Category: Linguistics

Introduction

Languages such as English, Spanish and French among others are increasingly being used by people who are not native speakers of those languages in contemporary society.

For example, it is noted that most universities around the world are adapting English as the basic language for instruction in the classroom (Upton & Lee-Thompson, 2001). Most of the individuals who use these languages in such contexts are either using them as their second language or as a foreign language.

The current study will look at specific purposes on language use in English and Arabic. The study recognises the fact that these two languages are widely used, albeit with differing frequency, by scholars, academics and other individuals around the world today.

As already indicated above, education is one of the areas where English, Arabic and other languages are used even though they may not be the first language of the learner.

This has led to an increase in the number of studies and researchers focusing their attention on the use of language for specific purposes. This has led to the development of a distinct area of study that has come to be referred to as the Language for Specific Purposes (herein referred to as LSP).

Language for Specific Purposes

According to Zhang (2001), Language for Specific Purposes is a fairly recent field in applied linguistics. When used within this context, it refers to the branch of applied linguistics focusing on two aspects of education. One is the needs within the education itself and training, and secondly, research on language variation across a given field or area of study (Zhang, 2001).

According to Groom (2005), there are several factors attributed to the rise of English for Specific Purposes (herein referred to as ESP).

Before getting into these factors, it is important to point out at this juncture that language for specific purposes as a whole is usually used within the context of second or foreign language learning. LSP focuses on the immediate and specific needs of the learner who require the language to carry out activities such as learning or working (Raphiq, 2010).

For example, a social worker who is a native English speaker may find herself working within a community of Spanish speakers. In order to effectively operate within this community, she may opt to learn Spanish for the specific purpose of communicating with the natives.

Going back to the issue of the origins of English language for specific purposes, three factors have been associated with it. One is historical evolution involving the end of the Second World War and the oil crisis that hit the world in the early 1970s (Groom, 2005).

Given the economic power of the United States of America during these two events, English was adopted as the international means of communication. As such, individuals from other parts of the world had to learn English for the specific purpose of operating in the global arena.

The second factor attributed to the rise of English for specific purposes, according to Uso-Joan (2006), was a revolution in the linguistics arena. Linguists discovered that there was a variation between spoken and written English. It was also found that the language varied greatly with the context within which it was being used. For example, the use of a certain word or phrase such as draw blood will vary in medicine and arts.

In medicine, it may mean the acquisition of blood from for example a patient, while in arts, it may mean hurting an opponent. As such, it becomes important to tailor the English language in order to meet the needs of learners and other individuals in different contexts.

The final factor associated with the rise of English for specific purposes had to do with the focus on the learner. Linguists found out that learners used different strategies to learn a new language, and as such there was the need to focus on the needs of these different types of learners (Hyland & Tse, 2005).

To this end, specific courses have been designed to address the individual needs of the language learner. This has made focus on the learner or the learning centred approach to be the buzz word in English as a second language (ESL) context.

The increased use of English language in various parts of the world has been underscored by various studies that have been conducted in this field. A case in point is a study by Schaub (2000) titled English in the Arab Republic of Egypt.

According to this author, as Egyptians continue to interact more and more with the rest of the world, they become aware that they need to learn English, which has emerged as the universal means of communication.

Learning of English for specific purposes becomes discernible in this case given that the individuals learn the language to specifically interact with the rest of the world. For example, practitioners in the tourism industry have to learn the English language in order to better handle tourists from other parts of the world (Schaub, 2000).

The Relationship between Literacy Problems in Arabic and the Structure of the Language

Linguists have found that there is a clear relationship between the structure of texts in a given language and literacy of the same. For example, according to Ikeda & Takeuchi (2006), if there is a significant distance between the standard written variety of a language and the spoken variety of the same, some literacy problems are likely to manifest.

In this section of literature review, a comparison will be made between the arguments of two scholars in this field as far as Arabic and literacy are concerned. The first will be the article Literacy problems in Arabic: Sensitivity to diglossia in tasks involving working memory by Raphiq (2010). The second is Linguistic distance and literacy in Arabic by Muhammad (1983).

Both of these authors agree on the fact that there is a variance between the spoken Arabic language and the written version of the same. For example, according to Raphiq (2010), Arabic children acquire the spoken Arabic- ammia (SA)  at home and (acquire the) literary Arabic- fusha at school (571).

Raphiq (2010) refers to this variation as diglossia, and goes ahead to argue that it negatively affects the acquisition of reading skills among the Arabic children.

On his part, Muhammad (1983) argues that a distance is discernible between the standard written variety of Arabic and the various spoken varieties. He refers to this as structural differences between (the) written and spoken Arabic (language) (Muhammad, 1983: p. 507). According to him, and in agreement with Raphiq (2010), this leads to many sociolinguistic problems among the learners.

According to Raphiq (2010) and other scholars such as Yakhontora (2001) and Baddeley (2003), ammia, or the spoken version of Arabic, is synonymous with the local dialects that are used by speakers of Arabic in various locations around the Arabic speaking world.

It is used as the verbal means of communication and is the native language of almost all groups that can be classified as Arabic speakers in the world (Yakhontora, 2002: Abu-Rabia, 2000). This language is significantly different from the written form of Arabic, referred to as fusha, also referred to as written Arabic or modern standard Arabic (herein referred to as MSA).

Fusha is the form of Arabic language that is universal to Arabic speakers as far as reading and writing is concerned (Kamarulzaman, Hassan & Rahimi, 2009). On its part, spoken Arabic does not have a written form, something that is not present in languages such as English.

Raphiq (2010) and Muhammad (1983) argue that literate Arabic speakers can be conceptualised as being bilingual. This is given the fact that they use two forms of a language to write and speak, giving rise to diglossia.

However, these two scholars have been criticised for this argument, given the controversy surrounding the issue of whether two forms of a single language can be considered as de facto different languages (Anderson, 2004).

As much as there are agreements between Raphiq (2010) and Muhammad (1983) studies, some differences are discernible. For example, Raphiqs study is fairly recent, having been conducted in the year 2010. As such, it can be argued that it reflects the recent developments in this field. On its part, Muhammads study was conducted in 1983, and as such, recent developments may not be reflected.

Muhammad (1983) also fails to make a distinction between children learners and adult Arabic language learners.

He makes the assumption that the challenges that are faced by both of these learners are similar, given that they face the learning process with equivalent, albeit not equal, linguistic know how (Muhammad, 1983). This is given that both children and adults have already mastered the spoken Arabic language used by their community.

On its part, Raphiqs study used the age as one of the variables, looking at the effects that diglossia has on learners of different age groups. To this end, Raphiq (2010) used as his sample learners from 1^st grade all the way to 12^th grade of learning. But both studies looked at the first stages of learning Arabic language, even though they may have approached the topic differently.

Language for Specific Purposes: Specific Use of Language in Science

In an article titled Why is scientific writing so interesting? Hyland & Salager-Meyer (n.d) look at how language varies from how it is used in everyday conversation and writing and how it is used in scientific writing. According to these two scholars, scientific writing is erroneously regarded as a mere conventional means of (disseminating) the results of laboratory experiments&.. (p. 297).

To the contrary, they are of the view that this form of writing is a representation of the status and authority of the writer, as well as a representation of the knowledge per se. To this end, language is specifically used for the purpose of conveying all of these connotations.

To underscore the aspect of language for specific purposes in scientific writing, Hyland & Salager-Meyer (n.d) argue that the way that a researcher presents their topic to the audience via the various media such as articles or textbooks tells a lot about their personality.

It signifies the allegiance of the researcher, and their level of professional competence in their particular field (Alhadlaq, Alshaya, Alabdukareem, Perkins, Adams & Wieman, 2009). The form of language that is used is significant since it underscores how knowledge in that particular field is codified. As such, language has been developed in various fields to specifically code the knowledge in that field and pass it along to the audience.

In science writing, scholars such as Hasmam & Rahimi (2010) and Diane (2009) among others have identified the important role that is played by language for specific purpose used in the particular field.

One such important role of specific language in science is to be found in its ability to academically persuade the scholars and the community at large. This is given the fact that the level of language complexity used by the scholar in their scientific writing is likely to be taken as the indication of their level of competence and professionalism in that field, among other factors.

Also, language is specifically used in the scientific field to construct knowledge within that particular academic realm (Alhadlaq et al, 2009). As indicated already indicated above, it is language that is used to codify the knowledge that is discovered in that field.

Scholars also communicate using the specific language, and in this discourse, further knowledge is created. When researchers make their findings, they put it down in words and letters of the language that they are using. This way, knowledge is codified, and can be retrieved by other interested parties by interpreting the codes.

The second aspect of language for specific purpose that makes it important in science writing is its ability to legitimise (both the) ideological and political authority of science (in contemporary) world (Hyland & Salager-Meyer, n.d: p. 299). It is noted that academic discourses are held with high regard in the society, and as a result, tend to influence to a greater extent the societys ideological systems.

One of the reasons why science is revered in contemporary society is the fact that it is rational and acts as a means of detached reasoning (Jongsma & Jongsma, 2005). This however does not negate the fact that some aspects of the scientific world are viewed with scepticism by the larger society.

Academic discourses (read scientific writings) have socio-cultural authority in the modern world, authority that is manifest through the language used by the academics in these discourses. This authority is conferred on these discourses by the control that they have over the physical and intellectual events in the modern world (Jongsma & Jongsma, 2005).

Another aspect of language for specific purpose in this field is to be found in its ability to come up with an institutionalised system of hierarchy, status and reward via publication of articles, books and other media used to convey knowledge (Ikeda & Takeuchi, 2006). It is this specific language which is used to distribute social power and status among the writers in the academic field.

Conclusion

It is noted that there is a relationship between Arabic and English as far as language for specific purposes is concerned. This is given the fact that most Arabic speakers have acknowledged the need to learn English for the specific purpose of communicating in a global world.

For example, Jongsma & Jongsma (2005) cite the example of the intention by the United Arab Emirates to teach mathematics by English to learners in the initial years of learning. It is also noted that English is used as the instructional language by most lecturers in universities in the Arabic speaking world.

References

Abu-Rabia, S. (2000). Effects of exposure to literary Arabic on reading comprehension in a diglossic situation. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 13, 147157.

Alhadlaq, H., Alshaya, F., Alabdukareem, S., Perkins, K. K., Adams, W. K., & Wieman, C. E. (2009). Measuring students beliefs about physics in Saudi Arabia. Physics Education Research Conference, 2009, 69-72.

Anderson, N. J. (2004). Metacognitive reading strategy awareness of EFL and ESL learners. CATESOL Journal, 16, 1127.

Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 189208.

Diane, M. (2009). Reading strategy awareness of Arabic-speaking medical students studying in English. System, 37, 640-651.

Groom, N. (2005). Pattern and meaning across genres and disciplines: An exploratory study. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 4(3): 257277.

Hasmam, A., & Rahimi, N. M. (2010). Types of text in books for learning Arabic as a second language: A document analysis. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7(C): 50-56.

Hyland, K., & Salager-Meyer, F. (n.d). Scientific writing: Why is scientific writing so interesting? Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 297-338.

Hyland, K., & Tse, P. (2005). Hooking the reader: A corpus study of evaluative that in abstracts. English for Specific Purposes, 24(2): 123139.

Ikeda, M., Takeuchi, O. (2006). Clarifying the differences in learning EFL reading strategies. An analysis of portfolios. System, 34, 384398.

Jongsma, K., & Jongsma, G. (2005). Teaching science and mathematics in English in Grade 1 and 2 classrooms in the UAE. International Journal of Learning, 12(5): 225-236.

Kamarulzaman, Hassan, B., & Rahimi, N. M. (2009). Use kloz test in arabic text readability measure to non-Arab readers in Malaysia: A pilot study. Journal of Islamic and Arabic Education, 1(2): 15-30.

Muhammad, H. I. (1983). Linguistic distance and literacy in Arabic. Journal of Pragmatics, 7, 507-515.

Raphiq, I. (2010). Literacy problems in Arabic: Sensitivity to diglossia in tasks involving working memory. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 24, 571-582.

Schaub, M. (2000). English in the Arab Republic of Egypt. World Englishes, 19(2), 225-238.

Upton, T.A., Lee-Thompson, L. C. (2001). The role of the first language in second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 469495.

Uso-Joan, E. (2006). The compensatory nature of discipline-related knowledge and English language proficiency in reading English for academic purposes. The Modern Language Journal, 90, 210227.

Yakhontora, T. (2002). Selling or telling? The issue of cultural variation in research genres. In J. Flowerdew (Ed.), Academic discourse (pp. 216232). Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.

Yakhontora, T. (2001). Textbooks, context and learners. English for Specific Purposes, 20, 397415.

Zhang, L. J. (2001). Awareness in reading: EFL students metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies in an acquisition-poor environment. Language Awareness, 10, 268288.

Introduction

Language is said to be a system that tries to place meaning to a word, but for people to agree on a word in relation to the intended meaning, then there must be the universal acceptance of the intended meaning (Hu, 2001, cited in Yang, Suiping, Hsuan-Chih & Rayner, 2009). Semantics is the study of signifiers in relation to their denotation. It forms the basis of communication and language in totality.

