also emphasised and tested.

Recent studies that evaluate the suitability of EFL syllabus

Several recent studies have evaluated the suitableness of EFL syllabuses to learners in the KSA. Khafaji conducted one of such studies in 2004. Khafaji (2004) carried out an evaluation of English language teaching materials that are used in public secondary schools in the KSA.

Under his evaluation, he explored the policies that guide TEFL in Saudi Arabia. In the analysis of his study, Khafaji (2004) realised that inaccessibility of learning materials for EFL in the KSA was an impediment to successful and motivating academic content as recommended by the curriculum.

Khafajis (2004) evaluation also realised that the use of audio-lingual method of teaching EFL was also a limitation to the teaching and learning of English language at this secondary school level. Another study by Alamri (2008) focused on the quality of English language textbook at the entry level, namely the sixth grade.

The focal point of this assessment was on the superiority of English learning resources in instructing boys schools since they were brought in 2004. According to Alamri (2008), one of the foundations of EFL textbooks that form the basis for English learning in the KSA was analysed.

The researcher deployed questionnaires to examine 93 English tongue tutors at the sixth grade and 11 administrators. This research was conducted in Riyadh Educational Zone in the KSA. In his findings, Alamri (2008) realised that teachers and supervisors favoured EFL textbooks, although they objected the adopted teaching methods. The study suggested the upgrading of such teaching materials.

Finally, Habtoor (2012) carried out an evaluation to ascertain the quality of content that was contained in textbooks that were used in teaching English for specific purposes. Habtoor (2012) evaluated the substance of the textbooks that were utilised in teaching sophomore learners who were studying archaeology and tourism.

The researcher evaluated the opinions of EFL teachers on the content of the textbook and its efficacy in teaching English language. According to Habtoor (2012), presentation of learning skills in relation to the learners needs and their study level was also evaluated. In this study, Habtoor (2012) realised that teachers recommended the textbook since it could meet the needs of the learners at that level.

Discussion

An introductory description of the textbook, context, and learners to whom it is designed

Traveler 1 Students Book by Malkogianni is a must-read textbook that is used for teaching English as a second language in the KSA. Malkogianni presents the fundamentals of English language. As a first secondary English textbook, the book is written in a simple language with simple vocabulary and sentence structure.

The context of the English textbook for EFL is tailored towards the language level of the learners. ONeill (2008) asserts that a textbook should have the basics of language and its structure. Traveler 1 Students Book presents the readers with simple vocabularies that are commonly used in English.

Malkogianni includes the structure of English tenses. He goes further to show how they are used in simple sentences and paragraphs. The textbook has a content that will enable learners at this level to use a topic sentence to write a simple paragraph with supporting details.

In addition, the English textbook also introduces learners to punctuation, listening, and reading skills. These factors will meet the learners needs at this level. Students entering secondary schools in the KSA have very low comprehension of English language since it is introduced at a later age as a second language.

Learners are not able to distinguish tenses, to punctuate sentences, and/or read well. As such, Traveler 1 Students Book has been set to cater for these fundamentals of English language.

The content of the syllabus for first secondary school entrants is appropriate for the psychological characteristics of the learners. Learners at this level are not ready for complex language structures and comprehension. Therefore, the syllabus is tailored to meet the language needs of these learners.

The structure of the syllabus directs that learning at this level begin by being taught simple vocabularies, tenses, punctuation, and other basics of the English language. Teaching of the fundamentals first before introducing complex sentence structures ensures that learners are at home with the process for learning.

Introduction of simple to complex language structure ensures a procedural approach to the mental comprehension of learners. In addition, individual differences in abilities, interest, and level of intelligence are also catered for in the EFL syllabus at this level.

Learners are required to take examinations and assessment tests that indicate their language level. For example, new learners are required to take a test to guide teachers on whether the learner is acceptable in the class. In addition, at the end of every term, learners take examinations that indicate their learning ability.

ONeill (2008) confirms that through these examinations, learners are evaluated on their listening, reading, and writing skills. The teachers then use the results in addressing the language needs of individual students. The syllabus also takes care of learners language differences through recommending the use of group discussions.

Learners are supposed to form simple paragraphs, which they should discuss with their classmates. Teachers are also required to guide and direct the discussions. In doing so, teachers can spot any differences that exist between learners.

