Category: Linguistics

Acquisition of a language is a situation whereby a person, specifically one who is exposed to the language to be acquired is exposed to that language.

It can either happen in a natural set up where the target language is used and that the learner of this language acquires it by mere exposure to that language (Ellis, 1994), or in a formal set up where the language is to be taught to the learner and he or she is introduced to the rules and tools of trade of the language, for instance, when a learner is born in a certain environment, for example an English family, and the language of communication is English, then the learners first language is English (Ellis 1985), but when another language comes up such as French, and the child is under circumstance that he or she has to learn French, then French will come in as a second language.

The environments of acquiring both languages will be different and therefore after acquiring the first language, acquisition of the second language can either be simplified or made harder. The second language can either borrow from the first language or not borrow at all; therefore the first language will have played a role either positively or negatively in the second language acquisition process (Gass & Selinker, 2001).

Second language acquisition entails the acquisition of a language after the first language also known as the native language. The first language is considered the language that one acquires first as the mode of communication. This language is always thought to be an individuals mother tongue.

Any language that comes after the first language is then referred to as the second language, which is essentially the language that opens an individual to the outside world or rather to communicate with people outside his or her native background.

Most often than not, an individuals background can be traced using the (Gass & Selinker, 2001) accent that he or she has in her foreign language as his or her second language accent can easily contain traces of his or her first language. It is therefore the case that first language can have both positive and negative effects on an individual (Ellis, 1985).

The second language can be easy to learn if there are some similarities between it and the first language. It is always the case that a French speaker can easily learn English as his or her second language because of the few similarities between the two languages, but a speaker of Chinese can find it a bit hard to learn English because there is a wide gap in terms of differences between the two languages (Gass &Selinker, 1992).

There will be more interference experienced (Ellis, 1994) from the Chinese language because of the difference in pronunciation than it will be the case with French.

It is therefore believed that similarities and differences in various languages play a significant role in the acquisition of the second language, the more the differences, the difficult it is to acquire the second language but the less the differences, the more easy it is to learn the second language (Gass & Selinker 2001).

Second language acquisition will be interrupted by the first language in a situation whereby the first language dominates much more in its usage than the second language. Whenever the first language gets more prevalence, then it is most probable that the use of the second language is minimal.

Practice makes perfect and therefore if the language acquired as a second language will find it as a challenge when the learner uses the first language more often because the learner finds it more comfortable to use the first language, then it will be hard reaching the target language.

Therefore the first language will have stood in the way of the learning of the second language and therefore its acquisition hindered. The first language will have stood on the way in the learning of the second language.

Errors can come up in the acquisition of the second language because of the interference caused by the first language (Dulay & Krashen, 1982). Most of these errors are caused by transfer of forms and meanings by a learner from their first language into the second language.

This is evident in practical measures when a learner wants to make it easier to understand a notion that is found in the second language that is almost similar to that found in the native language (Dulay & Krashen, 1982). Most errors are always linked to the first language caused by transfer.

In the acquisition of the second language, the learner either consciously or unconsciously finds himself or herself transferring rules from his or her first language into the second language. These rules May affect the acquisition of the second language either positively or negatively (Dulay & Krashen, 1982)

As propagated by the behaviorist theory that language learning is a process of habit formation (Gass & Selinker, 1992) whereby old habits from the first language are thought to stand in the way of the learning of the new habits found in the second language, this is referred to as negative transfer. This will in the wider picture lead into the formation of errors.

According to behaviorists therefore old habits that will have been formed in the learning of the first language contribute greatly in the learning of the second language and in as much as in the behaviorist context this will lead to formation of errors and it is evident therefore that there is a significant role played by the first language in the learning of the second language.

At times, the habits from the first language help the learning of the second language and make it easier because the contribution of the first language could have been strengthened the values found in the second language, this is called positive transfer. It is therefore true that the first language has a significant role in the learning of the second language.

Second language learners may in some circumstances exhibit habitual avoidance of some constructions in the second language due to the differences exhibited therein from their first language (Beebe, 1998). From their first language, second language learners will tend to concentrate largely on discourse or grammatical forms that do not pose problems with their first language.

Those that show a wide margin of difference will therefore be avoided in order to make it easy for acquisition of the second language, which is as per the learners. But avoidance of these constructions is in the long run attributed to the interferences of the first language.

Avoidance of the constructions that deem hard can affect the acquisition of the second language by the mere fact that the constructions that are avoided can cause major grammatical errors in the acquired language. These errors caused by transfer can seriously harm the acquisition of the second language.

In view of the cognitive approach to second language learning, the learners are thought to creatively use the knowledge that they already have from the first language so as to learn the second language on their own with minimal supervision. This is done by the learners coming up with patterns that are of their own making, making use of the underlying rules they borrow from the first language.

After formulating the rules they then try to fit them in the second language, if they are not relevant they rectify them and if they are applicable then they will have achieved in the learning of the second language. The learners therefore will have learnt from their own mistakes because partly they hold an active role in the learning process.

They will be in a position to learn on their own and acquire firsthand knowledge of the second language courtesy of the first language knowledge they will have had. Rules from their first language will have played a significant role in the general outcome of the second language learning.

The learning processes of both the first language and the second language are always not the same, because the first language always comes first and in a natural setting, the second language comes later and in most cases in a more formal setting but if it occurs in a natural setting the mechanisms used in its learning are not always the same (Sharwood 1994).

Whereas the acquisition of competence in the first language comes at relatively faster rate, those standards of the second language are relatively slow unless it happens in a relatively faster learner.

More often than not, when a learner gets exposed to the second language at a relatively young age, and incase the first language is not in constant use, the first language stands a chance of being dropped along the way because new rules of the new language tend to overshadow those of the first language.

But in case of comparison of both rules and applying them in the acquisition, then it is quite evident that both languages will have complemented each other (Sharwood, 1994).

When looking at the linguistic word order in a language, more often than not the first language affects the second language (Gass & Selinker, 1992). For instance in English, there is the subject-verb-object agreement in word order in a grammatically correct sentence but for an English learner it may not be the case that his or her first language could be having this same word order.

In acquiring English as the second language, the learner will find it convenient using the word order of the native language ignoring that of the second language (English). This is always the case when considering the theory of overgeneralization where the second language learner over generalizes, specifically the rules acquired from the first language.

This can be considered as a type of simplification that aids the learner in understanding and acquiring the second language. The first language will have therefore played a significant role in simplifying second language rules. Though this can be seen as interference from the first language, the end result is this will have aided in the understanding and acquisition of the second language by the learner.

Learners of English as a second language, most significantly French learners will in a way change the rhythm in English because their first language, that is French allows. The distortion of the language is mainly caused by use of words that could not be having the meaning they intend to pass across, for instance the misplacement of the word for with a word like since.

An example in a sentence is, I have been living here for the last four years and instead use I have been living here since four years. This is a case of syntactic borrowing from the first language into the acquisition of the second language (Gass &Selinker, 1992)

On the basis of the first language, it is easy to detect areas of the study of the second language that will be of difficulty to the second language learner and those that will not be difficult (Ellis, 1994). The underlying factor is for the second language learner to understand the finer details of the language, so that a line is drawn between the first language and the second language (Gass & Schachter, 1989).