Traditionally, semantics ware meant to express sense, but through the development and metamorphosis of language, it has developed to inculcate different linguistic units like synonym, metonym, hyponym and other compounds.

In linguistic terms, semantics try to define and explain how meaning is able to attach itself within the smaller units to form chunks of sentences that have a logical meaning. On the other hand, syntax is defined as the study of the structure, arrangement and the principle that governs the sentence structure of any particular language.

With respect to semantic and syntactic use in aid of communication through language, it is prudent to understand that in sentence comprehension, there are two basic formats. This includes modular or syntax -first model which constitute psycholinguistic model.

In syntactic-first model, it is assumed that people base their language on a syntactic structure that is built around word category, which is independent of their thematic role. Comparing the early Indo-European languages in terms of word processing, what comes out significantly is the presence of event related potential (ERP).

This comes out as a result of the study undertaken to identify between semantics and syntactic which comes first in their integration to form a temporal structure (Friederuici & Kotz, 2003 cited in Yang, Suiping, Hsuan-Chih & Rayner, 2009). In Chinese, the EPR is non existent in the mandarin language.

Comparison between Chinese language and Anglo-Germanic languages

To be better placed to understand the difference in semantic and syntactic in the Chinese language as compared to other Aglo-Germanic languages, the survey conducted by Friederuici and Kotz gave significant disparities in the mandarin construction of words.

According to the survey, it was established that through ERP experiments where a table was constructed, ba was the construction with regard to ending a sentence with a verb acting as the aspect marker. Under normal schematics, a sentence would adhere to the SVO construction, but this order defied this structure to form S ab OV structure.s In the sentence, the ba comprises of a subject, thus making it to be a noun phrase (NP1).

If the ba is accompanied by an obligatory noun, phase NP and an article, then it forms what is regarded as the NP2. In an ideal sentence structure, this is followed by a verb phrase which consists of a verb and any constitute that may be said to be X, which is based on the experiment aspect marker.

In the above paragraph, it is crucial to mention that the article under review allowed for the experiment to showcase an error which was in itself overt because it had violated the syntactic structure.

A good example was when looking at a verb semantic condition like cai. Normally, a verb in any indo-European and some Anglo-Germanic languages would be easily integrated semantically to the auxiliary sentence structure or what may be referred to as the first clause. However, the Chinese verb cai fails to integrate as it already breaks the semantic and syntactic rule in the selection requirement.

Taking another angle in semantic and syntactic role in understanding the comprehension of Chinese, the Chinese alphabetic is of keen interest in relation to its orthography in a distinctive and different manner. Unlike most languages where their alphabets are characterized by words and letters, the Chinese language alphabets are generally characterized by symbols, which are characters.

Thus, in the Chinese language an alphabet may have either a single character or multiple characters. In the case of an alphabet having more than one character, then it is considered a morpheme. This means that the intended meaning of a word in a sentence in Chinese is not precise, and thus open for interpretation based on the context.

Earlier on, in the discussion based on the EPR experiment, it was realized that the Chinese language in terms of verbs structure lacks inflectional markers or indicators. The effect of this is that in a Chinese sentence, it is difficult to tell whether the verb matter is in the present or past tense.

Also, for a sentence to be complete, there must be a subject-verb agreement to give it congruency, but since the Chinese language lacks the inflectional markers, then for a reader to be able to comprehend the meaning of a word, then he/she has to rely on morphological aspects or cues.

The above findings have brought about a lot of debate on the ability of comprehending the Chinese language, both oral and written, with some scholars arguing that since meaning in the Chinese language is not precise as explained above, comprehension of the Chinese language cannot be immediate as in other languages. Therefore, a slower model should be adopted while reading to reduce the ambiguity of the words in the context.

These scholars have gone further to say that the Chinese language in regard to relative timing lacks a well-defined semantic and syntactic process through which readers can be able to understand the idea of syntactic properties unlike English readers who basically have the idea (Aaronson & Ferres, 1986, cited in Yang, Suiping, Hsuan-Chih & Rayner, 2009).

The other school of thought argues that the Chinese language has its own syntactic rules that are independent of the semantic, but unlike other languages are flexible.

Effects of syntactic and semantic positioning

In recent studies on syntactic and semantic in relation to the Chinese language, researchers have diversified their focus to applying the violation paradigm to understand the comprehension process of the Chinese language (Chen 1999, cited in Yang, Suiping, Hsuan-Chih & Rayner, 2009). According to Chen, understanding Chinese will always be difficult as syntactic violation will always be a hindrance to semantic processing.

The violation paradigm was later revised to come up with a new standard referred to as pure syntactic violation (Ye, Luo, Friederici, & Zhou, 2006; Yu& Zhang, 2008, cited in Yang, Suiping, Hsuan-Chih & Rayner, 2009). The essence of these new standards was arrived at through the elimination from a noun phrase, a noun object.

This altered the structure of a propositional-object phrase from Chen model. As a result of this attraction, the new model comes up with four sets of sentences that were correct, incorrect, semantically incorrect, or syntactically incorrect. In terms of timing and position, the study came up with findings that suggested that between syntactic and semantic processes, syntactic appeared earlier.

Although this study shed a lot of light into the study of semantic and syntactic role in the comprehension of the Chinese language, there are demerits to it, especially in regard to the syntactically incorrect sentence. For instance, in the sentence, the study had omitted a noun from the prepositional object-phrase structure which resulted to semantic disruption.

There are a lot of effects in semantic and syntactic violation. These effects are as a result of the use of the ERP technique that in itself gives a high resolution in terms of temporal details.

However, it is worth noting that although the ERP technique can reveal a lot of information in regard to the brain activities with relation to semantic and syntactic manipulation, it offers very little information about brain activity in terms of information uptake (comprehension) of written language.

This has resulted to analyst raising two questions. First, is it possible for syntactic and semantic processing to occur concurrently? Secondly, can syntactic and semantics processes be separated while reading online? At the present time, no clear-cut answers can be given in regard to the two questions.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is worth noting that the various violations mentioned in this paper in regard to Chinese in terms of eye movement can only be placed squarely as being attributed by syntactic processing rather than the divergent degree of semantic violation.

In this sense, if the violation effect is as a result of SEM+SYN, then the effects are bound to appear in different positions of the sentence. In case the effect is as a result of SEM+SYN, the effect may be characterized by it appearing either prior to or after the position.

Reference

Yang, J., Suiping, W., Hsuan-Chih, C., Rayner, K., (2009). The time course of semantic and syntactic processing in Chinese sentence comprehension: Evidence from eye movements. Memory and Cognition. 37 (8), Pp.1-13

Propaganda is frequently used by politicians and in the media to influence our attitudes and perceptions on key issues (Orwell1). Propaganda is commonly used to temporarily distract our attention from the real issues at hand (Kemerling 8). For example, Joseph Goebbels (a former Germany minister for propaganda in the Nazi regime) once stated that it would have been impossible to use propaganda against the masses if they knew how to differentiate between rational arguments from propaganda.

This in effect means that politicians usually employ propaganda against an unsuspecting audience. People are easily swayed because they are unable to make out propaganda when they see it (Cross1). This paper will discuss deceptive strategies used to sway the perception and mindsets of the masses on critical issues.

Name-calling is one of the deceptions used by propagandist to sway our mindset about a particular issue or person without considering the significance of the person or the issue at hand. For instance, a politician vying for political office may describe his/her opponents as two-faced liars or foolish idealists (Cross 2). Politicians employ name-calling in order to prevent the targeted audience to think rationally but rather accept his/her propaganda categorically and blindly.

Glittering generalities is also a deceptive tactic used in language. Examples of glittering generalities include our constitutional rights, the American way or justice (Cross 3). Many people are unaware of the adverse effects of glittering generalities on their way of thinking and end up agreeing to everything they hear. It is worthy to mention that glittering generalities are employed by politicians seeking elective positions in the government to provoke emotions of the masses and obscure their ways of thinking (Cross 3).

Another common manipulative strategy used in language is known as Plain Folk appeal. This strategy is also commonly used by people seeking elective posts in order to gain political mileage from the masses. Politicians use this strategy when they depict themselves as ordinary plain folks.

For instance, a politician soliciting votes from industrial workers may visit a factory and move around shaking hands with employees. The plain folks appeal is obviously a deceptive strategy. Although the politician may claim to be just an ordinary folk, he/she may not be interested in addressing the various problems facing the electorate once he/she is elected (Cross 4).

Argumentum ad populum is also another manipulative strategy used in language. It is a common strategy used by politicians as well as in media adverts. Politicians usually employ Argumentum populum when they dwell on issues that appeal to the targeted population.

For instance, a politician may tell university or college students that the future of the country is in their hands or tell cultivators that they constitute the backbone of the economy (Cross 5). The main intention here is to sway the targeted group from making critical analyses about the politician and what he/she stands for. The wellbeing of the masses is thus an irrelevant issue in this context (Cross 5).

Many companies also employ manipulative and deceptive language to advertise their products. The main reason for doing so is promote their products as the best in the market. For example, the phrase better is commonly used to demonstrate that a particular product (e.g. mango juice) is superior over other rival products that fall in the same category.

For example, a company may claim that its mango juice products are the better breakfast drinks (Schrank 5). There are several other deceptive and manipulative strategies used by companies in the media to market their products.

The Wiesel Claim is one such example (Harris 2). The phrase weasel is a modifier that basically contradicts the consequent claim. Examples of weasel phrases that are commonly used in adverts include strengthened, enriched, virtually, or fortified (Schrank 8).

These phrases are used to create an impression of supremacy of the product. Examples of weasel claims include leaves dishes virtually spotless, only half the price of many color set. These claims are used to convince buyers that the products are superior and cheaper than other sets in the same category (Schrank 8).

Another commonly used deception is known as The Unfinished Claim. It is a common marketing strategy that asserts the superiority of a particular product. However, it does not complete the comparison. An example of unfinished claim include Anacin: Twice as much of the pain reliever doctors recommend most (Schrank 9).

One can observe that this particular assertion suits in several product categories. Nonetheless the ad is incomplete because it does not make a comparison of Anacin with any other similar product in its category (Schrank 9). An unsuspecting buyer may be lured by this claim to buy the product believing that it is the best in the market.

In certain types of writing (especially literary criticism) it is not unusual to find a number of sentences that employ deceptive phrases. For example, the phrase Fascism has lost its original connotation and it is currently used to refer to anything that is undesirable. Other expressions such as democracy, justice, socialism and freedom bear different connotations which cannot be synchronized.

For example, the word democracy is now used to refer to good governance. This word may thus be used (in a deceptive way) by a repressive regime to sway the mindset of the masses from the crucial issues at hand (Orwell12).

Works Cited

Cross, D. Woolfolk. Tricks of the Propagandist. 2000. Web.

Harris, Robert. Fallacies associated with Language. 2000. Web.

Kemerling, Garth. Fallacies of Ambiguity. 2011. Web.

Orwell, George. Politics and the English Language. 1946. Web.

Schrank, Jeffrey. The Language of Advertising Claims. N.d. Web.

Introduction

English language learners represents a significant subpopulation of USA students which in the 2006/07 school year were more than 5 million in the PK to 12 grades (Esquinca, Yaden, & Rueda, 2008). This is projected to represent 1 in 9 students in the country with 80% of them nationally being native Spanish speakers and overall about 400 different home languages.

English language Proficiency tests whether commercial or institutional are used to assess proficiency of limited English proficient (LEP) students.

In every state in the country, states, education agencies and schools have an obligation to identify LEP students especially those who come from homes where another language other than English is spoken. These tests are meant to assess the students oral proficiency in English also writing and reading skills (The California State University, 2009).

In some states, there are already laid out procedures for identifying students who might become LEP students. There are set of questions designed to find out non-English speakers under Home Language Survey program. If discovered that a student is from non-English background, an English proficiency test is issued. In other states, specific English language proficiency tests are used.

In other countries such as USA, Australia and UK and others where English is the language of communication, English language proficiency test is a requirement for international students wanting to pursue education in these countries at any level.

It is a requirement also in other for immigration, skilled worker programs, and professional titles (Solorzano, 2008). For these students, commercial tests such as TOEFL and IELTS are recommended.

International English Language Testing System (IELTS)

IELTS was established 21 years ago and was one of the pioneer tests in English language skills. The test is co-owned by the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council, and the IDP: Australia with more than 800 testing centers and locations in 130 countries around the world (Alderson, Krahnke, & Stansfield, 2008).

IELTS assesses English language proficiency in four skills; listening, reading, writing and speaking. These tests are continually improved to encompass advances in applied linguistics, technology, language assessment and language pedagogy (The California State University, 2009).

Test formats and results

The IELTS tests are available in over 800 centers and locations in 130 countries of the world, and are accessible internationally. Every year the tests are held on fixed dates and are set in the same conditions across the world. It consists of four parts, which reflect the skills in the English language. These are reading, writing, speaking and listening.