Internal oral and written skills are also useful in addressing the language needs of individual learners. The purposes that are stated in this textbook meet the needs of the learners. The language needs of learners at this level include grasping basic language concepts. Learners are taught basic vocabularies, tenses, and sentence structure.

Learning of tenses enables learners to begin making correct English sentences. Basic vocabularies that are taught at this level prepare learners for the next stage where they can understand simple sentences.

Learners age and needs

The substance of the syllabus is appropriate upon bearing in mind the students psychological status and speech development. At this level, learners level of skills in English language is low. Therefore, it is important to address it in a strategic developmental approach. The syllabus recommends teaching of basic tenses.

According to Shawer (2010), learning of basic tenses at this level enables learners to comprehend change in time and actions that are expressed in basic sentences. The syllabus also recommends teaching of basic sentence structures to enable learners to piece up simple words together in making basic sentences.

Teaching of basic listening and reading skills also ensures that students can read Basic English statements and/or listen to Basic English audio materials. This step forms an important foundation for the next levels where more advanced structures are taught.

The syllabus also addresses language development procedure. For example, it takes care of listening, reading, writing, and speaking skills. These basics form the basis for comprehending a new language.

EFL goals and context

The content of the textbook is also tailored to meet the Saudi EFL goals and purposes because English is taught and used in KSA as a second language. Since English language is introduced at the sixth grade in most public schools, there is a need to form a foundation as learners get into secondary schools.

Shawer (2010) affirms that Saudi EFL goals include the development of English language for use in the academic development of learners. Examinations and teaching of students at all levels from the sixth grade is done in English. Therefore, learning of English language prepares learners for academics.

Trade and international relations in the KSA is also done in English. Teaching of writing and listening skills is important for this goal. Moreover, people of Saudi interact with many immigrants using the English language. Therefore, learning of listening, reading, and speaking skills meets this goal.

Saudi culture

The social and religious needs of the KSA people are taken care of in the EFL syllabus. Having been developed by the ministry of education in conjunction with the department of curriculum development, Zarei and Khalessi (2011) confirm that the syllabus incorporates religious and social needs of the people.

For example, in the introduction, the importance of learning the English language is stated for the people of Saud Arabia. For example, the language will enable the people who learn it to interact better with those of other communities in an effort to spread their ideologies.

Therefore, the English language will enable learners to socialise with the international community. For example, English language is used in international diplomacy. According to Zarei and Khalessi (2011), Islamic religious goals of the Kingdom of Saud Arabia are also taken care of in the EFL syllabus.

Learning of the English language will also enable learners to read religious writings if they are written in English. The syllabus promotes the Islamic religious values. Learning of speaking and listening skills in English will enable students to socialise with other Islam believers in other parts of the world.

Better comprehension of other peoples religions and culture will also be promoted by the learning of English language, which is spoken in many countries. Zarei and Khalessi (2011) say that the cultural environment of the Kingdom of Saud Arabia is also reflected in the EFL syllabus.

The need for scientific and technological acquisition and exchange is enshrined in the goals of the EFL syllabus. Therefore, learning of the English language will ensure that people of the KSA can easily interact with the international community. Issues such as reading and understanding scientific materials are imperative in the acquisition and exchange of information.

English language will enable students at the upper levels of learning to carry out research and/or interact with others across the world. Those who understand the English language can also spread the culture of people of the KSA easily to other English speakers across the world.

Essential elements in the modern syllabus

The modern EFL syllabus is based on several foundations that are based on modern life situation. For example, in terms of teaching tenses, the syllabus recommends the use of placards that indicate drawings of activities. Discussions of simple stories are also based on modern life and situations that happen in the day-by-day life of the student.

For example, learners are told to make simple sentences in the application of the learned subject. In teaching listening and speaking skills in English, the use of audio materials is recommended by the syllabus. The stories and examples that are used in such materials are from the real-life situations in the KSA.

For example, when teaching students on new vocabularies, the teacher uses words in the context of what students do in their daily life. According to ONeill (2008), pictures and illustrations on the EFL textbooks are customised to the KSA environment.

Such materials also enhance learners autonomy in thinking. Learners can learn by themselves from the environment. The use of simple language structure and illustrations that relate to their personal lives also motivates them to learn by themselves.