One needs to invent a mechanism that can help avoid the kind of confusion that can arise as a result of errors that arise through overgeneralization and transfer. It is evident that some errors realized in the acquisition of the second language are as a result of the first language influence. Therefore a line needs to be drawn between the rules of the second language and the native language.

Accents are usually carried by the leaner from their fist language into the learning of the second language. In this case, a learner will always tend to pronounce sounds in the second language as if they were in their first language (Gass &Selinker, 1992). This can be seen in languages that share particular words even though the meaning and pronunciation could be different.

This can be seen for example to be in existence among French and English languages. The learners of either of these two languages may find themselves carrying the accents of either of the languages into the other. This will happen if one language comes after the other as a second language.

Therefore borrowing of accent from the first language can always be traced if the native speaker competence of the second language is not achieved (Gass & Selinker, 1992). Thus, this leads to the passing judgment on the origins of an individual through this particular individuals accents.

In the field of second language acquisition, it is always the case that the learner of the second language achieves the status of being able to communicate with people outside his or her native boundaries of the native language. But at times the second language speaker may find it difficult to get the right words with which to communicate with the speakers of the second language.

This learner will find himself or herself using first language phrases in order to pass a point or rather to say what he or she intended to say (Gass & Selinker, 1992). In most cases this is accompanied by signs and gestures which will aid the listener in understanding what the reader intends to say.

This helps in the expression of oneself in the language that one is well equipped in but with accompaniment of body language, then he or she is well understood. For instance, when one finds it hard to use the word university in the acquired language and has got that word in his or her first language, then with aid of the first language together with facial and other extra linguistic devices, the whole meaning will have been arrived at.

During encoding and decoding of messages, most second language learners find it easy encoding it and giving the messages their own interpretations in their first languages and thereafter find the suitable words to employ in the second language. This is so because before one gives a response, he or she needs to internalize the encoded message after which he or she needs to decode the message.

Apparently before a response is given many processes do take place which in return contributes to the communication cycle to be complete (Gass & Selinker, 1992). The second language in itself cannot be sufficient if the learner has not yet acquired all the vocabularies that aid good communication, before the learner acquires second language competence it is therefore always the case that the first language is helpful.

In case the learner does not get the right vocabulary, then he or she can decode the message in the first language after which it can be given an interpretation that is required in the second language.

The use of the first language, in as much as the initial studies posed as a hindrance to the acquisition of the second language serves as a measure that bridges the gap left by lack of the right words in the second language, but it is this same first language that will serve as a bank where borrowing of words takes place to aid encoding and decoding of information for easy communication.

Some linguists view the first language as less important in the acquisition of the second language and that instead of being a positive factor in second language acquisition; the first language seems less important (Beebe, 1998).

If just left aside, as a major factor that contributes positively to the acquisition of the second language, then an individuals fist language will have been done harm, this will be seen as means of killing the first language after the acquisition of the second language (Gass & Schachter, 1989).

It is therefore wise to see the acquisition of these two languages as complex but equal processes that needs reinforcement in either way. The underlying factor in this case, at all levels and stages of the acquisition of both first and second language acquisition, both of the two languages need each other.

It should be noted that both the first and the second language complement and need each other (Beebe, 1998). Any language of the world plays the role of communication and expressing oneself so as to be understood and to understand other members of society.

The acquisition of a second language in the natural environment of the first language can see the first language being used in making incorrect assumptions concerning the second language but that notwithstanding (Gass & Schachter, 1989), it can be used in making the acquisition of the second language a lot easier.

Both of these two languages need each other in a healthy way in order to strengthen each other, one way nit to make the first language distinct and secondly to make the second language helpful in aiding the first language speakers open up to the outside world of communication

References

Beebe, L.M. (1988). Issues in Second Language Acquisition: Multiple Perspectives. New York. Newbury House Publishers. Ed.

Dulay, H., Burt, M. & Krashen, S. (1982). Errors. Language Two. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1985). Learner Strategies. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 164-189

Ellis, R. (1994).The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford. Oxford University.

Gass, S. & Schachter, J. (1989). Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. Eds.

Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (1992). Language Transfer in Language Learning. New York, Routledge.

Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second Language Acquisition: An introductory course. New York. Routledge.

Sharwood S. (1994). A quick tour around, Second Language Learning: Theoretical Foundations. London: Longman. pp. 3-21.

Literature Review

In academic arena, English plays a very crucial role especially in institutions whereby it has been used for infinitely long period of time as a medium of instruction. Students are expected to not only communicate effectively in English language. They are also supposed to master its extensive usage so that they can be able to grasp full content in their various fields of study. According to Bacha and Bahous (2008), there is no possibility of excelling in institutions which use English as medium of communication.

Therefore, tremendous effort geared towards learning English language both from the teacher and learner levels is relevant in order to help students overcome academic demands so as to excel in their respective disciplines. Additionally, the acquired skills will assist students in meeting the demands of English language use in a professional context (Bacha & Bahous, 2008).

Ismail (2011) explicates that the academic context consign strenuous demands on students as they are required to complete numerous writing tasks in different genres such as essays, research papers and critical reviews. On the other hand, for learners to be able to decipher the different structure and language forms that are most suited for diverse form of texts, they ought to focus on learning the rules of the language that is being used for instruction.

Furthermore, in his study on students perceptions on writing in ESL, Ismail found out that English plays vital role in initiating students to the wider academic community owing to their improved proficiency and also due to their ability to make distinctions between language activities used in specific genres. Further exploration of students perceptions indicated that the kind of attitudes that students held towards ESL either hindered or promoted their writing ability.

On the same note, Bacha (2002) underscores that English has been elevated to a higher status around the world owing to the fact that it is the preferred language of use for various specific purposes. Needless to say, English is a preferred medium of instruction in many academic institutions across the globe bearing in mind that even the non-English speaking countries have adopted English in their academic curriculum.

For this reason, English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Arab world as well as from other parts of the globe have little alternative but to learn English despite the difficulties they encounter in the course of learning. In spite of the fact that L1 (Arabic) has a role to play in students life, it is imperative to mention that English for academic purposes is very crucial not just to outshine in academic field, but also to fit in the global arena whereby it is the main language of communication.

Concurrently, this current research offers an in-depth exploration on the use of English for purpose of academic learning and of course the acquisition of knowledge. In addition, it also highlights the difficulties Arabic speakers encounter in the course of switching between Arabic for social use and English for academic purposes.

Scholars interested in English for specific purposes (ESP) discipline tend to prefer the usage of two distinct subdivisions to distinguish between the use of English in academic (English for academic purposes (EAP) and the language use in occupational contexts (English for occupational purposes (EOP) (Gillett & Wray, 2006). Besides, Gillett and Wray accentuate that the aspiration of ESP is to equip students with the necessary skills to communicate, write and read.

Notwithstanding, the period of preparation is very short, but the skills are relevant to promote success in academics. However, success in mastery of ESP is only achieved if activities of ESP are demonstrated in the context as it is the case in academic institutions. Moreover, the materials for teaching ESP ought to be authentic to enable students to grasp vital skills for a smooth transition into the employment world.

Similarly, Fender (2008) in his research unearthed several characteristics of ESP which includes ESP materials that are designed to meet specific learners needs such as academic. Conversely, the methodology for designing such materials is tailored towards the specialized purpose. Needless to say, the aim of EPS should be focused, not just on teaching the lexicon, grammar and registers in a particular discipline, but should also provide skills on the appropriate use of the above activities.