These are oriented to test candidates in their mastery of English in real life-situations. They are also offered in two formats, the academic format for university and tertiary candidates and general training. They are also used by English medium universities, colleges and professional groups and immigration agencies such as in Canada to test the immigrants English language ability (TESL Canada Federation, 2011).

Test Content

IELTS test on listening contains four sections of recorded assessment for candidates. This increase in complexity as they progress and contain a mixture of dialogue and conversation. This test contains seven different task categories which include tables, matching, forms, multiple choice, classification and notes.

This tests the ability of a candidate to listen and understand contents in English in real-life situations. This section takes about 40 minutes where the first 30 minutes a candidate listens to recorded material and in the last 10 answers the given questions as outlined by Ekbatani, (2010).

In reading skills assessment, candidates are presented with three passages, which are derived from authentic books, magazines or even journals, which they are supposed to read and complete ten different tasks. These include multiple choice, short answer, sentence completion and labeling diagrams among others.

In writing skills, candidates are required to complete two tasks, which are a one hundred and fifty word report, based on presentations in a table or diagram. This tests the ability of the candidate to describe and explain issues as they seem. The other task is a 250 word essay which could be in response to an opinion or problem outlined in the test.

The final skill tested is speaking which is done for ten to fifteen minutes. Here, the candidate and the examiner interact on a face-to-face basis and the former is expected to describe, narrate and give explanations on personal and general issue topics that are asked. These tests have an overall test time of two hours and forty five minutes.

Test scoring

The listening and reading tests contain 40 items and each correct answer is given one mark with the maximum a candidate can achieve being 40 points. These points are known as raw points and are then put in band scores, which range from 1 to 9, 1 meant to mean no language skills and 9 meaning an expert user of the language.

In writing and speaking skills test, detailed performance descriptors are used with each being rated in the 9 IELTS bands. After the marking, and scoring, candidates receive test report forms showing overall test band score and the scores in the subtests. Each of the subtest scores carries the same weight and the final score is obtained by calculating the mean score of the four subtests. These results are valid for two years (Hogan, 2005).

Band scale

Tests are marked thoroughly and consistently and results scored on a 9 band system. This is a unique scale that does not give a pass or fail instead it puts the overall scores in a band system where each band means specific English language competency. These are then reported in the nearest whole or half bands, which are discussed by TESL Canada Federation, (2011)

Band 0 means that the candidate did not provide any information while band 1 means the candidate is a non user of the language and has no ability to use it behold a few isolated words. A candidate with 1-3 marks falls into this category.

Band 2 is referred to an irregular user who does not have the capacity to communicate in English apart from the essential information where limited words are used in familiar instances and needy situations. This candidate experiences hardships in the use and understanding of the English.

Band 3 refers to a candidate who is a very limited user of English. He/she expresses and understands basic meaning in familiar situations and communication breakdown arises.

Band 4 refer to a limited user of the language and portrays basic competence only in familiar environments. Problems in understanding and articulating issues arise, and complex language use is not possible.

Band 5 represents a candidate who is a modest user of English language. This one has limited use of the language where overall meaning is understood although he/she might make a mistake. Communication in familiar field is possible though.

Band 6 candidate uses English proficiently and has a valuable grasp, however, there is a likelihood of, inappropriacies, misunderstandings and inaccuracies. In common situations, the candidate can fairly understand complex language.

A band 7candidate uses English excellently, since the operational command of the same is demonstrated, however, occasional misunderstandings and inappropriacies are observed. This candidate can cope with intricate language and detailed reasoning.

A band 8 candidate uses English very excellently, since he/she demonstrates unwavering command of the language, however, inappropriacies and unsystematic inaccuracies come about intermittently. This candidate handles intricate in depth reasoning well. This is given to a candidate who has a raw score of 35-39 marks.

Band 9 is an expert user of the language where he/she has fully equipped command. He understands the language completely in an appropriate and accurate manner. Has a raw score of 40-41 marks.

Scoring rubric reliability and validity

The IELTS modules are rated by certified and trained examiners according to Hogan, (2005). They use a set of descriptors made from each key criteria of each module as Hogan continues to say. For example, speaking sub test where the major criteria are ease, consistency, grammatical range and accuracy, lexical resource and pronunciation (Hogan, 2005).

These band descriptors that actually are used are confidential, but IELTS have provided a public version of them which are available on their website. These are mainly for the purpose of helping stakeholders know what candidates can do also for candidates to know the level of performance expected from each band score and in each criterion.

IELTS examiners have also been put through intensive training and standardization in face-to-face situations so that they can be well positioned to apply the descriptors in a valid and reliable manner (Solorzano, 2008).

Also, the production of question papers follows several stages that ensure that the results are reliable and indiscriminative. First, appropriate test content is outlined that reflects the goals of academic and general training modules.

The next stage involves trailing the material with a representative group with an aim of determining whether there is a challenge indistinguishing between the more and the less able students. Finally, the questions are introduced to live tests in the standard fixing stage to ensure it aligns with the IELTS metric (TESL Canada Federation, 2011).

IELTS scores are valid for two years, and if for more than that, a valid proof should accompany the scores to show that the candidate has maintained or tried to advance their English. This is because the test shows a persons language skill at a given time. A persons ability to communicate in English may diminish in time especially if the language is not in use (Hogan, 2005).

Test of English as a Foreign Language-Internet-based Test (TOEFL IBT)

According to Hogan, (2005), the TOEFL IBT is an examination that weighs up nonnative English speakers capacity to understand and exploit spoken and written English in environments such as, schools, colleges, as well as universities.

According to Hogan, (2005), the test allows institutions to gauge the students capacity to communicate in English in academic situations and how ready they are to undertake academic work as it assesses integrated skills.

TOEFL IBT was developed and is used by ETS a nonprofit organization that is involved in the advancement of quality education to all around the world. These tests are based on rigorous research and innovation with more than 5 million in 180 countries and 9,000 locations worldwide people taking them every year.

Education Testing Services (ETS) was established in 1947 by the American Council of Education, the Collage Examination Board and Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

These organizations gave their testing programs, assets and manpower to establish an educational research and assessment institution that will see advancement of knowledge. This has grown to extend their services to learners worldwide. Besides TOEFL, the organization also offers assessments in TOEL tests, GRE and the Praxis Series (Education Transparency Services, 2009).

TOEFL IBT is a version of the English language test that is offered over the internet for assessment in English skills for academic environments. Its core emphasis is integrated communications and communicative competence. TOEFL IBT exams are taken in the institutes Prometric centers as well as in university and educational centers that use internet based programs.

USA was the first to adopt the technology in 2005, followed by Canada, France, Germany and Italy. The use of the internet has enabled the organization to make the test more accessible to many users as well as widening the measure of the English proficiency globally (TESL Canada Federation, 2011).

The test does not consist of separate tasks testing different skills as is the case with IELTS but an integrated assessment that tests the four skills; reading, listening, reading and writing at once. The tests involve three approaches as outlined by Buckendahl, Blackhust, & Rodeck, (2006);

• In the first approach, a candidate is supposed to read, listen, and then speak as he/she answers the questions asked,
• Secondly, a candidate listens and then talk to respond to a question posed,
• The final approach is where a candidate reads, listens, and then writes down responses to questions.

The reading part of the TOEFL IBT consists of 3-5 passages, which are drawn from academic sources and 12-14 questions, based on each passage. The listening skills are tested using 2-3 discussions with two speakers with each having 5 questions lasting 3 minutes.

The speaking sub test contain 6 tasks with 2 of them requiring candidates to talk about general topics, two involving listening to a spoken lecture and responding to queries on this while a further two involves reading a brief academic text, listening to the spoken information about this text and then responding to the questions on the two materials.

Writing generally involves two tasks. One requiring a candidate to read a short academic text listens to a recorded lecture that is related to the text and answer questions that incorporate the two materials. The last task involves writing an essay about a topic of interest. The whole test takes about 41/2 hours (TESL Canada Federation, 2011).

Scoring the test

The TEOFL IBT is marked out of 30 points for each section, and the total score is out of 120 points. The reading and listening skills are rating that are computer based. In speaking skills, which is done by ETS raters, each task is marked out of four points, and the overall score is put on a scale of 0-30.

The writing skills also are marked out of five points for each task and then put on a 0-30 scaled score. The difference between this test and the IELTS is that separate sections do not carry the same weight as they are considered to assess different language abilities (Esquinca, Yaden, & Rueda, 2008).

Performance interpretation, reliability and validity

Performance scores for each section are interpreted differently. For reading performance description ranges from low, medium and high. In speaking ability, performance is rated as weak, limited, fair and good while writing is described as limited, fair or good (The California State University, 2009).

This test does not use face-to-face interviews in the speaking section but rather have the candidates record their responses in English. This is said by (Ekbatani, 2010) to eliminate a lot of bias that might be found in face-to-face interviews that are determined by the rapport the examiner and candidate created during the meeting.

The recordings together with the other test materials are assessed by between three to six raters instead of relying on a single raters impressions. This is said to be fairer for the candidates and more accurate for academic institutions in gauging their students skills.

TOEFL IBT test has a more improved writing section to the original TOEFL paper based in that another writing task was introduced. The candidate is anticipated to read a small passage, pay attention to a lecture by listening and then put in writing the responses on the computer (Ekbatani, 2010).

This whole test takes four hours and is completed the same day which is convenient for a candidate. Buckendahl, Blackhust, & Rodeck, (2006) say that the use of other integrated tasks independently will help instructors to link better teaching, learning and testing in academic environments.

Comparison of IETLS and TOEFL-IBT scores and scoring procedures

TOEFL IBT speaking and writing modules are graded holistically where the score that is given is an overall assessment of the whole essay in terms of vocabulary, logic, style, and grammar. In IELTS, on the other hand, scoring is done using a checklist where each item in the list is graded individually.

The checklist includes grammar, word choice, fluency, cohesion and logic among others. TOEFL IBT generally requires a person with an ability to compose a logical and detailed argument which exhibits clarity, excellent word choice and style. IETLS requires excellence in grammar and vocabulary and generally a candidate who can write a decent essay (Education Transparency Services, 2009).

In TOEFL IBT speaking module, scoring procedures are more complex where the responses are spoken into a microphone, then recorded digitally and ETS is used for scoring. Through ETS Online Scoring Network (OSN), four to six different human raters score the responses.

This ensures objectivity and reliability. In IETLS, speaking module test is conducted by an interviewer in the country where the candidate is taking the test, who then scores the response (Hogan, 2005).

In the writing module, TOEFL IBT candidates type and then send responses digitally to ETS for assessment. Writing responses are scored the same way the speaking responses are scored. They are rated by four to six raters through ETS OSN for reliability and objectivity purposes. In IELTS, responses are handwritten by the candidate and then forwarded to in-country human raters at the test center for scoring (Ekbatani, 2010).

In terms of quality control of the rating procedures, TOEFL IBT, raters are subjected to a calibration test, which they must pass, every time they rate. The scoring sessions are also monitored by scoring leaders to ensure highest quality control. In IETLS, examiners go through a retraining and recertification process every two years to ensure reliability (Alderson, Krahnke, & Stansfield, 2008).

Conclusion

English proficiency is a requirement not only in schools in countries like United States of America but also for immigration, skilled worker programs, and professional titles in English speaking countries. English proficiency tests are used to assess the communication skills of a candidate.

IELTS and TOEFL IBT are among the most common tests since they are accepted by many institutions and offered in many centers around the world. These have four testing modules; speaking, writing, reading and listening though the contents of these and their procedures in testing are different.

TOEFL IBT is computer based while IETLS is paper based. In the scoring and scoring procedures, the two tests are different in terms of scoring, scoring rubrics and the way the responses are rated. Moreover, both tests have different procedures of ensuring validity, reliability and the way the test results are interpreted.

Reference List

Alderson, C., Krahnke, K., & Stansfield, C. (2008). Reviews of English Language Proficiency Tests. Teachers of English to Spekears of Other Languages, 358-368.

Buckendahl, C., Blackhust, A., & Rodeck, E. (2006). Adaptation within a Language: Considerations for Standard Setting. International Test Commission Conference (pp. 1-19). Brussels: University of Cambridge ESOL.

Education Transparency Services. (2009). Guidelines for the Assessment of English Language Learners. United States of America: Education Transparency Services.

Ekbatani, G. (2010). Measurement and Evaluation in Post-Secondary ESL. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group.

Esquinca, A., Yaden, D., & Rueda, R. (2008). Current Language Proficiency Tests and their Implications for Preschool English language learners. United States of America: University of Southern Califonia.

Hogan, M. (2005). Something New? Quite a Lot In IELTS, Actually. 18th Annual EA Education Conference 2005 (pp. 40-58). Australia: IELTS.

Solorzano, R. (2008). Review of Educational Research: High Stakes Testing; Issues, implications, and Remedies for English Language Learners. United States of America: American Educational Research Association.

TESL Canada Federation. (2011). Overview of English Language Proficiency Tests. Web.

The California State University. (2009). Focus on English: English Placement Test (EPT). California: The California State University.

Vecchio, A., & Guerrero, M. (1995). Handbook of English Language Proficiency Tests. New Mexico: New Mexico Highlands University.