Conclusion

Evaluation of first secondary English textbook in the KSA indicates that both the syllabus and the textbook are appropriate. The textbook is organised to meet the learning needs of national and cultural goals.

The structure of the curriculum is also procedural to enable leaders to build on skills that they have acquired from lower levels. Assessments at different levels also ensure continuity of language competence development.

Recommendations

This evaluation recommends the department of curriculum development to take in the opinion of teachers in developing the curriculum since they (teachers) are the direct end users.

Secondly, the ministry of education should consider the needs of the learners when developing the curriculum.

Thirdly, there should be a comprehensive training of English language teachers before they are posted to teach in the various KSA schools. Finally, there should be an inclusion of more integrative methods of TEFL in the syllabus.

Reference List

Alamri, A. (2008). An Evaluation of the Sixth Grade English Language Textbook for Saudi Boys Schools. KSA: King Saud University.

Al-Hajailan, T. (2003). Teaching English in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh: Aldar Alsawlatiah

Al-Kharabsheh, A., Al-Azzam, B., & Obeidat, M. (2009). The English Department In The Arab World Re-Visited: Language, Literature, or Translation? A Students View.

College Student Journal, 43(4), 961-978.

Habtoor, A. (2012). English for Specific Purpose Textbook in EFL Milieu: An Instructors Perspective Evaluation. International Journal of Linguistics, 4(3), 1-45.

Khafaji, A. (2004). An evaluation of the materials used for teaching English to the second secondary level in male public high school in Saudi Arabia. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter.

ONeill, R. (2008). Why use textbooks? ELT Journal, 36(2), 104-111.

Shawer, S. (2010) Communicative-based curriculum innovations between theory and practice: implications for EFL curriculum development and student cognitive and affective change. Curriculum Journal, 21(3), 333-359.

Zarei, G., & Khalessi, M. (2011). Cultural load in English language textbooks: an analysis of interchange series. Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 15(1), 294301.

Introduction

The paper focuses on the use of sociolinguistic perspectives in the process of protecting English as a language in areas where it is endangered as being a minority language by conducting a sociolinguistic study on the reasons resulting to this situation, the prevailing circumstances and the endangerment results. The paper also looks at other social as well as structural processes that are associated with the endangered English language and its survival.

The research focuses on the loss of aspects of English language from both the migrant and indigenous perspective due to the introduction of other dominating languages. The paper also looks at the relationships of English and other language to the existing policies introducing the impacts of the ELT as an intervention measure (Long 2005, p. 123).

The sociolinguistic approach to English language teaching (ELT) explains its programs and purposes. This perspective focuses on the situations that mostly target ELT competence in communication. The perspective believes that in any program related to ELT, a communication has to be presented, and this will entail events that are involved in communication.

These include the daily duties discussed, the domain of the ELT which is mainly educational, the medium mostly used in the presentation of ELT programs that are to be spoken, the mode that is a dialogue, the communication channel that is mostly face to face interaction, the settings of such learning programs, the content of the subject and English level (Parker 1994, p. 154). Such profiles made up of these events develop an ELT syllabus.

The native English speakers legitimacy in teaching English as a second language has caused a number of issues originated from a sociolinguistic view of English education. In many studies conducted on the subject, the results indicate that such English speakers theoretical practices vary when it comes to ELT practices ranging from native norms towards the foreign ones. It is clear that the ELT programs pluralized reality practiced globally made a lot of sense when viewed from a sociolinguistic perspective (Bach 1997, p. 45).

The paper mostly focuses on the ELT characteristics, its attrition level and the particular attrition characteristics viewed from a sociolinguistic perspective. The other area of study which the paper is concerned with is the evaluation of the possibilities for ELTs revitalization as well as preservation of linguistic.

To achieve this, the research starts by taking an empirical analysis of English as a language while trying to come up with theoretical conclusions on ELT survival chances as well as the circumstances that may result to the maintenance of such programs.

The other area of focus is experimented language policies effects and the actions of different institutions on ELT programs. The paper also challenges the institutions to intervene as a necessary move towards a sociolinguistic research on the efficient English speaking policies (Bachman 1990, p. 67).

Hypothesis

The hypotheses for this research paper include the following points;

To find out whether there exists a relationship between speech by communities and English language characteristics.