English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

In yet another development of this language, EOP falls under three categories namely business English, professional English and vocational English. The importance of English in occupational fields has been accentuated via several studies. One such study is by Fender (2008) that emphasized the necessity for learning above average English skills to facilitate communication in every profession.

Furthermore, the two aforementioned authors provide indisputable solutions that ESL students can employ to overcome communication barriers in their respective business and management professions. Likewise, Gilmore (2009) points out that many students find it extremely challenging to produce written texts in their language and the challenges worsens when they are required to write in a second language and specifically to EFL learners.

He adds that the widely usage of English language in business and academic environment can be directly linked to the gradual revolution heightened by globalization. As a matter of fact, Huang (2008) study supported Gilmore observation by accentuating that the spread of English usage is likely to be accelerated by its widespread usage in mass communication, internet and business dealings.

He further emphasizes that on a day to day basis, thousands of deals in trade, journalism, politics etc are conducted in English whereas the parties involved are non-native speakers of English. As a result, the necessity to equip the users with the relevant English competence skills cannot be overemphasized of which this is the main concern of the current study.

Additionally, Huang study revealed that test scores for tasks written in English varied between the ESL learners and native speakers of English, whereby native speakers scores higher than ESL learners. Huang attributed these findings to the fact that ESL learners performance was limited for reasons not explained in his study.

However, his findings positively indicate the concept of using ESP in academics poses tremendous hardship to ESL students. Moreover, Puvenesvary (2003) research revealed that poorly-written business letters caused grievous harm to a business. His study which was conducted in the banking sector in Malasyia further portrays that ESP is a valuable skill not just in academics but also in professional arena.

Challenges in reading and speaking in ESP for academic learners

Research among Arab students has indicated that they face similar or more adverse challenges while reading and speaking in ESP. Obviously, in academic institutions, students are expected to communicate with their fellow learners as well as participate in both oral and reading classroom presentations. Similarly, they are also expected to have above average reading skills to enhance performance in academic tasks.

However, most ESP learners posses below average skills in reading and speaking as cited by Jdetawy (2011). The aim of his research was to conduct a conceptual review of challenges faced by Arab learners while using ESP in academic setting. A thorough review of literature exposes the reality that Arab ESL students faced serious problems while using ESP in academics and the problems impacted on all areas of language skills, i.e. speaking, reading, writing and listening (Jdetawy, 2011).

The above current study concurs with a prior study by Savas (2009). Although Savas study aimed at unearthing learners challenges as perceived by their teachers, the two studies arrived at similar findings. Savas (2009) highlights that L2 learners of English face serious challenges while using ESP in accomplishing academic tasks such as writing, speaking, reading and listening. Interesting though, this study partly blame inadequacy of teaching methods as having contributed to the acquisition of below average linguistic skills in English.

Problems faced by Arabic speakers in ESL learning for academic purposes

On the same note, learners of L2 face many problems and Arab learners are no exception. Needless to say, these problems have caught the interest of various linguistic scholars due to their regular occurrences in both written and spoken English. As a result, numerous studies (Hisham, 2008; Rababbah, 2003; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 2002) have been carried out to investigate some of the common and chronic problems faced by Arab learners in the process of acquiring L2 (English).

To expound on the same, Kobayashi and Rinnert (2002) study attempted to investigate the effects of extensive and intensive L1 training in high school and how students transferred L1 knowledge while writing in L2. The study indicated that students tended to transfer knowledge in L1 to L2 and as a result committed weighty lexical errors during the writing process. However, errors in writing could be minimized if the students acquired the best writing strategy in L1 as they could transfer the same skills L2.

On the other hand, Kobayashi and Rinnert explanation ignores the fact that most of the errors of writing in L2 arise not because of the acquired writing strategies, but also because the mastery of L2 is restricted. Rababah (2003) extended his study further to identify the various reasons that could be attributed to these EFL learning problems.

First of all, he identified that the problems of EFL among Arab learners arose because English language teachers were native speakers of Arabic; hence their performance and competence in English was likely to be restricted. In addition, use of English was not a common experience among Arab speakers bearing in mind that they also had little interaction with native English speakers.

Consequently, Hisham (2008) investigated business students at the University of Utara Malaysia and pointed out that EFL learner encounter problems in vocabulary register, grammar and referencing. As a matter of fact, Umair (2011) reinforces the above discourse by restating that Arabic native speakers encountered many problems while undertaking writing courses in English. In deed, the composition of learners in academic institution is very diverse and as well their multilevel ability in writing also varied.

As a result, the lack of uniformity further accelerated the problems of competent writing for both teachers and students (ibid). Umair further explains that the diversified composition of learners in terms of abilities made it impossible for teachers to meet the needs of every learner.

Additionally, Bacha (2002) reviewed past literature that is highly relevant to the current study owing to the fact that it identified the major problems that L2 learners encountered while writing for academic purposes. Moreover, the study pointed out that writing skills among L2 learners were restricted following their limitation of lexical variety and lack of subordination elements.

Consequently, the importance of employing the appropriate methodology while teaching ESP cannot be overstated. Having established that there are various and grievous problems in ESL learning, L2 practitioners have been a search of comprehensive theory that would be employed to teach L2 in an attempt to minimize or eliminate problems that originated from poor teaching methodologies.

As a result three major theories have been proposed which can be employed to guide learners in the process of writing in order to promote mastery of skills among ESP learners for academic purposes.

Integral theories applied in the teaching of ESP

One of the most important theories is that which touches on rhetorical drills and syntax. It is referred to as product theory and they are all important in assisting the process of writing (Badger & White, 2000). As the name suggests, this theory is concerned with the final written product and eschews from establishing how the writing skills are acquired. Badger and White also exemplifies that the written product is a clear indicator of the level of structure skills of the target language (TL) that the learner have mastered.

Moreover, the written product indicates the level of imitated input since L2 learning is a matter of imitation. Badger and White also explains that if students are exposed to written model texts their level of errors is likely to subside and vice versa.

This is because as students focus on model texts they also focus on form and structure out of which they imitate the ideal writing skills. In addition, the students should be exposed to various exercises based on the model texts, and concurrently their level of mastered should be evaluated based on replicated product.

On the contrary, process theory approach focuses on the identification of procedure employed to arrive at the final written text without any consideration of the appearance of this final product (Hyland, 2003). This indicates that this theory is more concerned with teaching methods that learner of ESP is exposed to so as to acquire writing skills in the target language.

The author expounds that the various elements in the learning of English language such as drafting, actual writing carrying out revision as well as assessment and evaluation are all related to the theory. Henceforth, instructors are supposed to introduce the students to techniques that enhance success in writing. Therefore, students are taken through rewriting, revision and editing until the instructor is satisfied with the final draft.

On the same note, it important to acknowledge a more recent research that sought to highlight the meta-cognitive strategic that Arab students employed while reading comprehension both in Arabic and English that was doe by Alsheikh and Mokhtari (2011).

The study indicates serious implications for teaching and assessment on academic institutions since the researchers established that participants were more concerned with strategies than end products. Therefore, the study further reinforces the process theory that strategy or mechanisms employed in teaching writing determines the quality of end-product.

Finally, genre theory approach was proposed in an attempt to provide mechanisms to promote successful learning of ESP in the academic arena especially in writing. According to Badger and White (2000), this approach largely deals with studying the social context in which writing materials are produced.