Introduction

Understanding the practical structures of sentence interpretation has been an area of intense research for over a century, and interest in the basis of language and sentence processing is as old as the initially documented clinical records. In spite of this consideration, the neural design of sentence interpretation has been amazingly complex to categorize, even in gross structural conditions. The fundamental theory, formulated in the 1900s, was direct and perceptive.

Sentence interpretation is backed up by the auditory part of the brain. Proof for this assertion originated from people with auditory sentence interpretation problem who usually had disorders in their right superior temporal gyrus, abbreviated as STG. Consequently, the right STG specifically was considered to have been supporting sentence comprehension.

The hypothesis was challenged through another discovery in the 1970s. The discovery was that shortfalls in the capability of perceiving sentences added modestly to the auditory perception shortfall. This finding does not discard the importance of the right STG during sentence conception but is an indication that other areas contribute in the process (Warren and Johnson 640).

In the 1980s neuropsychological experimental studies indicated that damage to either major or minor parietal regions in the right side of the brain brought about shortfalls in roles that involved the separation or perception of sentence structures (Scott 198). These results illustrated the potential function of the superior parietal path in the discernment of sentence.

Conversely, the significance of such results to map the neural paths for sentence interpretation was subject to debate, given that the capability of performing syllable identification and separation roles particularly disconnected from the capability of comprehending orally uttered sentence. For example, there is a patient who has defective syllable separation but excellent phrase perception, and vice versa (Scott and Johnsrude 102).

Some researchers interpreted this to imply that sentence perception shortfalls in Wernickes model that are not associated with right temporal impairments came from disorders of semantic instead of phonological aspects, while other authors hypothesized that the recording between semantic illustrations and phonological demonstrations was disordered.

Suggested justifications for shortfalls in sentence interpretation linked to permanent disorders comprised simplified deliberate shortfalls and phonological functioning memory shortfalls (Stefanatos and Madigan 457).

The current study proposal focuses on collecting experimental data regarding the semantic and phonological links and behaviour-focused methods of sentence processing. In particular, three elements will be studied. Firstly, the time path and signal trend of the recognition and ultimate interpretation of various sentence designs.

Secondly, the potential dissociation between two sentences structures, one syntactically focused and another structure that addresses semantic concerns. In this respect, I anticipate variations in the time path and signal design of the sentences, but not essentially variations in the behaviour-based aspects.

Thirdly, the time path associated with structural uncertainty decision, in particular a sentence comprising of quale nouns and a sentence comprising of relative clauses. Predictions will be generated utilizing modern theoretical models of processing a sentence, particularly experimental parser, for example, active fillers and parallel frameworks, for example, interactive inauguration, and the outcomes will be utilized in comparing, and adjudicating among them.

Study Objectives

The objectives of the current study proposal are chiefly three. Firstly, to collect experimental data utilizing a mixed formula which pulls together phonological aspects and behavioural measures based on the hypothesis that the similarity between the two strategies allows some implications concerning the potential parallelism between the insentient and sentient degrees, while the nonexistence of parallelism emphasizes insentient dispensations, which are not mirrored at the sentient degree (Stefanatos and Madigan 458).

These aspects are specifically necessary for the restrictions they impose on the expected design of the sentence processing frameworks. Secondly, to utilize the experimental data to analyze and ultimately integrate psycho-linguistic frameworks of sentence processing particularly with respect to the different kind of the semantic and syntactic processing.

These aspects are explicitly necessary for selecting between frameworks which predict the parallelism model of processing various designs well-suited to the inputs and frameworks which predict in its place the previous constructing of a favoured design and ultimately their rectification in case they become not well-suited to the input.

The third objective is method-based and regards developing measuring techniques associated with the combined consideration of phonological metrics and behavioural indicators. These aspects are in particular necessary since various metrics can be sensitive or insensitive to various elements of the syntactical and semantic designs and their combined reflection contributions, therefore, a comprehensive measure of sentence processing frameworks.

Background

The capability of recognising a suitable sentence has been utilized as an instrument for investigating the practical aspect of the individual sentence mechanism, because the recognition of a violation brings about changes in the ordinary interpretation procedure, as guided by the interruption of listening durations immediately the violations are detected or through the absence of precision during sentence interpretation.

From the psycholinguistics perspective, the motivating queries regard, among many elements, the timing of violations recognition and the time taken to repair the violation. Indeed, the chronological relation between recognition and correction can offer data regarding the design of the individual sentence processor (Scott 197).

Additionally, the time path of the processors sensitivity to various forms of infringements, or to infringements of various aspects, can be a source of critical information regarding the design of language. For demonstrating purposes, differential responses to the semantic infringements, for example, differential delays during interpretative dedication are manifestations of an ethical difference between semantic and syntactic response mechanisms within the mankind language response process (Scott and Johnsrude 102).

Various methodological possible challenges for such a perception based on some of behavioural information have been selected. Stevens related lexical decisions function, where a violation was not the aim of the function and stop-making-logic tasks, in which violation detection is in its place the aim of the tasks, and achieved delays only in the decision function (Stevens 1888).

Therefore, the features of the tasks themselves can bring about variations in the outcomes, even with an identical experimental tool, and thus, when investigating sentence processing, deviating metrics may be more sufficient.

Warren and Johnson (638) recorded movement of eyes utilizing similar framework described above. The research indicates an individual trend for the time-path of the infringements: semantic faults produce instant more regressions compared to controls on the verb and on the subsequent sentence, recurring at baseline on the remaining portion of the sentence. On the other hand, semantic infringements portray a rise in the frequency of regressions that remains until sentence stop.

Such trend of outcomes show that the parsing response practice for semantic and syntax is different, in that semantic data are domestically incorporated and decided, whereas syntactic infringement remains until the stop of the sentence. Concerning the first recognition of the violations, whereas semantic infringement regression initiates directly on the verb, for syntactic infringement, the regression (and decision duration) increases only on the phrase after the decisive word.

Theoretical framework

A listener obtains meaning from an organized flow of words, not a disorganized set of expressions and words. I additionally presume that the capability of imposing construction on a flow of phrases is at the core of the individual capability of understanding speech and that its absence varies with certain aphasias.

In the 1990s, the psychological studies of parsing theory were controlled by the garden-course framework, suggested by Stefanatos and Madigan (460) as a modification of Scotts (197) proposal. This framework differed with the perceptive-strategy frameworks that lived earlier (Stevens 1879), which were slightly over collections of styles or prompts that were considered necessary to parsing.

The framework had strong and examinable assertions regarding the procedure of parsing and had obvious guesses concerning what sentence constructions would be less hard and complex. The garden-course framework was disputed in various behaviours (Spitsyna and Scott 7329) but debatably continued the popular parsing framework until recently.

Presently, however, this framework is turning out to be far more charming and thrilling. Interesting options to garden-course model have been suggested. Certain people retain the fundamental concept of garden-course model (because of its significance on the utilization of linguistic in an emblematic parsing framework), but focus on various elements of the language, or include some parallelism in the parsing illustrations (Scott 198).

These concerns have driven me to re-assessing experimentally a few of these basic presumptions of the garden-course concept. To do this, I will utilize connectionist framework, an improvement garden-course model, to investigate simply which elements of sentences prosody a listener uses to identify their construction and implication.

Methodology

Some of the proposed experimental studies assess how indistinct term can be associated with varying levels in the terms that lead it. For example, in a sentence such as John noted that James called after Peter arrived, the appendage term after Peter arrived could change either note or call. Such phrases need to be much probable in attaching high, changing the key clause note, if they came after intonational territories that are indicated by pitch pattern and temporal fluctuations.

I will utilize this experiment in investigating whether varying kinds of intonational territories have different influences and in evaluating the assertion that only instructive boundaries will influence sentence interpretation. It evaluates a description of instructive that asserts boundaries are instructive if they are phonologically bigger compared to some structurally-described previous territories.

The experiment will offer various varying assessments, utilizing various varying grammatical clauses, of whether a prosodic boundary that is instructive based on this description encourages high linkage of indefinite phrase (Scott and Johnsrude 104).

Further experiments deal with the premise that a listener takes remarkable prosody in indicating remarkable interpretations of sentences. Strategies of this nature have been proposed several times, and a number of experimental proofs appear to be in line with it.

But the framework may be only an unfinished estimation to realism. The suggested experiment, which studies the interpretations of nouns, impulsive, and measured NP, focuses on determining whether the event defined by the remarkable hypothesis really reflects simpler, basic prosodic practices of purpose and intonation.

Discussion/Conclusions

While there is slight common ground regarding the comparative timing in the recognition of pragmatic and semantic violations, there is vivid indication for dissociation during timing that the two infringements draw in the sentence. Event-Related Potential (ERP) suggested during sentence interpretation is an ongoing online metric of the mental electric operation happening during sentence interpretation.

ERP measure is multidirectional: it varies in morphology, polarization, time taken, and scalp circulation. Thus, relative to other behaviour based measures, for example, listening duration, it can offer proof whether some procedures differ on one or more measures, for example, time taken and polarity.

Regarding the concern of the difference between pragmatic and semantic circuits, ERP information has indicated different feedbacks for the two language circuits. Pragmatically appropriate phrases indicate harmful components, basically assigned in the entire scalp but more severe around the posterior regions, attaining maximum value at roughly 400 milliseconds following a stimulus, referred to as the N400 effects.

These effects are excellently addressed and have been noted using various languages and in various forms. Things are uneven when turning to the ERP correlates of semantic processing, in addition, since different semantic designs and matching infringements have been examined. In summary, I can say that in regard to semantic processing two ERP parts have been determined: immediate right anterior negativities and a delayed mid-parietal positivity.

A semantic anomaly elicits a negative polarization effect between approximately 200 to 500 milliseconds after stimulus activation: this negative effect is typically most significant over right anterior regions and is thus known as Right Anterior Negativity, abbreviated as RAN.

Immediate RANs about 250 milliseconds have been noted during sentence interpretation anomalies (Hickok and Poeppel towards a Functional 134). RANs ranging from 300 to 500 milliseconds have been illustrated with respect to correlation with subject-verb interpretation anomalies and nouns sun-classification data (Hickok and Poeppel The Cortical Organization 396)

Works Cited

Hickok, Gregory and David Poeppel. Towards a Functional Neuroanatomy of Speech Perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4.4 (2000): 131-136. Print.

Hickok, Gregory and David Poeppel. The Cortical Organization of Speech Processing. Neuroscience 8.1 (2007): 393-400. Print.

Scott, Sophie and Ingrid Johnsrude. The Neuroanatomical and Functional Organization of Speech Perception. Trends in Neurosciences 26.2 (2003): 100-105. Print.

Scott, Sophie. Auditory Processing: Speech, Space and auditory objects. Journal of Neurobiology 15.2 (2005): 197-201. Print.

Spitsyna, Warren and Sophie Scott. Converging Language Streams in the Human Temporal Lobe. Journal of Neurosciences 26.3 (2006): 73287336. Print.

Stefanatos, Gregory and Johnson Madigan. On Pure Word: Deafness, Temporal Processing, and the Left Hemisphere. Journal of International Neuropsychology 11.1 (2005): 456-470. Print.

Stevens, Newton. Toward a Model for Lexical Access based on Acoustic Landmarks and Distinctive Features. Trends in Neurosciences 111.2 (2002): 1872-1891. Print.

Warren, Wise and Warren Johnson. Sounds Doable: Auditorymotor Transformations and the Posterior Temporal Plane. Trends in Neurosciences 28.2 (2005): 636643. Print.

The critical period hypothesis stipulates that the capability of an individual to master a language is confined in the years before puberty. According to critical period hypothesis, the ability to master a language normally disappears after puberty due to maturation of the brain. Critical period hypothesis was proposed by Penfield, Roberts and Lenneberg in the 1950s and 60s (Han, 2004). These scholars developed their hypothesis based on various types of evidence.

One of the evidence used by these scholars was that of abused and feral children, who developed to maturity without learning human languages during their childhood. The second evidence used was that of deaf children who stopped acquiring spoken language after adolescence. The fact that children suffering from aphasia showed better recovery than adults was also used as evidence by these scholars (Han, 2004).

Critical period hypothesis has continued to be one of the fiercely contested issues in cognitive science, and more specifically psycholinguistics. The available literature on CPH provides different views on the characteristics of this phenomenon. One of the divergent views on CPH questions the existence of the most favorable, sensitive, or a critical period of language acquisition.

The origin of CPH has also attracted different views, and the debate has been on whether CPH is brought by cognitive or maturational factors (Gass &, Selinker, 2001). However, modern literature has acknowledged that CPH plays an important role in the acquisition of first language. There is sufficient evidence that if humans do not acquire a language in early stages of development, they normally lose the capability of mastering languages. This particularly affects the grammatical aspects (Gass &, Selinker, 2001).

The evidence that supports CPH is scarce, but its proponents normally use analogies and theoretical reasoning like development of vision to support their claims. The time limit of CPH has also generated different views among scholars (Fuchs, 2007).