To find out if it is possible to interfere with the language development by the use of linguistic policies or by changing the ELT programs in an effort to salvage the language.

To find out whether the intervention from institutions serves as a necessity in the initial sociolinguistic research.

Relevancy of the Research and how it is Related to the Formulated Hypotheses

English though used in most parts of the world, there are still some areas where it is rarely used. In such communities or countries, English has been observed as being neglected or used as a minority language. It is estimated that there is an 80% percent chance of English language ceasing in areas where it has been neglected or used as a minority language.

This called for the need for programs that address the main linguistics as well as promoting English linguistic rights. This has led to many researchers being interested in the sociolinguistics field analysis and policy making. The researches bring out the social status of ELT programs as being the main force in the attrition process as well as its maintenance in different and complex cultural settings (Jordan 1997, p. 78).

For the paper to be in a position to properly asses the indicators of English dominance, it was necessary to look at its functional aspects and how it is being applied in different cultures. The changing tendencies of the functional roles of a language in bilingual situations is a crucial process in reversing the trend a language may take and in the revitalization of any language that is being endangered.

The linguistic notions of the members of any community also proved to be a vital parameter. There are these cultural constructions that have direct impacts on the ELT programs prestige. The socio-cultural contexts together with the indicators of sociolinguistic of any language make use of the speakers attitude thus were the main factors looked at in the research (Allwright 1999, p. 140).

This research involved a holistic approach making use of multiple directions as well as methodologies of inquiry. This approach was chosen to avoid studying English language a single separate domain. The study involved analyzing the settings such as the ethics of chosen communities, their economic status, religion, and social political structures and how they affect their spoken language (Tully 1997, p. 124).

The study was then narrowed down to the sociolinguistic analysis of the behaviors related to speech as associated with communication functions in bilingual patterns, English language prestige and its structural phenomenon on the. These linguistic processes used by most sociolinguistics in different fields bring out the multifaceted issues that are associated with English language being endangered (Benesch 1999, 327).

Data Collection Method and the Associated Problems

Bolivia and Sicily were taken as the areas of reference in this study where English as a language is facing serous chances of being endangered. The subject under study was taken to be approximately 2500 natives from the two regions.

Most of the respondents were natives from the selected communities going through ELT programs, some were those who had successfully completed the programs while others were the natives that were not aware if such programs existed in the community. The facilitators of the programs were also interviewed.

The field work involved face to face interviews basing on selected questions that were asked to all the respondents. The research personnel had with them possible answers they expected to get from the respondents and they based on the two sets of answers to gauge the relevance of the answers gotten from the field. This face to face interview method was settled on as it was the most suitable approach.

Through such interviews, it was easy for the research personnel to see how good the respondents were fluent in speaking English and probe further incase they needed clarity (Nunan 1998, p. 67). The researchers were also in a position to analysis the ELT programs in person and not rely on the answers from the respondents. Some of the questions were open ended where the respondents were expected to give a Yes or No answer while others needed some explanations. Some of the administered questions included;

1. Which of the two languages (English and Italian) do you use more often in your conversation?
2. Which of them are you more fluent in?
3. Which language do your parents and younger siblings prefer to use?
4. What percentage of your friends use English while communicating?
5. Have you ever enrolled in or are you going through any ELT program? If so, what can you say about your spoken English before and after the program or from the time you enrolled until now?
6. Do you know any members of the community who are not in a position to speak any English? If yes, how many and how old are they?
7. From your point of view, is the English language diminishing in popularity in your community?

Following the researches conducted earlier, it was expected that Italian was more popular than English in these regions now that it came second to Italian. The older generation was expected to be better English speakers than the young generation as the language was ceasing with time. The number of youth attending the ELT programs was also expected to be diminishing but those who managed to attend them come out as better English speakers (Holmes 2008, p. 67).

The paper focused on the structural as well as functional perspectives in an effort to asses how viable ELT programs were and the chances of having the English language diminishing trend change and revitalize by using language policies that were effective. The paper applied realistic policies on the existing sociolinguistic situation in these areas. The specific areas where English language ceasing included Arbresh Muysken and Uchumataqu as well as Uchuma found in Bolivia (Crystal 1999, p. 234).