Generally, this theory considers the communicative events where written materials are produced. In the academic context, the process whereby a lecturer interacts with his/her students in the process of teaching is considered to be relevant while teaching writing skills in target language.

Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) also explained that in this context, students are free to choose their own topic and write on them, while ensuring that their written texts fulfill the intended communicative purpose. Concurrently, Flowerdew and Peacock (2001) perceive this approach as the most significant due to its dynamic nature as well as varied characteristics across disciplines, time and instructors.

However, the approach might not be successful since it requires collaboration between lecturers and students, a situation which may sometimes be unattainable. In this case, the teacher assumes an authoritative position as he/she guides learners towards an elevated performance level of ESP (Paltridge, 2001).

References

Alsheikh, N.O. & Mokhtari, K. (2011). An Examination of the Metacognitive Reading Strategies Used by Native Speakers of Arabic When Reading in English and Arabic. English Language Teaching, 4(2), 151-161.

Bacha, N.N. (2002). Developing Learners Academic Writing Skills in Higher Education: A Study for Educational Reform. Language and Education, 16(3): 161-178. Bacha, N.N., & Bahous, R. (2008). Contrasting views of business students writing needs in an EFL environment. English for Specific Purposes 27, 74-93.

Badger, R. & G. White. (2000). A process-genre approach to teaching writing. ELT Journal 54(2), 153-160.

Fender, M. 2008. Spelling knowledge and reading development: Insights from Arab ESL learners, Reading in a foreign language, 20(2), 19-26.

Flowerdew, J. & Peacock, M. (Eds.) (2001). Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gillett, A & Wray, L. (2006). EAP and Success in Assessing the Effectiveness of EAP Programmes, BALEAP.

Gilmore, A. (2009). Using online corpora to develop students writing skills. ELT Journal, 63(4), 363-372.

Hisham, D. (2008). Needs Analysis of Arab graduate students in the area of EAP: A case study of the ICT program at UUM. Unpublished minor thesis. Sintok: University Utara Malaysia Press.

Huang, J. (2008).How Accurate are ESL students holistic writing scores on large-scale assessments? A generalizability theory approach. Assessing Writing, 13(3), 201- 218.

Hyland, K. (2003). Genre-based pedagogies: A social response to process. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12: 17-29.

Ismail, S. A. A. (2011). Exploring Students Perceptions of ESL Writing. English Language Teaching, 4(2): 73-84.

Jdetawy, L. F. A. (2011). Problems encountered by Arab EFL learners. Language in India, 11(3), 19-28.

Kobayash, H. & Rinnert, C. (2002). High school perceptions of first language literacy instruction: Implications for second language writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11(2), 91-116

Paltridge, B. (2001). Genre, text type and the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) classroom. In A. M. Johns (Ed.), Genre in the Classroom. Mahwah: Erlbaum.

Puvenesvary, M. (2003). A comparative study of the criteria employed by academics and workplace professionals in evaluating business correspondence. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy, Thesis, Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.

Rababah, G. (2003). Communicating Problems Facing Arab Learners of English. Journal of Language and Learning 3(1), 180-197.

Savas, B. (2009). Role of Functional Academic Literacy In ESP teaching: ESP Teacher Training in Turkey for sustainable development. Journal of International Social research, 2(9), 396-408.

Umair, N. (2011). Problems of Multi-ability Academic English Writing Classes in Arab Countries. Arab World English Journal, 2(2), 230-242.

Metacommentaries make discussion of any problem more individual, it helps to make sure that the problem is dwelt upon from personal point of view and that the teller does not want to sound too publicly and expresses only is/her own opinion. The metacommentaries are aimed at helping the teller not only to express his/her personal opinion but also to make sure that the audience has correctly understood what has already been said.

Reading the article Nuclear Waste by Richard A. Muller, it is possible to come across a number of different metacommentaries used by the author with the purpose to make sure that the readers can correctly understand the reasons of the elaborated information and make sure that the data presented in the discussion is valid but with the shade of personal meaning.

Reading the article, it should be mentioned that the author does not use metacommentaries too often. The article is divided into two parts, the first part offers the facts about nuclear wastes, danger of fossil fuel plants and the places where wastes are stored. Even though the author tries to sound firm and offers just statistical information and facts, he is unable to express the ideas without metacommentaries.

The main idea of the most metacommentaries in this part is to orient the readers to the information which is important, is to help explain the idea by means of the examples and to stress on the most important aspects of the discussion.

The second part of the article is more important and contains more metacommentaries as the author expresses his personal opinion. Moreover, this is not just the point of view, this is the confession and the writer does not just dwells upon personal opinion, he tries to make the reader understand why such particular actions were taken. It should be mentioned that the number and the strength of the facts depends on the problem.

Nuclear wastes and the confession of the person who worked with those wastes may arouse great deal of discussion and controversial ideas. That is why the author tries to be delicate and to support all the facts of dangerous storing with the explanation and metacommentaries aimed at explaining the previous ideas or introducing the following ones.

Reading the article, I met several rhetoric questions which may be referred to as metacommentaries. The rhetoric questions do not expect from the readers to try to find the answers. Vice versa, the author asks those rhetoric questions to give the reader the answers but in the way to make sure that the reader believes in his/her personal ability to have this point. The author also uses the confirmation of facts as the convincing method.

For example, writing of course, calling storage unacceptable is itself an unacceptable answer, Richard A. Muller in his Nuclear Waste just wants to say that he does not search for justification of the actions which were predominantly wrong, but using this phrase he tries to explain the reader what caused the actions and which conclusions were drawn before storing the wastes.

Therefore, it may be concluded that there are a lot of different ways of expressing personal opinion and proving the ideas. The use of metacommentaries does not fulfill the speech with the facts and profound information, this form of speech just helps to express the facts in order to make sure that they are understood in the correct way.

Zinsser (2005) argued that writing is not a product but a process that needs time and attention to develop. In many occasions, it is always difficult for writers to come up with a perfect piece of literature in the first attempt. It is common to find that in the first draft, there are a number of mistakes that were not intended by the writer.

This may be grammatical mistakes, wrong sentence structure, clarity mistakes, wordiness and a poor logical flow of writing. Whichever reason it may be, the important thing that a writer should realize is that it is normal to make errors in the first attempt. It is important therefore to embrace the culture of persistence in writing if success is expected.

Booth, Colomb and Williams (2007) observe that the difference between success and failure is always very thin. In writing, the distinguishing factor between a professional writer and an average one is the attitude they have towards writing. An individual with poor perception towards literature, one who cannot re-do his or her previous work again and again, may not make a good writer.

Such a person may not be in a position to refine and reshape his initial work. Therefore, the final output would be below the expected standards. A good writer would have the patience to go back to the initial work and check for any errors that were made in the previous version and work on the text to meet the expectations.

Many people can write. However, very few can be good writers. Good writing is not the ability to make several sentences within a short period. It is not about ones mastery of the language.

It is not the ability to apply figures of speech in sentences. Good writing is about the ability to be persistent and keen on learning mistakes. It is the art of redoing that, which was done previously but seems not to be perfect. It is the ability to refine and reform an original version of literature to a better quality. In fact, writing is a habit that is developed, not a characteristic that one is born with.