Linguists who refute the idea of CPH argue that the concept of CPH can be easily falsified. Opponents of CPH maintain that there are individuals who have been exposed to a first or second language after puberty (critical period), and have developed native-like competency. Many researches, for example, those conducted by White and Genesee (1996), Bialystok (1997), and Birdsong and Molis (2001), have refuted the idea of CPH (Birdsong, 2009).

The study by White and Genesee examined eighty nine individuals who spoke English as their second language. These subjects were evaluated based on vocabulary choice, morphosyntax, fluency and the extent to which their language skills resembled those of native speakers. The data collected were then used to determine whether a relationship existed between the ages at which an individual is first exposed to a language, and the level of language mastery (Birdsong, 2009).

The findings of this study provided these researchers with sufficient evidence to enable them refute the claims of CPH. Several participants in this study achieved almost native-like mastery of the English language, despite the fact that they were exposed to the language after the critical period. In addition, the study also demonstrated that participants performance in grammatical judgment, in terms of speed, accuracy and writing, was similar to that of native speakers (Jedynak, 2009).

However, opponents of CPH do not totally refute the fact that individuals who are taught a language when they are young, are likely to be more competent than those taught in their adulthood. According to White and Genesee, adults who achieved native-like mastery of the English language in the study were a proof that both adults and children possess similar language learning mechanisms. This contravenes the popular notion in CPH that after puberty (critical period), native mastery of a language is impossible (Jedynak, 2009).

Linguistic scholars have generally agreed that CPH starts in infancy and ends at puberty, and the chances of it occurring after puberty are slim. This conception is also supported by the general societal notion that children do posses certain inborn advantages when it comes to mastering languages. Scholars have provided varying definitions of CPH based on whether the language being acquired is a first or a second language (Schouten, 2009).

But the common assumption is that after puberty an individual can never develop native-like competency, especially in intonation and pronunciation. This assumption is based on the fact that when children become older, cognitive changes takes place in their brains that makes it very difficult for instinctive mastering of a language.

Magnetic imaging techniques used in modern researches have also shown that children process their language differently from adolescents. This finding is based on the region activated in the brain during language development in children (Schouten, 2009).

The influence CPH has on acquisition of a second language is a subject that has attracted different opinions in research dealing with second language. Those who claim that CPH does not play a role in the acquisition of a second language, have cited evidence that adults can develop native-like competency in a second language.

Proponents of CPH in mastering a second language have maintained that native mastery of a second language can only develop in young learners. This implies that critical period and maturational restrain also affect the acquisition of a second language. Recent studies focusing on the role of CPH in the acquisition of a second language have concentrated on the assumption that biological basis for the critical period does exist (Schouten, 2009).

One of the most significant studies on the role of CPH in the acquisition of a second language was that conducted by Johnson and Newport. In this research, forty six adult immigrants from Korea and China, who had arrived in the US at different ages, were studied. The subjects were then evaluated on morphosyntactic rules like past tense, making plurals, motion in particles, and order of words.

The findings of this research demonstrated that a strong correlation existed between the scores in the tests, and the age at which the participants arrived in the US. From these result, Johnson and Newport made a conclusion that a critical period for the acquisition of a second language does exist. However, recent researchers have refuted these findings by arguing that the evidence generated does not show diminishing relationship between age of exposure, and competency in the second language (Du, 2010).

CPH can hinder someone from developing target language mastery. This view is especially true from a nativist approach. Adult second language learners can acquire morphosyntactic competencies such as past tense, making plurals, motion in particles, and order of words. However, they can never achieve native-like intonation and accent (Du, 2010).

Conclusion

The influence CPH has on the acquisition of a first or second language is an issue that has attracted varied opinions among linguistic scholars. Proponents of CPH argue that CPH plays a critical role in the acquisition of both first and second languages, and children do posses special innate cognitive abilities in learning languages. On the contrary, opponents of CPH argue that both adults and children posses similar abilities when it comes to mastery of languages.

References

Birdsong, D. (2009). Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis: [August 1996& symposium entitled New Perspectives on the Critical Period for Second Language Acquisition]. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Du, L. (2010). Assess the critical period hypothesis in second language acquisition. English Language Teaching, 3(2): 219-223.

Fuchs, A. (2007). The critical period hypothesis supported by Genies case. Munchen: Grin Verlag.

Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Han, Z. (2004). Fossilization in adult second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Jedynak, M. (2009). Critical period hypothesis revisited: The impact of age on ultimate attainment in the pronunciation of a foreign language. Berlin Bern Bruxelles New York, NY: Lang.

Schouten, A. (2009). The critical period hypothesis: Support, challenge, and reconceptualization. Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 9(1): 1-16.

Abstract

The main focus of the study discussed in this paper is the analysis of the contact between English and Arabic languages in Egypt. Proliferation of foreign languages especially English and French can be traced back to the middle of the 19^th century when several missionaries arrived in Egypt.

The position of English in Egypt gained recognition when British people occupied the country. Nowadays, Egypt is characterized by a variety of Arabic languages including Al-fusHa and other colloquial Arabic. However, there is a considerable increase of English language in the use among the Egyptians, and this fact is worries the representatives of the conservative party a lot.

This influence is attributed to the social status attached to English language and the new generation of Egyptians who feel comfortable using English rather than their colloquial languages.

Other factors include information technology, numerous opportunities associated with English language, globalization, and becoming English as the only well-known international language in the whole world.

Introduction

The role of language is considered to be crucial in civilization as it may define various sides of development of the disciplines including science, art and music. A number of languages that exist in the modern world is not very clear, but many linguistic experts estimate this number to be about 6800 (Agha 2007).

Since there are numerous cultures with diverse languages globally, individuals are forced to learn other languages to be able to interact and socialize with different people locally and internationally. In addition, the world is increasingly becoming a global village as result of advanced communication technologies and globalization, thus people are searching for a universal language for communication and sharing of ideas (Cochran 1986).

Literacy concept has considerably transformed within a short period of time. People who speak only one language are nowadays regarded as uninformed. English is the most spoken language in the world besides other dominant languages such as French, Latin, and Arabic.

People who wanted to learn foreign languages preferred English since it was the principal global language of communication, this is why it is not enough to know English on a good level, still, it is more important to know when it should be used (Agha 2007, p. 31).

Most people speak vernacular languages but still prefer to use English language in business and in education. The propensity of using English language by those who have their own vernacular language depends on diverse situations (Haeri 1997).

For instance, many students who use English as a foreign language limit its usage to matter of education or profession; English is regarded as a mere language for them to comprehend the instructions clearly and be able to follow them.

This is the main reason of why most non-English speaking nations limit the usage of English and try to use it only in the sphere of education. However, those students who come to English speaking countries in order to study and improve their knowledge in the chosen field have to use English in and outside the school even if English is not their native language (McKay 2002, p. 71).

Much information is offered to people in English, and many countries have found themselves obliged to study and use English in order to access this foundation of knowledge (Agha 2007). In Arabic nations, the cultural aspect has been limited and influenced by the use of English language; this is attributed to the spread of Islamic culture and religion.

Conversely, in Egypt that is an Arabic speaking nation; English language is used to give instructions in school institutions. Arabic that is the most preferred language among students that is used to socialize different groups of people and promote better understanding of the matter (Schaub 2000, p. 226).

A study conducted by the representative of the University of Cairo aimed at determining the most dominant language in the school premise and analysing the fact that many students weak point is to pronounce English words but split the vast majority of English words into Arabic.

Egypt has experienced remarkable historical transformations, and one of the most important was the increase of the English speaking society. The study offered by Mark Schaub (2000) explores the role of contact between English and Arabic in Egypt under the current living conditions (p. 225).

Arabic Language in Egypt

An American linguist, Charles Ferguson, came up with a model that described the differences between the high language and the low language (Baker & Jones 1998, p. 118). A high language is the type that bears a high status within a society; a low language, in its turn, is characterized by a low status in the society.

Al-fusHa, a dominant Arabic language, is regarded as a high language in Egypt while the rest of the local colloquial falls under low form languages. Al-fusHa language and the colloquial Arabic was brought in African by Middle East Arab who migrated in the Northern parts of the Africa.

Al-fusHa was a language of Islamic worship and practices. However, some linguistic experts argue that several intermediary Arabic languages also exist. These include elite spoken Arab which is a mixture of the standard Arabic language and variety of the vernacular Arabic (Haeri 1997; Baker & Jones 1998).

The term Modern Standard Arabic is usually used to denote the written language of the present scholarly, administrative or mass media literatures (Cochran 1986). However, elite spoken Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic differ in a number of sex related vocabularies.

For example, elite spoken Arabic makes no gender distinction in the second and third persons plural that is in the Modern Standard Arabic. As a result of such inconsistency, linguistic experts have recommended context specific kind of Arabic (Schaub 2000).

A sociolinguistic, Niloofar Haeri, strongly opposed the idea of intermediate Arabic languages such as elite spoken Arabic. Haeri (1997) asserted that most of colloquial Arabic languages present in Egypt were the representatives of mere styles exploited by the Arabic speakers.

He stressed that the dialect of an educated Egyptian citizen is a technique in which Egyptian Arabic under specific condition is articulated. At the end of his research, he came up with a concept referred to the standard variety and argued that Arab languages in Cairo consisted of two standard categories and these are Al-fusHa and some vernacular varieties.

Al-fusHa owes it dominance and status from the Islam and its subsequent civilization. Arabic speakers in Cairo Egypt regard Al-fusHa as a proper, stunning and influential language. Still, several shortages are inherent to the chosen type of language: it is not always flexible, there is no humour to entertain the speakers from time to time, and a number of too complicated grammar rules.

It is also argued that Egyptian system of education is also influenced by the use of Al-fusHa (Cochran 2008). The researches show that speakers from well off families prefer private educational institutions where English and other foreign languages are used as medium to issue the instructions.

Even though these speakers may use Arabic languages outside the classroom, they have to become focused on acquiring foreign language at the expense of the local language. Children also pursue Al-fusHa as a course in public institutions, while some of their instructions are in Arabic.

While private schools students dominate by foreign languages so that they can be prepared to take positions in private firms and multinational corporations, the students from public schools are nurtured for public sector jobs (Schaub 2000).

In his research, Haeri (1997) pointed out the significance of Al-fusHa in Egypt among other varieties of Arabic languages in order to understand how different and urgent the styles and languages of Egypt could be. Haeri even employed the idea of linguistic market that focused on the significance of languages in accessing labour market.

Knowledge of some languages increased chances of an individual to get job, get financial help from banks and other financial institutions among others. Haeri noted that knowledge of foreign languages from the west enhanced individuals chance of getting employment, being promoted and even uplifted their social status.

In the past, foreign languages were attributed to a number of significant foreign policies that had enormous impact on the Egyptian economy and society. English was the most affected by the above-mentioned factors (Agha 2007).

English History in Egypt

Proliferation of western foreign languages like English and French can be traced back to the middle of the 19^th century when missionaries arrived in Egypt. The citizens were able to find good jobs in the public sector only in case they have appropriate level of knowledge of English language (Schaub 2000).

According to the studies, the Egyptian education system of that period was mainly intended to produce submissive clerical workers. During this era, Arabic language was held with low status by the colonial government and efforts were made to teach all subjects in secondary schools in English, but such subjects like mathematics and Arabic were exceptions.

Standard Arabic continued to be used to provide students with the instructions in school, while English became the most dominant foreign language in Egypt. After the war with Israel in early 70s, Egypt shifted their focus to the USA.

The American government made a decision to improve teachers proficiency by means of Agency for International Development, and the offered courses were based on a voluntary basis (Schaub 2000; Cochran 2008).

Printed versions of Standard English became a significant part of the Egyptian literature. There are a number of publications in English, and one of the most popular was the Egyptian Gazette. Other papers which were used by the citizens were The Middle East Times and Al Ahram, Cairo Times (Schaub 2000).

Mark Schaub, being a sufficient sociolinguist, conducted a research to examine different forms and roles of English language in Egypt. Schaub established that English had become the second most popular language in Egypt.

The role of this language remains to be important in Egyptian culture: numerous advertisements, music, clothes, and mass media production are connected to the chosen language, and no one can change this situation but still may contribute it. This is why Mark Schaub (2000) decided to investigate English as the first language for some natives in the foreign countries.

The realm of English language in Egypt ranges from multinational industries and businesses to the tourism sector and international relations.

Job opportunities are available for Arabs who can speak more than one language in Hotels of Sinai and the Red Sea. People who want to find some job opportunities in such hotels must be competent in at least one international foreign language.

Although the majority of employees who work in these hotels are Egyptians, a large percentage of these premises are owned by foreigners. Having numerous job opportunities, Sinai and Red Sea are highly populated by the migrants who are recorded in this area (Cochran 2008).

Foreign embassies or consulates in Egypt and other multinational companies regard English considerably. Following the ideas of globalization and liberalization of the Egyptian economy, English has changed from mere language of communication to language that is used in correspondence and documentation.

However, globalization did cost some money and efforts. Egyptian economists complain that globalization led to high inflation, increasing of inequality and irregular distribution of national resources. Globalization made the flooding of the Egyptian economy being full of lavish consumer goods and created a new category of wealthy intermediaries and business solicitors (Agha 2007).