The study was conducted by relating how English as a second language to Spanish and how this was changing with time. Linguistic data was collected covering the restriction functional and the changes the communities had undergone and how English had been affected by the dominating Spanish language in the regions thus showing its attrition state.

The study also involved the integration of the cultural together with the ethnic speech features of these communities integrating the speakers linguistic loyalties. The study also went ahead to collect data on morphological analysis of English semi speakers (Dittmar 1999, p. 61).

Structural data was also collected covering the linguistic corrosion that showed a shift in language use to Italian and not English. Here the study concentrated on sociolinguistic analysis of language attrition features that indicated the significance of the ELT programs in such areas by indicating how such programs had great impacts on how English as language had spread among youthful speakers in most schools.

This showed that the program had effective corrective impacts. The results also showed that linguistic loyalty was high towards the first languages but still there were chances of linguistic policies meant to increase the use of English were succeeding. The paper went further to indicate that following the results; ELT programs have to be equipped with linguistic codifications and make use of its written form as a key way of reducing linguistic disintegration (Benesch 2001, p. 134).

Analysis of the Finding

The findings of the research indicated the issues faced by ELT programs in areas where English language is rarely used. The study also explains the situation in which second languages find themselves in the presence of first languages. The results showed that language should be viewed as asocial behavior and in other situations as a social phenomenon in relation to the language used by any community.

Language can in way be looked at as a separate variable from other social behaviors such as culture. Thus it is important for language to be used or practiced regularly in order to prevent language decay (Nunan 2004, p. 78).

This is to mean that sociolinguistic approach on ELT programs should always consider the fact that plans on language teaching are just a means of change and that in any case the employed policies do not show any effects on the use of language, the approach will be unsuccessful. The spontaneous use of any language by a community is what mainly causes a language to change in its dominance (Brindley 1998, p. 78).

Conclusion

Sociolinguistic approaches are aimed at serving as intervention as well as protective measures in situations of endangered languages as well as act as inactive recorders in situations where a language cannot be salvaged. Most researchers remain skeptical when it comes to revitalization but still regard it as a crucial inclusion in the process of maintaining the diversity associated with culture and linguistics. The decisive factor when it comes to a language feature in mostly the attitude of the communities speaking the language.

Lack of interest from any community will lead to revitalization thus even the best programs meant to promote the growth of any language will end up being meaningless. Language policies were observed to have greater impacts on the ELT programs in situations where they were effectively constructed and they were realistic.

The study showed that a language being endangered can be easily rescued and its revitalization made more feasible if the approach is realistic. Sociolinguistic approaches were thus seen very important means of coming up with effective and realistic language policies used in the analysis of the impacts of the ELT programs (Brown 1995, p. 56).

Sociolinguistic approach demands for improvement change as the most significant characteristic in the communities. The change has to be there in order for the speakers to improve their speech practices (Bailey 1991, p. 98). Thus, the approach concludes insisting that ETL programs have to be properly analyzed and some of the elements in these programs should be changed so as to ensure that the language learning process complies with the needs of the young speakers in the best way possible (Bayer 1999, p. 64)

Implication

In order for any community to gain the nature of language phenomenon attrition and for such a community to develop a sociolinguistic basis that is strong enough to accommodate linguistic policies, the nature of the sociolinguistic approach has to be holistic. Additional linguistic phenomena like ethno-cultural settings in communities where a certain language is ceasing, the loyalties of the speakers, interests and attitudes form crucial basis in the analysis of the use of a language and its structures.

Only extensive research on the communities speeches can yield desirable results (Bonvillian 1993, p. 34). The main aim of including language policies in ELT programs is to initiate a change in the use of language spontaneously by more speakers in a community. This is the main indicator that can be based on in measuring the language policy efficacy. Such factors include changes in legislative, elite active participation, language shift indicators or minority language policies.

The process of research indicated that language policies and linguistic endangerment result in the language phenomenon complexity facing attrition. These are the structural and cognitive language aspects and have great influence on the additional linguistic processes that vary (Cheshire 1991, p. 75).

References

Allwright, L 1999, Observation in the language classroom, Longman, London.

Bach, M 1997, Linguistic communication and speech acts, MIT Press, Cambridge.