In many occasions, students fail to be good writers not because they have poor knowledge. The main reason is that they always fail to check their work repeatedly to eliminate some obvious errors that would not appear in their work. Such students view writing from a wrong angle that is, as a kind of burden that at best should be done within a very short period and then pushed aside.

This is where they get it wrong. In so doing, they leave many errors in their work. Such works lack proper flow that would clearly bring out the intended meaning. The sentences may be fragmented because of poor vocabularies. The sentences would have completely different meaning from the one intended leading to misinterpretation.

It is therefore very important for those intending to be good writers, weather a student or not, to embrace the attitude of rewriting. They should appreciate the need to go through the original script severally, which would improve the text. Zinsser (2005) says, The point is that clear, writing is the result of a lot of tinkering. It is therefore a choice, not a chance that would determine ones success in writing.

References

Booth, W., Colomb, G., & Williams, G. (2007). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Thesis and Dissertations. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

Zinsser, W. (2005). On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction. New York, Quill.

It is obvious that different people have absolutely various perception of the reality and much talk exists concerning this problem. Whorfs linguistic relativity hypothesis is based on the idea that human perception of the reality is based on the language they talk.

Thus, according to this theory depending on the language people talk, they are united in their vision of the reality. Even though this theory has many rejections and it is believed to be the weakest one, there are a lot of supportive arguments which give an opportunity for the idea to deserve attention.

Liang (2011) states that culture and the way people think depend on the language they talk greatly. The perception of the world depends on human culture as in most cases cultural and traditional aspects influence people from their birth and it presupposes the formation of their vision of the surrounding reality based on the cultural and traditional aspects which, in their turn, affect language as well.

Additionally, Liang (2011) stresses on the idea that language helps express that vision that makes it possible to correct or change the reality, the theory of linguistic relativity does not claim that linguistic structure constrains what people can think or perceive, only that it tends to influence what they routinely do think, which makes us realize that language reflects cultural preoccupations and that how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language (p. 570).

For example, Indonesian language does not have the past tense, that is why all the actions people did are still considered in the presence tense and it makes the perception of time of Indonesians different from other part of the world. This influences their perception of the world greatly.

January & Kako (2007) analyzed the works by Whorf and made a stress on the research when the language of Indian tribes was compared with the English one. The difference was great as the literature translation was useless and the meaning was absolutely wrong.

It proved the theory of the connection between the perception of the world and language. Whorf considered language as not the means for expressing ideas, but also as the means of formation of those ideas stating that his is one of the main confirmations of his theory (Koerner, 2002).

Grelland (2006) conducted a research on the basis of the Whorfs theory of linguistic reality trying to confirm that consistent mathematical structure has physical images which are products of a classical language. The author also referred to the idea that it is important how the language is used.

Casasanto (2008) also agrees that language influences the shape of the thought as via language people get the image of the surrounding world. Different languages may carry different information and in this case, the perception of the world is going to differ greatly.

Rczaszek-Leonardi (2010) is sure that the interaction between a grammatical feature and cognitive processes involved in making semantic decisions about objects can be viewed on at least three timescales: the online influences, ontogenetic timescale, and the timescale of diachronic language change (p. 281).

This idea supports the understanding of the Whorfs role of language in the formation of human perception of the surrounding world. The formation of the language is based on the perception of the surrounding world, at the same time the language is changing and the changes are based on the world perception.

Reference List

Casasanto, D. (2008). Whos Afraid of the Big Bad Whorf? Crosslinguistic Differences in Temporal Language and Thought. Language Learning, 58, 63-79.

Grelland, H. (2006). The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and the Meaning of Quantum Mechanics. AIP Conference Proceedings, 810(1), 325-329.

January, D. & Kako, E. (2007). Brief article: Re-evaluating evidence for linguistic relativity: Reply to Boroditsky (2001). In Cognition, 104(2), 417-426.

Koerner, E. K. (2002). Chapter 3: On the sources of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.. Toward A History of American Linguistics, 39-62.

Liang, H. (2011). The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and Foreign Language Teaching and Learning. US-China Foreign Language, 9(9), 569-574.

Rczaszek-Leonardi, J. (2010). Multiple Time-Scales of Language Dynamics: An Example from Psycholinguistics. Ecological Psychology, 22(4), 269-285.

Linguistics as a science has a long history of research and discovery, but still there is little agreement on the major roles and impacts of linguistic activity on the human nature, relationships and communication.

It goes without saying that any language is a powerful instrument of persuasion and communication of any information; it is a human invention for the utility of human interactions; it is a technology having much functionality in different applications of human linguistic capabilities; it is a powerful tool for acting in the world and producing influence on it (Pare, 2009).

The major division among linguists is observed in the area of juxtaposed applied and formalist linguistic areas of research, and their ability to refer the language to realistic events and contexts.

The functions of the language in constructing and influencing the social, political, ideological and cultural reality are also debated and researched.

The set of articles reviewed in the present work provide a deeper understanding of the connections that a language has with the reality on any level, the functions that it plays in reflecting the human choices, and the way it is contextually shaped to reflect the social reality and discursive specificity of linguistic events.

One has to realize the difference between language and reality, and never strive to direct representation thereof in a language, even in applied linguistics  these conclusions were initially drawn from the article of Widdowson (2001) about the nature of applied linguistics and its relevance to the reality, but further on related to the argumentation of Smart (2010) on the subjective nature of collective argumentation.

The hypothesis of the author was that the discourse relationships in the formation of the argumentation, proofs and evidence, contradictions and comparisons are discursively related not only in organizations with similar standpoints, but in those opposing each other in views.

Smart (2010) finds the recurrent claims, themes and patterns of argumentation that are directly influenced by the behavior of opponents. That is, the discourse of the professional climate change organization is continuously formed as a natural reaction to the argumentation of the opposing party (Smart, 2010).

Hence, many similarities in the nature of scientific objectivity and its subjective representation in the collective argumentation of environmentalists and environmental skeptics may be found in the work of Smart (2010) voicing the claims of Widdowson about the fact that a linguist should refer linguistic categories back to the actual language from which they had been abstracted (Widdowson, 2001).

It is true because the practical element in linguistics should be observed  the science that exists for its own sake has no sense. Widdowson (2001) reviews two main tools of applied linguistics such as corpus analysis and critical discourse analysis to show how both the textual facts and effects can benefit the human understanding of linguistics and text in reality.

It is the critical discourse analysis that has found its implementation in the work of Smart (2010); by analyzing the contextual discourses of collective argumentation formation, the author managed to show how the diametrically different viewpoints play a continuous role in the construction of the social reality of both opponents.

One more useful idea of Widdowson that can be used in further practice is that linguists should develop their own specialist discourses to suit their own disciplinary perspective on language (Widdowson, 2001, p. 11).

By stating this, the author shows how the plurality of applied linguistics perspectives gives the opportunities for the scientific enquiry, research, comparison and analysis for the sake of further mediation between concepts and approaches.

One of such perspectives finds its reflection in both the claims of Smart (2010) about the living nature of a discourse and its affluent changeability depending on the collective argumentation , and in the Widdowsons theory of regarding language as detached from reality; it is the systemic functional linguistics (SFL) approach of Young (2010).

Young (2010) states that the intrinsic part in this language perspective is that it both creates and realizes its cultural part. This overview of the active nature of a language brings about the theory which says that language has its nature in the evolved service of its usage.