English in the Egyptian Educational System

Education system in Egypt can be categorized into public government schools and private foreign schools. Public system of education is mainly focused on preparing students to occupy public slots which are currently limited in supply. In the past, public schools students automatically qualified for the jobs but such situation has changed dramatically since jobs of the public sector are very hard to come by.

Students who graduated from private schools had often high competency in English and other foreign languages thus had high chances of securing a lucrative job in the private sector and multinational organizations. Competency in English language was seen as a blessing and a means of achieving the elevated financial and societal status (Hary 1996).

English education is also available at the institutions of high learning especially in the private universities. It means that English is available for students who come from well off families oftener than for students of families with other financial statuses. Nevertheless, in the Egyptian public universities, English instructions may be found in scientific departments.

Some legal and commerce departments also use English language but their access is still limited. Certain scientific fields like computer science use English as their medium of communication, while the spheres like medicine use English partially while contacting foreigners or participating in special professional activities (Schaub 2000).

English in the Contemporary Egyptian Society

English has been used to classify people in Egypt as either high class, educated, or foreigners. Zamalek and Maadi areas are dominated by foreigners. Therefore, the use of foreign languages has become a norm in these areas.

Non-Arabic speakers who visit Egypt can execute their activities in these areas smoothly without the necessity to learn Arabic. These areas are usually avoided by foreigners who come to Egypt to study Arabic (Hary 1996).

As it has been already mentioned, the access to English education is limited to certain class of people or schools in Egypt, and media has been on the fore front to bridge this gap. English is the most popular language used by many TV channels in Egypt.

It was established the citizens of Egypt are truly devoted fans of TV: the majority of the Egyptian households have a TV-set in comparison to the countries of the Middle East or Northern Africa who do not find it necessary to use TV as the only source of information.

Therefore, any program or news directed in English reaches the majority of Egyptians. Egyptian press is the most dominant and influential source of information in the Arab region by means of which the citizens are able to learn the current living conditions and other factors which may predetermine their lives (Schaub 2000).

Recent studies on Egyptian Arabic orthography established that young people become unfamiliar with Arabic spellings oftener. A study carried out by Mark Warschauer, Ghada R.Elsaid and Ayman Zohry (2004) on language choice among young professional Internet users in Egypt established that Arabic orthography were used the least.

Egyptian online domains are currently dominated by a new Arabic diglossia. Diglossia is the situation when there are two different languages which aim at using in oral communication and writing separately (Warschauer et al. 2004).

The investigations of Warschauers team (2004) show that there are two main varieties of languages in Egypt which are Classical Arabic that is also regarded as a literary dialect and Egyptian Arabic that performs the role of the main current Arabic dialects.

Musicians often use Arablizi that is a coded Arabic orthography to Latin scripts (Palfreyman & Khalil 2003). Musicians use this notation since it is popular among the representatives of the Arab speaking youths.

Though these two dialects play an important role in the life of each Egyptian citizen, English still serves as the second main language by means of which guests and native citizens may communication on the Egypt land.

This is why the impact of English on Arabic in Egypt has to be considered as an important issue: the way of how Egyptians accept English predetermines the way of how English may define the use of other languages.

Mark Schaub established that the most preferred dialect among the Egyptian students is the American English, despite of the fact that most the English literatures used in Egypt schools were produced and published in British English, American English contains more simplified terminology and vocabulary so that Egyptian students may use it.

Linguistic experts posit that such choice may be also based on the idea of new generation the principle of which is to avoid the memories connected to the past and the colonial era under the conditions of which Egyptian people had to follow the rules set by the British people.

However, this issue remains to be complex as not long time ago; U.S recent involvement on war against terrorism specifically targeting Arab nations changed dramatically the attitude of Arabs to American English (Schaub 2000). On the other hand, it seems to be an important step to know the language of the enemies and understand better their culture, preferences, and nature of actions.

Some people may argue that the U.S actions reduce the interest in American English with the shift towards the British English. This may also be because England is near Egypt than U.S, and there are more tourists from Great Britain than from the USA.

In spite of the fact that rates are not constant, the popularity of American English is still higher. There are many options of why the spread of this dialect is supported by the Egyptian people: global influence, diplomatic relations between the USA and Egypt, or the desire to attract the attention of more tourists using the only popular international language (Palfreyman & Khalil 2003).

Popularity of English in Egypt

Egyptian Arabic is considered to be a very powerful means of communication among the peers, while English is associated among the representatives of elites and mostly used to gain some economical or business goals. English was considered as a language for hospitality in Egypt for a long period of time.

Being attached to tourism, English was the major source of revenue for the Egyptian economy, and it is valuable to treat this language as lingo of class and representation of status in Egypt (Schaub 2000).

Another reason concerning the impact of English in Egypt is the sphere of information technology. Experts reveal that there is no standardized software in Arabic language. This is partly attributed to technicalities associated with computing world for instance computing is less complex in ASCII code that sustains unique Roman letters.

In addition, most means of information and communication technology companies in Egypt are dominated by expatriates and foreign ownership.

They also employ huge number of employees from the neighbourhoods and other foreign nationals which may become an obstacle to a standardized Arabic language in computing being independent bodies and become a serious argument to support the spread of English being a part of the same team (Schaub 2000).

Talking about the role of English on Arabic languages, it is necessary to admit the place of the Internet in the life of Egyptians. The investigations show that the Internet was available for the citizens since 1993 (Warschauer et al. 2004), and the commercial Internet was offered three years later.

The vast majority of services are offered in English as it is the only international language known, and Egyptian government admitted the importance of participation in informational technology sphere by means of using peoples knowledge of English.

It was crucial to postpone the education of Arabic languages but pay more attention to the basics of English and promote each citizen with an opportunity to use the Internet as the main source of information.

Information available in the Internet and literary sources are in English. Most students in Egypt learn the basics of computing and the Internet using English before shifting to their native Arabic. This is the reason of why most of them are neither experienced nor proficient in typing Arabic and Roman scripts.

Confusion arising from different Arabic styles has made some students to shift to English; as a result of such decision, many Egyptian students of the high learning institutions can write in English better than they can do it in Arabic (Warschauer et al. 2004).

The necessity to translate Internet information promotes the development of another sphere of education: oral and written translation: students have to adapt their knowledge the way they can use the already given information in English and translate it properly into native languages of Egypt.

Some Egyptian Internet users use Romanized Egyptian Arabic to chat and send e-mails. Online use of language in Egypt was influenced by the technicalities in the information technology and by the social structures attached to the ICT (information communication technology).

The main social dynamic shaping global media and communication in the present era of information communication technology is the conflict between global and local networks. Therefore, it is possible to believe that the use of English and Egyptian Arabic depicts the wider and more stable social and linguistic transformations in Egypt (Schaub 2000; Warschauer et al. 2004).

Conclusion

The dominance of English language in the Egyptian society is attributed to the history of this country, globalization and the advancements in information communication technology.

The main focus of this study was to learn thoroughly a variety of Arabic languages and Standard English language. Use of English language in Egypt has been used to categorize an individual within the society.

From the economic point of view, eloquence in English means greater financial opportunities in the multinational businesses, tourism sector and other large commercial sectors. Therefore, English is spoken against the supremacy and dominance of the English speaking world.

The study has explored the socio-linguistic state of affairs in Egypt by examining a number of Arabic variations and utilization of English language. There are different attitudes towards the use of English and different variations of Arabic in Egypt.

Al-fusHa is the most prestigious Arabic language. Al-fusHa is not essentially related to the elite members of the society, but is a product of Islamic religion and cultural practices. It was mainly used in Islamic religion in Litany and other religious literatures.

The rest of the colloquial Arabic are considered as low languages by the Arabic society. Being so rigid and strict, Al-fusHa is chosen by a number of educated and elite Egyptians who may now shift their attention towards English that is highly valued in Egypt.

English is kept as the language to be used as an elite cryptogram, while the Egyptian Arabic is used to show solidarity among the Egyptian people. Al-fusHa continues to be used as a result of its linguistic heritage that cannot be separated from the Arab world.

Egyptian Arabic is the most favoured colloquial Arabic that shows some forms of self-pride among the Egyptian populace. Language ideology is a very complex subject in relation to the use of English in Egypt.

Some experts argue that the rich socio-linguistic heritage of the Egyptian language may be the reason of why high preference for English language than Egyptian Arabic is present in spite of the fact that it is not related to the ideology of English operating as an elite cryptogram.

Unluckily, language ideology does not consider specific features but does speculate on the general feeling about the language. Egyptian youth are the most culprit when it comes to use foreign languages especially English. This is partly attributed to their frustration due to the lack of competency in Arabic.

They are classified as intermediaries between the Egyptian culture and foreign cultural influence. Even if English becomes a dominant language in Egypt, majority still view it as a foreign language. In this case, English is rarely used in conveying profound emotions.

However, it is very apparent that English is taking over Egypt gradually as the new generation of Egyptians who feel very comfortable while using English oftener than their colloquial languages.

Reference List

Agha, A 2007, Language and Social Relation. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Baker, C & Jones, SP 1998, Encyclopaedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matter, Philadelphia.

Cochran, J 1986, Education in Egypt. Cross Helm, London.

Cochran, J 2008, Educational Roots of Political Crisis in Egypt. Lexington Books, Lanham.

Elgibali, A. (ed). Understanding Arabic: Essays in Contemporary Arabic Linguistics in Honor of El-Said Badawi, The American University in Cairo Press, Cairo.

Haeri, N 1997, The Sociolinguistic Market in Cairo: Gender, Class and Education. Columbia University Press, New York.

Hary, B 1996, The Importance of the Language Continuum in Arabic Multiglossia, in

McKay, SL 2002, Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford University Press, New York.

Palfreyman, D & Mohamed, K 2003, A Funky Language for Teens to Use: Representing Gulf Arabic in Instant Messaging, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol. 9, no.1, pp. 1-29.

Schaub, M 2000, English in the Arab Republic of Egypt, World Englishes, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 225-238

Warschauer, M, Said GR, & Zohry, A 2004, Language Choice Online: Globalization and Identity in Egypt, Jandt (ed.) in Intercultural Communication: A Global Reader, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks.

Introduction

In the article, the author seeks to enhance the understanding of anaphor agreement effect. It seeks to demystify the prevalent knowledge and general understanding among linguists that anaphors are syntactically positioned and that they happen in harmony with their linguistic agreement. Using the premise of argument marking, the author explains that case and agreement must be in line with LF visibility (Everett, 2001).

Nonetheless, Shiraki explains that in case that anaphors occur in situations with positioned argument, they cannot be in relation with agreement. In this case, there is no chance for visibility condition. This critique attempts to address various factors that the author considers in the article. Besides, the paper will focus on the content rather than the style that the author uses.

Critical analysis

From the outset, it is important to appreciate that anaphors can never occur within a sentence in an autonomous way. The author uses numerous arguments to illustrate this perspective by focusing on the manner in which the anaphors are usually distributed within sentences.

In harmony with Chomskys articulations, Shiraki says that the anaphors have many constraints that include c-command and locality among many other factors (Chomsky, 1993). This makes them unable to occur independently. The author distances himself from various renowned linguists and says that lack of agreement of anaphors may have different perspectives.

To him, this agreement ought to be marked making it apparent in a sentence. As such, according to Shiraki, agreement presents a way in which an argument may be marked. In fact, the author appreciates that this position is controversial among many linguists but goes a step further to provide research and scholarly articles that reinforce his theory.

Throughout the paper therefore, the author provides his theoretical framework that takes a different approach to the prevalent explanations of anaphor-agreement effect.

The article is categorical that anaphors can agree exquisitely. Particularly, Shiraki asserts that anaphors agree in most instances but when they do, the results are grammatical limitations especially those that relate chain conditioning. It is important to notice that the author agrees that anaphors can never end up becoming grammatically right.

Indeed, Shiraki says that such grammatical and syntactic rules as subject-verb constrain the anaphors from making a linguistically right sentence. As such, it is critical to ascertain that whenever such a situation occurs, theta-marking should take precedence and enhance the agreement (Chomsky, 1993).

Therefore, the article seeks to reveal ways to mark anaphors in argument by prescribing the marking criteria. Although this perspective by the author may seem surprising, he presents it in an interesting way that brings about new theory of anaphor agreement.

While many opponents of Shiraki may insinuate that his theory is not necessarily unanimous, the author illustrates this point by highlighting that some sentences suffer from redundancy that is not desirable in the context of English language (Chomsky, 1993). The rationale is that nominative redundancy in sentences occurs when they lack a case. Therefore, finite subject forces this agreement in opposition to a case (Kerstens, 1993).

Further, the article points out that marking an argument occur through placing a predicate upon an argument. It is important to appreciate that a predicate agrees with argument but is dependent on other factors. These factors select theta-features. In what he refers to as argument marking asymmetry, Shiraki explicates that the aforementioned factors may influence the agreement of a sentence.

It is also important to highlight that grammatical relations are dependent on alpha and beta elements. In other words, the article proposes that an argument is dependent on the properties of language. Referred merely as R, the syntactic relations have various properties that guide the agreement (Chomsky, 1993). At the outset, the author explicates that relations ought to bear an antecedent must have a single reliant factor only.