Bachman, L 1990, Fundamental consideration in language testing, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Bailey, W 1991, Images of English. A Cultural History of Languages, CUP, Cambridge

Bayer, J 1999, Language and social identity, Multilingual Matters, Clevendon.

Benesch, S 1999, Rights analysis: Studying power relations in an academic settings, English for Specific Purpose, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 313-327.

Benesch, S 2001, Critical English for academic purpose: Theory, politics and practice, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers, New Jersey.

Bonvillian, N 1993, Language, Culture and Communication, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

Brindley, G 1998, The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programming design, The second language curriculum, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Brown, J 1995, The elements of language curriculum: A systematic approach to program development. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, New Jersey.

Cheshire, J 1991, English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives, CUP, Cambridge.

Crystal, D 1999, The English Language, Penguin Books, London.

Dittmar, N 1999, Sociolinguistics, Edward Arnold Publishers, London.

Holmes, J 2008, An introduction to sociolinguistics, Longman, London.

Jordan, R 1997, English for academic purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Long, H 2005, Methodological issues in learner needs analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Nunan, D 1998, Research methods in language learning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Nunan, D 2004, Tasks-based language teaching, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Parker, K 1994, Linguistics for non-linguistics, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

Tully, M 1997, English: and advantage to India, ELT Journal, vol. 51 no.2, pp. 157-164.

Introduction

It cannot be denied that developing a rich vocabulary is a particularly important aspect of studying a foreign language (L2). At the same time, it is an admittedly difficult task, which prompted researchers to search for effective ways of solving this problem. One of such solutions is the usage of glosses in the process of reading (Cheng & Good 2009; Yoshii 2014; Zhao and Guo 2012).

According to Moazzeni et al. (2014, p. 396), reading provides students with a cultural input and glosses help them to remember new words, which enhances the effectiveness of the activity. Numerous studies have been conducted in order to prove the usefulness of glosses for studying English as a foreign language. This paper is devoted to reviewing some of them.

Literature Review

Definition of Gloss

Glosses (metanotes, metatext, paratext) are the brief definitions or explanations which are most often supplied for unfamiliar words in a text (Moazzeni et al. 2014, p. 398). Such notes may appear in the margin or as footnotes and may provide only the definition or include related meanings along with antonyms in order to facilitate the understanding of the word they describe (Yoshii 2014; Moazzeni et al. 2014).

Glosses enhance general comprehension, improve vocabulary retention, and save students time and effort in reading L2 texts (Moazzeni et al. 2014, p. 399). The following advantages of glosses are usually highlighted: they enable students to read complex texts without interruptions that searching the dictionaries requires; they draw learners attention to the words explained facilitating the process of remembering them (Yousefi and Biria 2015).

Studies Devoted to Gloss Use

The impact of glosses usage on the performance of the learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) has been researched in numerous studies. For the study of Azari (2012, p. 75), 76 EFL learners were divided into groups and provided with marginal Persian (which was their native language, L1) and English (L2) glossaries in order to determine the impact of their usage on the learning process.

It turned out that the students overall performance did not improve significantly. Most students who participated in the test expressed their willingness to work with the glossaries and preferred those that combined both L1 and L2. The author intends to investigate the matter further in order to attain more general and universal data.

Cheng and Good (2009, p. 120) conducted a research for glossaries in Chinese and English with 135 participants who had different proficiency levels, finding out that L1 glossaries assisted the students in remembering new words and improved their knowledge. The variety of tests used by the authors included 2 delayed tests, and it was discovered that the participants performance was worse during the first one but improved by the second one.

The proficiency level of participants turned out to influence their ability to benefit from glossaries. The authors intend to further research the matter with a larger group of students. Soureshjani and Riahipour (2012) researched the results of glosses use among Persian English language learners with the help of TOEFL tests. According to their results, glossing had a positive impact of students performance, including their reading comprehension.

Besides, it was found out that L1 glossaries were more beneficial than L2 ones. The authors suggest further researching the topic, paying attention to the proficiency level of the participants. In the study by Moazzeni et al. (2014) the impact of different gloss types on the learning process of Iranian students was researched. According to the results, any kind of glosses improved the performance of the participants.