Language then results from a continuous act of options and choices that it transpires in. It is also fashioned by varying cultural and social situations. Hence, the functional role of a language results from its function, purpose and immediate discourse, enabling the speaker to use various linguistic instruments to construct the reality.

Youngs ideas about the functional application of language and its practical revelations of socio-cultural discourses may be developed further, as it is very logically complemented by the theory of Ricento (2006) about the language policy role in constructing the reality on the individual, group and even national level.

Young (2010) argues that SFL is a biaxial language describing perspective that views the external social-cultural phenomenal of the formal internal system through which the expression of the meaning of language is derived.

The SFL perspective is designed to work through the interaction of people through the use of language. Some similar ideas may be found in the claims of Ricento (2006) about the social role of the language used in particular settings.

Ricento (2006) identifies such concepts as diglossia in social terms, as a means of lowering the importance of indigenous languages and to assert the overwhelming influence of big languages such as English nowadays or French several centuries ago.

In his opinion, such terms as native speaker, mother tongue and linguistic competence have lost their meaningfulness, and were abandoned under the conditions of complex multiculturalism. Research of language policies under the proposed angle shades light on the current situation with the economic instability, political turbulence, racism and discrimination that first of all find the reflection in the language.

Ricentos (2006) claim that ideology of monolingualism has to be considered as necessary for social and economic equality proves to be true in case of having a brief look at how the linguistic hegemony can change the cultural, political and economic perspectives of a state. The linguistic concepts appear deeply welded into socio-cultural, political and historical contexts.

The proper approach to language policy can change the situation in a country and can alter the attitudes of some group members to another group. Youngs (2010) attention to the issue of linguistic metafunctions may serve as a sound theoretical substantiation of Ricentos ideas on a theoretical, deeply detached level of linguistic functionality and situational context construction dependency.

Instead of a conclusion, one needs to note that the role of the language in the practical, contextual issues of everyday life is gaining importance and influences the linguistic theory.

Despite the fact that a linguistic situation may never render the reality in full, language has become a powerful tool for shaping the economic and cultural equality, solving various problematic issues and restoring the cultural dignity and autonomy by means of monolingualism implementation.

The language has a set of practical and theoretical functions; it serves as a reflection of human choices and shapes the discursive reality on a continuous, living basis. Continuation of research in linguistics may help identify some more mechanisms that are enacted in the discursive interactions of linguistic acts participants.

References

Pare, A. (2009). What we know about writing, and why it matters. Compendium 2, Vol 2, No 1, pp. 1-11.

Ricento, T. (ed.) (2006). An Introduction to Language Policy: Theory and Method. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Smart, G. (2010). Argumentation across Web-Based Organizational Discourses: The Case of Climate Change. In Srikant Sarangi & Chris Candlin (eds.), Handbook of Communication in Organizations and Professions. Mouton De Gruyter.

Widdowson, H.G. (2001). Coming to terms with reality: applied linguistics in perspective. In Graddol, D. (ed). Applied Linguistics of the 21^st century. AILA Review 14.

Young, L. (2010). Systemic Functional Linguistics. Forthcoming in J. Simpson (Ed.) Routledge Handbook of Applied Linguistics.

They say that humans are meaning makers, and we uniquely make meanings by means of our own creation and interpretation of codes and signs which take the form of words, images, sounds, odours, flavours, acts and objects. These forms of signs have no original meaning and actually become signs only when we invest them with meanings. We actually think in signs then transform them into language (Peirce 1931).

Most of the signs and codes are recognised by all as living in one and the same society we seem to have the similar vision and interpretation of those signs. It is more difficult with the representatives of other cultures as they have other signs. One of the best examples of the signs and gestures and pictures which are able to tell us much without words.

The example of the differences is signs between the cultures may be considered the following, all the nations in the world nod when they agree with something and only Bulgaria people shake head when they agree. The same is with the pictures. There are two forms of signs, iconic (the visual one) and indexical (either spoken or written), according to Saussures (1960) analysis.

On the other hand, Saussure (1960) defines code as a system of signs each of which is distinct from each other. He believes that it is a systematic organization or structure of signs. On the other hand, he believes that codes may appear to be different from language, but in fact, they are both the same, although human languages clearly are among the most complex codes.

My four classmates and I discussed all the pictures that were given to us. Among all of the images we have chosen to analyze the third image. We could not see indexical signs in the image, yet we could observe several iconic signs. First, we could notice a man, with eight well- dressed women behind him, all standing on a stage with a background full of lights.

The signs in the image are quite comprehensible and straightforward that helps you form a clear image about the concept of the event. Furthermore, recognizing the man as a fashion designer named Karl Lagerfeld made it clearer to us and helped us create a meaning to the image we are looking at.

The meaning that we have all agreed on the given the image is the following, Karl Lagerfeld is launching a new fashion line, and all those ladies behind him are the models who promote his fancy designs. The whole background adds to the impression that he fashion show is presented.

Having a task to substitute or add some of the signs with the purpose to change the meaning of the picture, our group agreed on a military theme. We all thought that this image could represent a war zone where the fashion designer Karl Lagerfeld was the army leader and all those models behind him could be the soldiers.

The models could also wear military uniform and boots instead of the heels. Moreover, the background should be changed completely to add to the new main meaning of the photo. A sandy area instead of the stage and the ruined buildings from two sides is a great idea. The lights could be substituted with the fire flames caused by a bombardment and one or two tanks may be also a great idea to add to the new meaning.

Reference List

Peirce, CS, Hartshorne, C, Weiss, P & Burks, AW (eds.) 1931, Collected Writings, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Saussure. FD 1960, Course in general linguistics, Peter Owen, London. Word Count: 569

Introduction: New Language, New Issues

Even when dealing with closely related languages, one is highly likely to confuse the so-called false friends for linguistic cognates. The problem becomes even more obvious and hard to cope with when it comes to dealing with the similarities and differences between Semitic languages, which the Arabic one belongs to, and the Indo-European language family, which the English language corresponds to.

Since the two languages have completely different vocabulary, the numerous cognates that I have encountered when trying to learn the basic English vocabulary were the greatest obstacle on my way of mastering the language.

Therefore, it was obvious that, not to confuse the words that sound alike in both languages, I had to develop a specific strategy that would allow me to remember about the peculiarities of the English vocabulary.

The Key Problem: When Words Mean not What They Should

It is worth mentioning that the key problem concerning the cognates was that the words which actually coincided in their meaning were extremely few.

Learning the borrowed words was the easiest part, yet when it came to perceiving the words that had a different meaning in Arabic than in English, the situation turned quite complicated. Indeed, as Swan and Smith explain, the key problem lies in the phonetic similarities rather that the change of meaning in the loanwords:

They [Arab learners] have virtually no positive transfer: only a minimal number of words in English are borrowed from Arabic. A small range of mainly technical words, such as radar, helicopter and television, have been taken into Arabic, but these are common to most languages. Arabic speakers have very few aids to reading and listening comprehension by virtue of their first language [&]. (Swan and Smith 209)

Therefore, the difficulties that I encountered were inevitable. Despite the few loan words that helped me acquire new skills, most of the vocabulary could be easily confused with the Arabian words of different meaning.

The Opposing View: Homonyms Can Be of Sufficient Help

However, it should be admitted that the problem actually cuts both ways, also offering certain help in learning the language. On the one hand, the linguistic cognates can be viewed as an obstacle on the way of learning the language.