Moreover, Everett (2001) says the antecedent relations occur in such a way that they c-command the reliant relations. Another property that Shiraki highlights as an important property of syntactic relations is that the reliant ought to have an antecedent within its locality of domain.

In addition, antecedents that mark these relations may have multiple dependent elements (Kerstens, 1993). Essentially, Shiraki says that R typifies the relationship of arguments with case.

The author articulates his perspective by revealing two issues that typify different case and argument agreement. First, he shows that arguments are always typical of syntactic relations. In addition, Chomsky (1993) articulates that the issue of argument marking is dependent on the assumptions that are naturally occurring within the context of a sentence.

His assumptions surround the aspects and principles of sentence structuring as well as the constituents of anaphors. It is through this platform that the author explicates the existence of anaphor-agreement effect. The author is in line with conventional arguments that propose that an argument within a sentence should bear marking that is consistent to LF visibility.

In this case, the author explicates that argument can be marked using case and agreement. In particular, Shiraki arguments that marking an argument using both the case and agreement results to nominative nature that is not desirable in the many languages is apparent and based on exploration of numerous theoretical frameworks. Germanic languages suffer immensely from the nominative redundancy.

To remove this argument, Shiraki explicates that marking a predicate may be an important way to counter the dissonance. The author shows this reduction of the discord is in harmony with syntactic properties in which the grammatical relations ought to have antecedents.

It is also within the general theoretical framework of predicate marking that the author formalizes his propositions (Kerstens, 1993). By way of introducing agreement, nominative and case functions, the agreement of appropriate function are fulfilled (Chomsky, 1993).

The author goes a step further by exploring the consequences of his assertions by analyzing Anaphor- Agreement effect. He articulates that the rationale behind the apparent disagreement of anaphors in a sentence is attributable to the properties of sentences reflexive factor. Simply, he says that the element constrains the theta-features that the author introduces.

The result is dissatisfaction of the predicate brought about by agreement function (Everett, 2001). Nonetheless, the authors ability to introduce various functions such as case function has enhanced case satisfaction. This is in line with the ultimate case agreement satisfaction that results from the apparent different constituents.

To elucidate this, he points out that English language has reflexives that typify such words as himself and ourselves. These reflexives only change owing to increase or decrease of quantities and hence, agreement function should have a person in order to achieve satisfaction. He explains that the reflexives in English language cannot attain this sentences satisfaction using the head of the reflexive.

He also points out that Germanic languages can fail to satisfy this agreement contrary to majority of Asian languages. In this section, the author concludes that in Germanic and English languages, the nominative redundancy can occur easily.

To strengthen the perspective of argument marking, Shiraki shows the different roles that case and agreement play in the context of language. While linguists such as Chomsky and Rizzi acknowledge the role of a case in a sentence as minimalistic, the theory proposed by Shiraki uses the case and agreement as the most important aspects of theta-marking (Chomsky, 1993).

The conventional linguists carried the assumptions that reflexes of agreements represented the case. Besides, the author criticizes the minimalists tendency to assume that there exists no asymmetrical distribution in Italian and Germanic languages. Shiraki questions the accuracy of conventional linguists notion that anaphors can never contribute to agreeing positions in sentence.

Shiraki says that if their assertion were true, there would be no instances of anaphors appearing in the positions of arguments. The author therefore rests his case by criticizing the prevalent linguistic knowledge especially relating to anaphoric agreement in sentences.

Summary

The article highlights various ways in which anaphors can make sentences to have agreement nature. In particular, the author appraises the previous assumptions that anaphors cannot occur in place of argument. Shiraki introduces the concept of agreement marking that he justifies throughout the article using extensive research and study.

Contrary to many traditional aspects of language, the author assumes a new perspective of looking into the concept of grammatical relations and nominative redundancy.

He points the complexities associated with nominative redundancy that makes sentence structure of both Germanic and English languages to be undesirable. Although many linguists hold reservations for Shirakis assertions, the author uses complex analysis to articulate his arguments.

References

Chomsky, N. (1993). A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Everett, M. (2001). Paradigmatic Restrictions on Anaphors. Massachusetts: Cascadilla Press.

Kerstens, J. (1993). The Syntax of Number, Person and Gender: A Theory of Phi-Features. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Introduction

Though quantitative methods are much more valid and reliable than qualitative methods, the latter provides in-depth perspectives on human behaviors, as well as reasons that predetermine these behaviors. Specifically, Dornyei (2007) realizes limitations to the quantitative research and, therefore, the researcher recommends qualitative research as a tool to examine specific concepts in a broader context.

He is also aware how much richer data we can obtain in a well-conducted and analyzed qualitative study than even in a large-scale questionnaire survey (Dornyei, 2007, p. 47). In this respect, a qualitative research significantly enlarges on the range of possible data interpretations, as well as permits a longitudinal study of dynamic phenomena. This paper explores two research papers that apply to different qualitative research methods and evaluates whether they meet the requirements of studies.

In research conducted by Smith-Sutherland (2002), an ethnographic design is implemented to highlight the differences in students perceptions of reading print texts and Web texts. The second study initiated by Lee, Butler, and Tippins (2007) delivers a case study design aimed at analyzing early childhood teachers perspectives on dealing with English language learners.

Review of Literature

According to Litosseliti (2010), a good literature review is a powerful instrument in deepening the analysis of research questions. In the studies presented by Smith-Sutherland (2002), the literature review section is thematically presented, but not entitled as a separate section. In particular, the authors focus on such problems as evolution of literacy and technology, criticism of technoliteracy as a new term, as well as the analysis of web-text literacy.

All three components are essential for understanding the topic researched. While investigating the origins and history of interaction between literacy and technology, the scholars cite papers that particularly relate to emergence of cyber space and internet, as well as how this discovery has influenced the term literacy.

In contrast, Lee et al. (2007) introduce supporting literature in the introductory part to explore such problems as approaches to promote English language learners (ELL) and advance relevant academic skills. Additionally, they shed light on linguistic and cultural diversity as the key component in literacy acquisition that teachers should consider when discovering effective approaches.

Though the study makes specific references to the study of English language learners, as well as teachers competences aimed at meeting the culturally diverse environment, it fails to accurately introduce variables that will further be outlined in a methodological section.

In contrast to the literature review presented by Lee et al. (2007), Smith-Sutherland (2002) provides a much more systematic review of necessary notions by dividing them into meaningful sections. Despite that, the author never defined some notions. For instance, there is no direct definition of literacy with regard to the web reading. This definition is pivotal for understanding the research question. Overall, both articles fail to provide a consistent evaluation of all aspects of the topic to be researched.

The Sample

With regard to the nature of researches under analysis, the choice of ethnographic approach to understanding phenomena is appropriate. According to Madison (2011), ethnographic study seeks to emphasize critical analysis, ethical considerations, and practices of performance (p. 13).

In this respect, because the studies are focused on peoples behavior, ethical considerations are of equal importance while selecting the sample. In this respect, Smith-Sutherland (2002) focuses on the culture of the Second Language learners and, thus, the researcher emphasizes the critical perspective of ethnographic research. In addition, the researcher undertakes ethnographic study because it establishes naturalistic qualitative approaches to research (Smith-Sutherland, 2002, p. 59).

The choice of the 48 students coming from various countries, including Taiwan, India, China, Poland, Bhutan, and Malaysia justified the small size of the sample. It also meets the ratio of 580 students attending the primary schools and counting more than 72 nationalities. With all these information taken into consideration, the researcher has failed to provide in-depth demographic information concerning their social background and gender. In fact, the factors can be decisive in defining specific behavioral patterns and observations.

The second research under evaluation presents a case study from an ethnographic perspective. At this point, Lee et al. (2007) rely on the situation to provide in-depth understandings and insights into educational practice and its meaning of situation and context (p. 44). By focusing on a specific example from the case study, the authors draw generalized concepts.

Unlike the first study, this one ignores the big sample and introduces interviews of one person, teacher Tiffany, who accounts on her practical knowledge of diversity that she gained from her personal experience while teaching in a certain socio-cultural context. Overall, the chosen methods of research have not been justified and, as result, the conclusions cannot be regarded as evidence-based and reliable.

In particular, because both studies are relatively similar concerning the discussion of ELL techniques, the second research provides a number of disadvantages as compared to the one conducted by Smith-Sutherland (2007). To support the idea, Yin (2011) argues that the use of case study does not provide solid methodological guidance.

Moreover, the type of case study has not been defined either. In this respect, Smith-Sutherland (2002) resorts to a small sample size, though it is enough for conducting a research. According to Dornyei (2007), a good sample must be a representative sample of the population. Because the sample population is small, the rationale for the chosen sample is fully justified.

Materials and Procedures

While analyzing the research design and procedures, much attention should be paid to the narrowed down approach used by Lee et al. (2007). In particular, the scholars decided to apply to face-to-face interviews to find out answers on their questions and understand why learning culturally diverse groups is quite challenging.

Scarcity of methodological materials is not congruent with the results findings where many conceptual assumptions have been made. At this point, there should have been a much larger sample introduced because persons experiences are insufficient for drawing research findings. For instance, while discussing such issues as problems with communication and assessment of evaluation techniques, one cannot rely on subjective answers of one person.

Despite the above-presented disadvantages, the given research contributes to a deeper understanding of unique communicational patterns. While exploring the domains of human communication, it is possible to define peculiar speech patterns, cultural background, and social environment features in which the respondent lives. At this point, the actual advantage of case studies lies in a possibility to explore preliminary concepts, as well as define how a particular case study can relate to the existing theoretical frameworks (Yin, 2011).

With regard to the above presented research procedures, Smith-Sutherland (2002) applies to sophisticated procedures and provides a systematic and detailed description of implemented methods. In contrast to the previous study, the researcher presents an evaluation of such processes as data encoding and transcriptions, which are the basic principles of ethnographic studies.

Like in a literature review section, Smith-Sutherland splits the research design into several sections, including research design and students project description. The latter is a preliminary preparation necessary for conducting further observations. Such a detailed preparation disaccords with the data presented in the studies by Lee et al. (2007).

Data Analysis

Transcribing and encoding information, as well as distributing notes into meaningful thematic nodes with focus on cultural identities and personal experiences are typical of the research conducted by Lee et al. (2007). According to Yin (2011), analysis of case study can begin with organizing data into hierarchical relationships. In addition, case should also be closely connected with the research question.

However, a careful examination of the research does not provide a transparent connection between the research questions and the assumed concepts in the results section. In particular, there is no exact answer on which strategies a teacher should rely on while enhancing and promoting communication among ELLs.

In contrast to the case study, the ethnographic research reveals a much more consistent evaluation of the gathered materials by applying to multiple data analysis tools. At this point, Smith-Sutherland (2002) focuses on relevant texts from the interviews for transcribing and coding. A combination of questionnaire and interview can contribute both to the way students can answer independently and the way they behave in the presence of the researchers.

Using NVivo and Qualitative Solution Research software has been a significant advantage for the researcher because it can produce accurate and objective results with less error probability. As LeCompte and Schensul (2010) emphasize, data analysis can be regarded both as a cognitive and as a technical process. In addition, it is also important for an ethnographic study to start data analysis with reiterating and referring to the research question so as to keep close to the topic of discussion.

Conclusion

In the conclusion of the study, there is little reference made on the above-highlighted pitfalls. In particular, Lee et al. (2011) fail to answer the research questions; instead, they are concerned with describing the problems and personal experiences that the teacher feels while communicating with ELLs.

Repeating the earlier stipulated theses cannot be regarded as an answer to a research question. In contrast, Smith-Sutherland (2002) manages to frame the research and provide the necessary assumptions that were required at the beginning. Once again, the researcher has provided a thematic representation of results, has covered all points of the research, and has defined the differences in perceiving print texts and web-based resources.

Second, it is impossible to support the research methodology chosen by Lee et al. (2007) because a case study with one participant cannot serve as a solid basis for drawing a great number of generalized concepts.

Within the context, the researcher understands that and, therefore, he refers to a great number of related researches with identical research design to prove that this study has the right to existence.

As per Smith-Sutherland (2002), the researcher has managed to choose an appropriate methodological framework enabling to capture the depth of the problem. Moreover, the scholar has also provided implications for future research.

References

Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

LeCompte, D. M., & Schensul, J. J. (2010). Designing and Conducting Ethnographic Research. US: Rowman Altamira.

Lee, S., Butler, M.B., & Tippins, D. (2007). A Case Study of an Early Childhood Teachers Perspective on Working with English Language Learners. Multicultural Education, 43-49.

Litosseliti, L. (2010). Research Methods in Linguistics. US: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Madison, D. S. (2011). Critical Ethnography: Method, Ethics, and Performance. US: SAGE.

Smith-Sutherland, W. (2002). Web-text: Perceptions of Digital Reading Skills in the ESL Classroom. Prospect, 17(1), 55-70.

Yin, R. K. (2011). Applications of Case Study Research. US: SAGE.