Another study that showed the effectiveness of gloss use was performed by Yoshii (2014, p. 20) among the students of 39 Japan universities, and it involved researching both in-text and footnote glossaries. Zhao and Guo (2012, p. 54) performed a test among 82 Chinese EFL learners. The positive impact of glosses usage turned out to be short-lived and the new words did not enter the productive vocabulary of the participants.

However, the authors also found out that glosses were more useful and effective than dictionaries from the point of view of vocabulary improvement since glosses are more convenient to use. Yousefi and Biria (2015) compare marginal and endnotes glosses with the help of two groups of Iranian EFL learners of similar proficiency knowledge.

Endnote glossing was pronounced as an effective way of enhancing the students results during both the immediate and delayed tests while the marginal gloss was described as less effective for the reason of being less convenient.

Zarei and Sepahian (2015, p. 30) have conducted a test devoted to several types of vocabulary comprehension improvement techniques including glosses and involving 175 EFL Iranian learners. According to their results, L1 glosses are more useful and effective than L2 glosses. Still, the authors did not notice a significant performance difference between the group that used glosses and the one that did not.

Conclusion

Although the results of the two of the mentioned studies appear to indicate that the usage of glosses does not necessarily improve vocabulary memorisation and retention among EFL learners, the rest of the investigations contradict such a conclusion.

Apart from that, different types of glosses appear to have different impacts on the studies of the participants of the test, as several authors emphasize that endnote glosses are more convenient and, therefore, more effective. The proficiency level of participants seems to determine their ability to use glosses effectively.

As the researchers point out, there is still room for further investigation in this respect. Still, the analysed data proves that the usage of glosses may have a positive impact on the process of EFL learning.

Reference List

Azari, F 2012, Gloss Or No Gloss? EFL Learners Preference, American International Journal of Social Science, vol.1, no. 2, pp. 75-85.

Cheng, Y-H & Good, R L 2009, L1 Glosses: Effects On EFL Learners Reading Comprehension And Vocabulary Retention, Reading in a Foreign Language, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 119142.

Moazzeni, Zh, Bagheri, M, Sadighi F & Zamanian, M 2014, The Effect Of Different Gloss Types On Incidental Vocabulary Retention Of Iranian EFL Students, International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 396-415.

Soureshjani, K & Riahipour P 2012, On The Impact Of Lexical Glossing On Receptive Skills Of EFL Learners, World Applied Sciences Journal, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 502-509.

Yoshii, M 2014, Effects Of Glosses And Reviewing Of Glossed Words On L2 Vocabulary Learning Through Reading, Vocabulary Learning and Instruction vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 19-30.

Yousefi, M & Biria R 2015, Incidental L2 Vocabulary Learning And Retention; Types Of Glossing: Marginal Glosses Vs. Endnotes, International Journal of Language Learning and Applied Linguistics World, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 49-56.

Zarei, A & Sepahian S 2015, The Effects Of Explicit And Implicit Instructional Techniques (Glossing Semantic Mapping, And Imagery) On L2 Vocabulary Comprehension And Production, Academie Royale des Sciences 2 Outre-Mer Bulletin des Seances, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 30-40.

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The field of research methods in linguistics is a dynamic and fast evolving field of study Researchers continuously endeavor to unearth fundamental facts underlying this line of study, the modes and codes of its operation, and its central contribution to research in linguistics.

The major issues around the English Language Teaching research are discourse. This paper evaluates the different aspects.

Teacher education studies focus on originality. It examines the variety in language that may be a challenge to different students in different parts of the world. It also illustrates how different people embrace their second languages.

Moreover, it examines the extent to which English as a language has been studied and continues to elicit interest from different quarters. This area also aims at explaining the liaison between applied linguistics research and the rules for adopting more than one language.

This work seeks to find out how quantifiable writing as a technique has evolved in the field of linguistic research. Its focus is on the evolution in writing and the need for it to be quickly embraced by the students. It looks at the genus of the written word, the centrality of origin and the latest developments.

This aims at bringing university students at par with what is happening in the world of linguistics. A thorough mastery of reading aids in competence in bilingual acquisition. It also reviews the challenges that arise in different parts of the world as a result of the differences in language colloquialism.

This journal also evaluates the adoption of grammar at different avenues of communication. Speaking, as a genre, examines the levels of competence in applied linguistics. This is not only for English language but for any language other than ones first language.