On the other hand, the words that sound similar yet have quite different meaning can help at certain point, offering considerable room for imagination and allowing to create specific exercises to remember the peculiar cognates. Paying a special attention to the cognates and noticing the differences in their meaning, one is likely to remember these words and their English meaning more efficiently.

Nevertheless, it is still evident that at present, the existing cognates prevent me from learning the English language efficiently. Considerable time is required to develop a series of exercises and train in recognizing the basic differences between cognates.

Conclusion: On My Way to Understanding

Therefore, it is obvious that one of the greatest problems that I have ever encountered in the course of studying the English language is the one concerning the cognates and their meaning in the English language. However, I must also admit that the issue is quite possible to solve, and after a series of exercises and specific training, I will be able to differentiate between the meaning of the cognates in English and Arabic.

Work Cited

Swan, Michael, and Bernard Smith. Learner English. A Teachers Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Web.

Introduction

There has been an increase in language testing and evaluation in the world due to globalisation. There has also been a wide acceptance of second language training in many countries in the world today. Therefore, there is a high demand of a common language that can aid in the interaction of people in tourism, technology, trade, science and research, international relations, and media. It is also common in various governments today to adapt a second language of communication in official matters.

According to Berthele (2012, p.453), adaptation of second languages, which are foreign languages in most cases, has increased the need for rigorous training, testing, and evaluation. Inclusion of second languages in various academic education curriculums has also increased the need for training, testing, and evaluation in languages.

Berthele (2012, p.454) points how language assessment mainly focuses on the evaluation of first language of study, the second language assessment, or any other language that the learner takes in various institutions of learning. Language assessment and evaluation may take the form of listening skill test, speaking skill tests, reading skill tests, writing skill tests, and cultural comprehension tests.

Taylor (2005, p.154) argues that an evaluation seeks to test the ability of the learner to understand how the language works and to test the level of proficiency in that particular language. This paper discusses and critically evaluates language testing and assessment in a school educational environment.

Major features of the assessment

Learners of languages should be part of the process of teaching and assessment. For a clear and standardised evaluation and assessment, the teacher and the learner should be ready to work together and to play their rightful role.

According to Taylor (2005, p.155), the purpose of language assessment and evaluation is to discover the level of knowledge that the learner has on a particular language and his or her ability at that stage. Assessment and evaluation of language is important in the learning process.

All stakeholders in a school situation approve that evaluation is important. For example, teachers want learners ability in language evaluation. Lockwood (2012, p.107) observes that teachers implement the language assessment plans of the administrators.

In the evaluation, teachers should know the previous level of performance together with what was to be done next. The teacher should also know what the students already know and/or do not know. The teacher makes a language program successful or not.

Lockwood (2012, p.107) observes that school administrators would want learners evaluated to gauge the level of performance of the institution.

The administrators provide the school institutions with human resources and finances. For administrators to understand the resources needed in the institution, they have to be well versed with language performance of the learners. The administrators also plan for changes in academic programs if they realise that the language learners are not achieving the expected success

Parents would want their sons and daughters evaluated to enable them know the ability of the learner. The students would want their language skills assessed to enable them gauge themselves. Parents are usually very anxious in knowing the results of their sons and daughters whenever they take them to school.

Parents will therefore depend on language teachers and administrators to know the results of their children. Jeong (2013, p.345) affirms that parents also trust the teachers to set the evaluation standards for their children, administer the tests, mark, and to analyse the results. Such results make parents more dedicated to the academic development of their children.

The students would also want to know their results occasionally. Learners would like to be assessed to know their level of development. It is also in the interest of the learners to evaluate themselves and to compare themselves with other learners. Language learners would also want to know their achievements at various stages of learning. Assessment and evaluation of learners language level would enhance their confidence and satisfaction level.

Language assessment results should be issued to learners in a supportive environment. Wrong environment and context may make the language learner develop a negative attitude towards the examinations and examiners. Teachers should therefore be supportive to learners in a bid to make them understand that the evaluation is meant to make them develop their skills. In most cases, negative implications of the evaluation and assessment result from aggression of the assessors.

Learners feel humiliated by such degrading acts especially when they come from teachers, for example, when such teachers issue negative results to learners in the public or when they comment negatively about the results of a certain student in the presence of other. In most cases, problems in language evaluation result from different aspects of evaluation that the teachers adopt. The method of evaluation used may also influence the results of language evaluation.

Methods of language assessment and their degree of effectiveness

In language evaluation and assessment in a school level, assessors base their evaluation on learners situation. The method of assessment should be developed according to the learning situation. Assessment should also be wholesome based on the complete evaluation of the learners situation. Assessment should be distinguished from testing. Jeong (2013, p.345) affirms that testing is usually based on one occasion, is given in a short-answer form or multiple choices, is one-dimensional, and time based.

Moreover, Price (2013, p. 207) argues that testing takes place in a formal environment, which in most cases is similar for all the candidates. The assessor issues similar testing materials. Tests are given in a similar way. On the other hand, Scarino (2013, p.309) observes that assessment is broad and more inclusive. Evaluation encompasses gauging the learners ability and knowledge.

During assessments, the assessor applies a variety of information gathering methods to collect information about the student. In addition, assessments take both formal and informal methods. The assessor will also carry out the evaluation exercise at varying times and situations. Assessment is also progressive. The assessor searches the degree of progress that the learner depicts in a certain area of study for example in language.

Teachers assessment is another broad method of evaluation. Stoynoff (2012, p.523) affirms that teachers assessment method estimates the learners achievement in language development. In most cases, the estimates of the teacher are normally accurate or near accurate. The most common method of teachers assessment is observation. The teacher observes learners during the lessons and or during discussions with other learners.

Davin (2013, p.303) asserts that teachers observe the work of the learners, for example, their assignments and class presentations. Price (2013, p. 207) argues that linguistic researches indicate that teachers assessment of his or her students results in a better method of evaluating the learners relative to testing.

The teacher is able to understand the strength and weaknesses of individual learners in language knowledge and application. In this method of evaluation, the teacher should be very keen on observation.

Continuous assessment is also a method of language evaluation. In this method of evaluation, the assessor continually observes and keeps records of learners performance. All grades that the learner achieves in the course of learning are brought together and entered as the final grade for the learner.

Mansor et al. (2013, p.101) affirms that continuous assessment is not based on a single examination or activity. It is also not based on one occasion when the learner does a certain activity. The assessor collects information on how the learner fairs both in examinations and in practical activities and then brings them together to get the results. In various occasions, continuous assessment has been issued in the form of a report and not a grade.

Another method of evaluation is self-assessment. Under self-assessment, Ortis (2013, p. 226) asserts that learners are empowered in a way that they can carry out personal evaluation in an accurate and clear way. The assessors agree with the learners on the methods that they will use to evaluate themselves long before the training. In some instances, learners and teachers agree on the method and criteria of assessment.

The method of weighting the results is also agreed on. With correct and adequate information, Rea-Dickins (2000, p. 376) argues that learners are able to assess themselves accurately. This method of evaluation is also advantageous since learners are likely to become more responsible in the way they handle their performance in language. Since they are exposed to the methods of evaluation at an early age, they are therefore likely to make very few mistakes.

The method is therefore said to yield better results if learners are trained to avoid self-bias. The most commonly adopted criteria of testing in this method of assessment are non-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. Mansor et al. (2013, p.101) affirms that criterion-referenced test is carried out based on a particular standard of language testing. In most cases, schools adopt this kind of testing since it is fixed and easy to carry out comparisons.