Introduction

The age at which language can be learnt is an area that has been given attention by different researchers. Researchers have tested syntax, lexical, phonological and grammatical differences of different people and of different ages in which they acquired the first and the second language. Different results have led to the explanation of the language acquisition patterns that are revealed by children and adults of the first and second language. This is a critical review of literature on the critical age for language acquisition. It will analyze studies of first language and second language acquisition.

Discussing whether there is a critical age for language acquisition

First language acquisition

Mayberry and Eichen (1991, p. 486) argue that the age has a significant impact on acquisition of language. Learning a language is easier for an individual when they are young than when they are of age. Those who learn a language when young tend to have positive outcomes than those who learnt in adulthood. When a language is learnt in childhood, the outcomes are superior to those of those who learnt later.

Mahoney (2008, p. 1) argues that there is a specific age at which a child is at prime age to learn language while interacting with the environment. Biologically, a child is capable of acquiring the language they are exposed to in their infancy and childhood. The brain mechanism in the early years of life allows the child to internalize any language that they are introduced to.

It is possible for a child to gain fluency in more than one language if they are introduced during the prime age of language acquisition. Children learn language better than adults in a natural setting. The adults are able to increase their competence if they take more time in practice and learning the language in an academic setting.

Wagner (2001, p. 1) notes that there is a biological explanation. After adolescence the capacity of the brain is unable to accommodate learning functions. The brain is assigned different functions and the child can no longer learn any language as before. Consequently brain damage after puberty implies that permanent damage in language acquisition occurs.

Patients whose brain is damaged before puberty can recover and acquire language as before. The argument is that the left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language acquisition. If language skills are transferred to the right hemisphere before adolescence, the child would retain their language competence.

The research was conducted on the acquisition of the first language and second language acquisition was not investigated, hence the argument applies for first language use.

Children have the ability to differentiate words from a sentence. Adults are unable to differentiate a word in a sentence when the words are spoken. The ability to pick words demonstrates the ability of children to learn. Adults require more time and assistance to study a new language. Moreover, children are capable of understanding expressions shown on the face (Brown, 2000).

Kasper (2003, p. 1) says that children have the same ability of acquiring language and undergo a process before learning specific language. They begin by making cooing sound that are similar in all children across the world. Then the child begins to coo similar sound of the first language that surrounding people use. Thereafter, the child learns to speak the first language.

Second language acquisition

Bilingual speakers learn languages at different times, depending on the time the need for acquisition emerges. In line with Mayberry and Eichen (1991, p. 487), adults learn language within a short period than children. Children learn the second language slowly.

The second language for children may come as a result of a requirement in the school system or the relocation of their family. Although children learn the language slowly, they gain a high proficiency than their parents. The ability to comprehend the language is easier for children than for the adults.

The acquisition of the second language acquisition is affected by the first language of an individual. The motor or sensory is set on the first language. Making changes to accommodate the second language is challenging. The level of first language acquired affects the ability to learn the second language. It is simple to learn the sensory and motor when the acquisition of the first language is at low levels.

The individual accommodates the patterns with less difficulty if they are in their childhood. In adulthood, the level of development of the first language is at high levels and learning the patterns can be challenging. Adjusting the sensory patterns to the second language is intricate.

Davis and Kelly (1997, p. 445) state that the acquisition age is in the first years of an individuals life and declines when adolescence approaches. Children who acquire the second language at an early age show proficiency similar to that of children who acquired the language as their first language.

The understanding and ability to learn vocabulary is determined by time spend practicing the language. Those who learnt the second language in childhood tend to take a short time to recognize vocabulary and have better pronunciation of words than those who learnt later in life. One gains a vast amount of vocabulary in their childhood and continues learning in adulthood.

The process is endless and one could apply the efforts in learning the second language vocabulary and gain competence. Learning the vocabulary later in life will have difficulty incorporating the vocabulary in a grammatical sentence than a young child would (BrainConnection, 2011, p. 1).

Wagner (2001, p. 2) attributes the learning difficulties in adulthood to the setting of the learning environment. Adults learn the second language in a formal setting which children learn the second language in natural environment where there are social interactions. Parents have the challenge of making mistakes while the children are not afraid of making mistakes.

Adults learn a language after gaining perceptions and attitudes towards the language and may lack motivation to make significant efforts to acquire the knowledge. Learning of the second language in college as a requirement may make the adult lack courage to speak to avoid embarrassment and only learn so that they attain their certificates as a requirement.

Robertson (2011, p. 1) says that the teacher of the second language has an impact on the attitude and results of the second language acquisition. Teachers of the second language who speak the language as their first language teach with enthusiasm and positively impact on their students. Young children are able to capture the pronunciation and accent correctly.

Adult learners have opinion on the second language acquisition. Children tend to practice speaking and take more time in social interactions where they gain skills. Adult learners have challenges in incorporating the new language. Those who end up being proficient gain interest and practice speaking on regular basis.

Experience

Practicing how to speak a language is considerable. Children learning from parents gain proficiency at a tender age and perform better than those who practice the second language outside their home. The parents should possess excellent grammar and sentence structure to influence their children positively in language. Children depict language patterns and imitate parents.

Learning a second language in adulthood enables the child to master pronunciations of words accurately. Mahoney (2008, p. 1) suggests that proficiency in language could be achieved if an adult repeatedly uses a second language for a long time and the user attains a different arrangement of processing language.

According to Arizona.edu (2002, p. 2), syntax acquisition is inclined in the age of the learner. Adult learners perform poorly where as children have excellent results. The argument is that neurological changes which occur at the onset of adolescent cause loss of language learning capacity in the brain. The brain mature and its capacity cannot accommodate all the functions including that of language acquisition.

The language acquisition age varies with different stages. At one point, a child is capable of learning phonology effectively and the case is the same for syntax, lexical and grammatical rules. The acquisition of the first language is similar to the second language if the language is introduced at a tender age. The acquisition of the second language is likely to be complete if a child learns it before the onset of adolescence.

The ability to learn a complete language depends on the time it was introduced. Those who learn the first language or the second language after puberty or adolescent have incomplete language skills. There are some aspects of language like accent that at infancy and early childhood.

Age affects the ability to learn a language but it does not make one totally unable to learn a language. Moreover, language is learnt throughout life. In some cases, children are unable to learn a second language earlier than the onset of puberty (Net Industries, 2011, p. 1).

Wagner (2001, p. 2) argues that accent should not be overemphasized in the determination of the success of second language acquisition. Adults are capable of learning and gaining dexterity in the second language. Adults can adapt new sounds, and can gain proficiency if they engage in regular practice for long.

Snow and Hohle (2010, p. 1) argue that individual effort determines the ability to acquire a language. Individuals ability to acquire a new language is diverse and their ability to learn is dependent on their capabilities. In the first language and in the second language learning is dependent on their ability and interest. People do comprise of equal language skill since their interest in language vary.

It is possible for a person learning a second language to gain proficiency in pronunciation and grammar similar to that of speaker of the first language. Learning language can occur at every stage of life if the learner has interest.

Social interaction plays an important part in language acquisition and is a continuous process in life. Children who are denied social interaction are likely to develop problem in language acquisition than adults.

Mayberry and Eichen (1991, p. 486) argue that children who are isolated may be unable to acquire a language proficiently if they are released in adulthood. If the children in isolation are released to interact and learn language while in childhood they are likely to be proficient.

Acquisition of language after childhood is dawdling. The adult learner may have consistent problems in following the rules of grammar and learning vocabulary. When childhood is gone, the ability to learn is not entirely diminished, one remains able to learn although they take long and require additional efforts.

Acquisition of language is intertwined with the societal interaction. Those with emotional and psychological crisis experience complexity. Children are largely affected if they are at the age when they begin to learn language

Deafness and Sign language

Children with deaf conditions have diverse outcomes of language acquisition. Some are born with partial hearing ability and are able to learn the spoken language. Others are unable to hear from birth. The time at which sign language is introduced is diverse and shows different results. Congenital deafness affects the speech and perception of the spoken language. The child is unable to read lips and text.

They require intensive instructions although they do not gain language proficiency in spoken language even when it is the first language. However, they are good in non-verbal communication and their performance is normal. The ages at which the instructions are given are important. Young children at the learning age have the ability to acquire many skills than when they are older (Mayberry and Eichen, 1991, p. 489).

Sign language is best acquired in childhood than in adulthood. Children born of parents who are deaf learn how to use the sign language early. Children born to parents who are not deaf take long to learn because the parents take long to begin the childs sign language instruction.

The parents have to learn the sign language along with them. Learning of sign language largely depends on the time the sign language instructions are made available. If they are introduced during the childs schooling years, the child becomes a master in sign language than those who learn sign language in adulthood.

Learning sign language with parents who use sign language gives a deaf child an advantage over the other who learnt after childhood in an institution. Learning sign language after early childhood requires the child to spend a lot of time practicing to attain similar proficiency to the child born by deaf parents. When the sign language is introduced early, the child will acquire the language within a short period.

Deaf children without an opportunity to learn sign language communicate using gestures, which are referred to as home signs (Mayberry and Eichen, 1991, p. 489). Children who develop home sign give it order and rules which makes the language highly structures.

Since they are deprived of sign language they get the opportunity to learn sign language at a later age. When they learn the sign language in adulthood, they are unable to gain the same proficiency as those born of parents who used sign language from infancy.

Children who learnt sign language internalize the signs in the memory and can deduce meaning from signs. Those who learnt the sign language later pay attention to the pattern and have difficulties retrieving the meaning of signs from already learnt signs. Adult learners of sign language have challenges integrating the meaning and understanding than childhood learners.

The ability to learn and internalize grammar changes with age. Adulthood learners have difficulty acquiring knowledge of language structure. Children are believed to have the ability to learn grammar.

Adult learners who have proficiency in their first language are capable of learning the second language with less difficulty than those with insufficient knowledge on the first language. Learning is simple if an individual has mastered the first language grammar.

Mayberry and Eichen (1991, p. 507) note that speech production in the first decade of an individual plays a significant role. One is able to develop an accent of a language within the first 10 years of life. Those who learn a language after the 10 years are likely to use a linguistic structure similar to that of their first language.

Acquisition of sign language is more challenging than acquisition of spoken language. The learner of spoken language has reduced difficulty learning the second language since they have acquired the first language. In the case of congenital deafness, the learner of the sign language has no prior understanding of any language and begins learning signs without prior knowledge.

Learning for the deaf without parents using sign language, is delayed acquisition of first language. When subjected to learning in adulthood, the setbacks are big when compared to an adult learning the second language.

Mayberry and Eichen (1991, p.508) indicate that children who learnt sign language after learning spoken language perform better than those born deaf. Since they had learnt the first spoken language before becoming deaf they are able internalize the signs.

Conclusion

Acquisition of language is impacted the learners age. Before adolescent, children can learn the first and second language competently. At the beginning children have the opportunity to learn the first language. When the need to learn the second language arises before puberty, the child will gain proficiency as in the first language.

After adolescence and adulthood, learning the second language is challenging since people remain with accent and pronunciation difficulties. This is because a childs brain has the capacity to learn language until the onset of puberty. Additionally, the environment that child grows up in has an impact on their language acquisition. Furthermore, children have an equal ability to learn language.

There are differences in language acquisition for adults and for children. Research indicates that children learn language easier than adults. The adults will learn within a short period while the children learn for a long time and obtain proficiency that exceeds that of the adults. Adults who are second language learners use the patterns of the first language to learn.

On the other hand children learn from social interactions and are not afraid of making mistakes. Children are capable of distinguishing words from a sentence which adult learners cannot. Adults perform poorly in language acquisition because it is often a requirement and fail to practice speaking for fear of getting embarrassed. Practice in both children and adults increase their proficiency.

Acquiring second in sign language is more challenging than in spoken language. Children born with congenital deafness acquire sign language early if their parents use sign language. If the parents do not use sign language at infancy, the deaf child acquisition of the first language is delayed.

On the other hand Children who learn sign language after learning spoken language perform well than children born deaf. Therefore, acquisition of language is inclined to a specific language.

Reference List

Arizona.edu. (2002). Age and Its Role in Language Acquisition. Web.

BrainConnection. (2011). Is There a Critical Period for Learning a Foreign Language? Web.

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, 4^th Ed. New York: Pearson, US.

Davis, S. M., & Kelly, M. H. (1997). Knowledge of the English noun-verb stress Difference by native and non native speakers. Journal of memory and language, 36, 445- 460.

Kasper, L. F. (2003). Language Acquisition in Humans. Web.

Mahoney, N. (2008). Language and Learning. Language and Linguistics. Web.

Mayberry, R. I. & Eichen, E. B. (1991). The Long-Lasting advantage of learning sign language in Childhood: Another Look at the Critical Period for Language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 486- 512.

Net Industries. (2011). Critical/Sensitive Periods- Language Development: Critical or Sensitive Period? Child Development Reference, 3. Web.

Robertson, P. (2011).The critical age hypothesis. Asian EFL Journal. Web.

Snow, C. E., & Hohle, M. H. (2010). The Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second Language Learning. Child Development, 49, 4. Web.

Wagner, J. (2001). Second Language Acquisition and Age. Web.