It depends on two major factors: ones speed at mastery of the language and the time available for practice of the same. There are different theories and approaches to it. Vocabulary embraces the diversity of any second language.

It tries to explain the need for the adoption of various literary approaches such as idioms, repetitions, proverbs etc. The assessment of a learners performance for any language takes both analytical and critical reviews of the same depending on different languages.

Learner experiences can be measured from their attitude towards acquisition of a second language. Proper listening skills aid in all the acquisition of these other skills

Research areas of the journal over a five year period

It is not clear from the list provided, the extent of coverage of reading and listening areas. This might be attributed to the challenges encountered while assessing these areas of applied linguistics research. Research methods, though, not directly attributed as the main topics of this study enjoys the highest study.

Others like teacher education, speaking and vocabulary clearly are a rich field of research. This can be due to the fact that these areas are easily quantifiable. Additionally, most researchers could be said to be comfortable with these specific areas of study.

Language assessment, learner experiences, writing and grammar seem to be less explored compared to the others above. It can be concluded that these particular areas demand additional research. From the various titles presented, the methodology adopted is experimental.

It critically analyses, interviews, tests its variables over a period of time, for instance, the ten month investigation on writing and draws conclusions. The data collected are largely qualitative. This is because they take a dissertational approach.

The beginning of the Yiddish language

The Yiddish language is nearly 1,000 years old. It was in the 10th century that this language begun. This saw the Jews from France and Italy establishing a large community in Germany. Though there were natives who still spoke German, the new residents reached the place speaking in Laaz. This was a Jewish-French dialect mix of languages. Laaz was used in punctuating the German dialogue.

By the 19th century, the Yiddish language reached in Poland, German and other European regions. Yiddish became exposed to Slavic languages. It was during the 16th century that Yiddish language became a written language. This was mainly in some parts of Poland. The Jews used Hebrew characters in writing Yiddish.

Yiddish connection with Ashkenaz, Kabbalists and Hasidism

The Pious of Ashkenaz, the Kabbalists, and Hasidism are all associated with Yiddish and lived in different generations. Pious of Ashkenaz was the earliest community that lived in Yiddish generation. The term Ashkenaz refers to the Middle Ages applied only to German lands. The pious of Ashkenaz are the early descendants who migrated from German and France to Poland.

They brought the German dialect and customs to the Jews in the Slavic territories. The Kabbalist community lived between the 16th and 18th centuries. At the start of the 17th century, there was the popularization of Kabbalah practice. This led to some changes in Ashkenazi society. The kabbalah ideas started to diffuse during this period. Kabbalah immensely influenced the Yiddish Literature.

The Kabbalistic tradition became an integral part of the religious culture. This was particularly seen in the liturgical practice. Kabbalah practice was associated with magical practices, charm and exorcism. Hasidism emerged on the onset of the 18th century. It started in the Polish-Lithuanian territory (nowadays known as Ukraine). Yiddish literature played an integral part in spreading Hasidism.

In that period, there was an influence on the Jews to become modern. The Haskala community fought hard to modernize its activities. There were several leaders who tried to explain their calling through Yiddish literature.

German language as a piece in developing Yiddish language

German language was a crucial piece in developing Yiddish language. During the early periods, the early arrivals used Laaz to punctuate their German speech and expressions. This saw the modification of the language. The Jews tried to articulate Yiddish in writing and Hebrew came to play that part. This led to the emergence of the Yiddish literature. Slavic languages played a crucial role in facilitating Yiddish language to its own right.

This is when the Jews arrived in Poland, Germany and other parts of Eastern Europe. Logically, Yiddish originated from the South of Europe. Jews migrated from France and Northern Italy to Germany. The growth of Yiddish language started from the South heading to the North (Poland). At that time, Yiddish used a lot of Slavic language. However, in the Western Europe, Yiddish started to decline.

The most historic period in Yiddish literature

The most historic period in Yiddish literature was after the 1860s. Abramovitsh wrote many books to try and bring Yiddish back. He used the basic Hebrew he knew since he thought that Yiddish lacked enough literature.

The role of Mendele Moykher Sforim was to criticize the modern Jewish life in an ironic manner. The character tries to attune to the traditional Eastern Jews. Odessa (in Ukraine) was the place where Sholem Aleichem and Abramovitsh often met to articulate their ideas.