Several schools may come together and adopt a certain criterion-referenced assessment for testing their students in language. The advantage of this method is that it can be used to compare several learners and/or schools performance in languages. Pesco and ONeill (2012, p.421) assert that the non-referenced test has also been applied in comparing one group of learners with reference to another. In this method, other learners use one group as a reference point.

The performance of individual learners in language is also rated with reference to that of another student. The method is advantageous in that poorly performing students can set their language targets with reference to better performing ones. However, the method is also limited in scope since it limits its standards to that of another individual. Stoynoff (2012, p.523) affirms that the individual-referenced assessment has also been adopted in language assessment.

This testing method makes use of the individual learners previous performance as a reference. The learner is therefore made to assess his or her performance with reference to his or her past results and his or her ability. For example, in language assessment, the learner can evaluate the number of words he or she could write during the end of the last learning season and compare it with the number of such words that he or she can pronounce.

Davin (2013, p.303) asserts that individual-referenced testing is advantageous in that learners can be able to set individual standards to measure their level of growth. Learners can also take stock of their language development from one season to the other.

Ortis (2013,p. 226) asserts that, when a learner knows that a certain act, utterance, or a way of writing will make him or her fail in the evaluation, he or she is likely to avoid it. In this way, learners are able to make accurate evaluations of their assessments.

Language ability and knowledge are also assessed through portfolios. Rea-Dickins (2000, p. 375) argues that, when using portfolio method of assessment and evaluation, various portfolios that learners do within the course of their studies in school are collected. Such portfolios comprise projects, term papers, assignments, and activities that the learners engage in during the period of learning.

The learner or the teacher collects and files all these materials. It is from these portfolios that the learners ability and knowledge in a particular language are evaluated. Collection of all these items forms the basis on which the learner is evaluated. Individual portfolios account for certain marks or grades.

Pesco and ONeill (2012, p.421) affirm that the use of a portfolio is also advantageous because there is continuity in evaluation. The learners ability and knowledge in a certain language may change over time. It is therefore necessary to use a method of assessment that accounts for the entire period.

Reference List

Berthele, R. (2012). The influence of code-mixing and speaker information on perception and assessment of foreign language proficiency: An experimental study. International Journal of Bilingualism, 16(4), 453-466.

Davin, J. (2013). Integration of dynamic assessment and instructional conversations to promote development and improve assessment in the language classroom. Language Teaching Research, 17(3), 303-322.

Jeong, H. (2013). Defining assessment literacy: Is it different for language testers and non-language testers? Language Testing, 30(3), 345-362.

Lockwood, J. (2012). Are We Getting the Right People for the Job? A Study of English Language Recruitment Assessment Practices in the Business Processing Outsourcing Sector: India and the Philippines. Journal of Business Communication, 49(2), 107-127.

Mansor, N., Ong, R., Mohamad, S., Raof, A., & Yusoff, N. 2013. The Benefits of School-Based Assessment. Asian Social Science. Special Edition, 9(8), 101-106.

Ortis, A. (2013). A Heuristic Tool for Teaching Business Writing: SelfAssessment, Knowledge Transfer, and Writing Exercises. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(2), 226-238.

Pesco, D., & ONeill, K. (2012). Predicting Later Language Outcomes From the Language Use Inventory. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 55(2), 421-434.

Price, R. (2013). Using the Teaching Portfolio to Anticipate Programmatic Assessment Business. Communication Quarterly, 76(2), 207-215.

Rea-Dickins, P. (2000). Classroom assessment. Teaching and Learning in the Classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scarino, A. (2013). Language assessment literacy as self-awareness: Understanding the role of interpretation in assessment and in teacher learning. Language Testing, 30(3), 309-327.

Stoynoff, S. (2012). Looking backward and forward at classroom-based language assessment. English Language Teachers Journal, 66(4), 523-532.

Taylor, L. (2005). Key concepts in ELT: Washback and impact. ELT Journal, 59(2), 154-155.

Language issues seem to have been the stumbling block for peoples communication for centuries. In his article Cross-Linguistic Awareness: A New Role for Contrastive Analysis, Carl James discusses the question concerning the contrastive analysis and its application for the comparative studies of two or more languages.

Considering the following quote from Fries paper: The most efficient materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner, James makes it clear that, questioning the reasonability of a cross-linguistic analysis, the researchers are most likely to encounter considerable difficulties in reaching to the representatives of other cultures, hence, causing the entire learning process to shrivel.

While the author gives credit to both the arguments of Lado and Fries (Odlin, 1989), it is obvious that James is inclined to believe that Lados idea of a cross-linguistic analysis as the basis of successful communication is not reasonable enough, while Slobins arguments for the analysis actually make a lot of sense: Slobin seems to be suggesting that Behaviourism has not been totally banished from language learning contexts after all (James, n. d., 2).

Therefore, the seed of doubt is planted into the minds of the adepts of abandoning the CA.

It is also essential that James touches upon the related issues, such as culture learning, to prove the point. With the help of real-life case studies, James makes his argument all the more impressive, demonstrating the instances of cultural misunderstanding on an everyday level:

T1: Quest-ce que cest, saucisson?

P: Sausages.

T2: Sausage, yes, what sort? What sort of sausage? Walls?

P: (Silence)

T3: Sort of salami type of sausage, that sort of sausage. (James, n. d., 3-4)

Touching upon the Audiolinguialist vetoes, James adds another interesting point to his chain of arguments to consider, such as the existence of other forms of English (e.g., the Irish dialect) the experience of which can also be considered from the cross-cultural point of view.

However, with the cross-cultural analysis no longer in existence, the experience would be impossible. In addition, James touches upon neo-Whorfianism, which presupposes that languages shape the thinking process greatly.

On the one hand, in the preset fast-changing world and the globalization process, the issues of cultural differences seem to have become slightly more insignificant (Suarez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004). Since conveying a message is the primary goal of any communication, there is no need in any cultural background, only the language skills.

From the given standpoint, Fries ideas have the point. However, because of the differences between languages and the unexpected instances of misunderstandings caused by the existence of homonyms, homophones, or homographs in certain languages, the need for a cross-linguistic analysis becomes obvious (Karanth, 2003, 106).

When doubting the necessity to use the cross-linguistic analysis, researchers can possibly fail to deliver the information to the people of different cultures, mainly because of the differences in the cultural vision of language and information, which will most likely result in misunderstandings and further misconceptions.

When tossing the cross-linguistic analysis aside, people are not able to realize the specifics of the target culture and, therefore, will fail at conveying certain messages, which, in its turn, will backfire greatly when it comes to the feedback.

Despite the fact that the usefulness of a cross-linguistic analysis is being doubted nowadays, there are sufficient reasons to believe that it is only with the help of conducting the analysis in question that people are able to communicate even within the boundaries of different cultures.

Reference List

James, C. (n. d.). Cross-linguistic awareness: A new role for contrastive analysis. PDF file. 3 January 2013.

Karanth, P. (2003). Cross-linguistic study of acquired reading disorders: Implications for reading models, disorders, acquisition, and teaching. New York, NY: Springer.

Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Suarez-Orozco, M. & Qin-Hilliard, D. B. (2004). Globalization: Culture and education for a new millennium. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.