Category: Linguistics 473

Introduction

There is no such a thing as a simple word. Severally, misunderstandings have occurred among people as a result of their word diction and argument context. While many people believe that bombastic words make an argument or passing information complex, simple words cause more confusion and impair messages more often than the big words.

This is because people fail to realize the logical, relativism and dynamism that simple words create. People forget even the implication of simple words usage on different occasions such as academics, career and cultural setting. On the other hand, people are very sensitive when using complex words than simple ones.

First language speakers will be quick to notice when they speak to second language counterparts and try to apply the simple words. Consequently, a grammar class teacher is always keen while teaching children depending on their grades. The pupils themselves become so aware of variation on language that the low graders tend to study hard to know more complex words. As a result, little attention has been given to simple words in many contexts (Goddard, 2004).

A sentence like It is lawful sounds pretty clear almost to anyone; however, in reality the sentence is marred with numerous understanding depending on the individual, culture, career and setting where it is used. While the word law is so simple that everyone apparently grasps the meaning, the sentence can logically be termed as ambiguous and meaningless.

An act supported by the word can only be meaningful to scientists under the law of nature. Such laws include the law of gravity that acknowledges that an object will fall to the ground due to force of gravity. Contrary, Christian believers will defy such statement arguing that Jesus ascended to heaven.

Hence, among the Christians there is no law that objects have to fall. Politicians, on the other hand, understand the word law as a governing tool while lawyers, on contrary, take the law as a tool for judgement. There is also the aspect of amoral and moral in understanding the word law. It can therefore, be shown that the word law is not all that simple as several contextual uses need to be considered (Chater & Oaksford, 2008).

Main text

Good and evil is another simple word, which beats logic in arguments. In economics, scarcity of goods causes price increase and a customer is ready to spend any amount on a product. This makes a good opportunity to the sellers as they are able to make extra profits. Among the buyers this is an evil, because they have to purchase at extra cost denying them opportunity to satisfy other needs. Hence, there is no evil and good except under the context it has been applied.

In some societies, gay marriages are acceptable and considered a good form of relationship, while in others it is an evil and punishable even by death. The simple meaning of good and evil has been lost in the two arguments based on career and cultural set up respectively. The argument also suggests that there is no moral ground unless several other related factors are put into consideration (Hannah & Harrison, 2004).

The word property holds some legal possession; however its meaning as well diffuses as per its use. Before colonization, African lands were societal property where everyone in the community can use. The communities believed that all the lands were their property. When the colonists entered Africa, they took some of these lands and created their white highlands.

They also introduced privatization so that an individual had his own land property. Mostly, fertile highlands became the property of the colonialists. Also in this context, the word property has become so relative that it is almost meaningless (Hannah & Harrison, 2004).

A statement, people must eat in order to survive is considered a fact. As a rule in many societies, people eat once, twice or three times a day. This makes the statement a fact that food is necessary for survival. Scientifically, the statement might not be a fact unless proven by systematic experiments. In case, an experiment can prove that people can survive through other mechanisms rather than eating, then the statement becomes more of a fiction.

Based on Christianity setting, Jesus disapproved this fact when he declined turning stones into bread during temptation. Ability for the statement to be a fact also can be individuals opinion rather than a community. Personal experiences and environment can make the statement a fact or a fiction to one. A person in a warring country will rather seek safety before gathering food. This implies that survival is not ultimately dependent on food (Hannah & Harrison, 2004).

Conclusion

While people tend to focus on the sensitivity of big words while making arguments, it is vital to consider fallacies associated with simple words. Simple words are never static and universal, when used they send different meaning based on several factors. The appropriateness of a word can only be judged based on the context of its application. Several factors such as career setting, society and cultural backgrounds should be considered when using simple words.

References

Chater, N., & Oaksford, M. (2008). The Probabilistic Mind: Prospects for Bayesian Cognitive Science. London: Oxford University Press.

Goddard, C. (2011). Semantic Analysis: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Hanna, P. & Harrison, P. (2004).Word and World: Practice and the Foundations of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Introduction

The most frequently spoken language in the United States is English, which has long served as the nations official tongue. It is employed for official business and communication. Making English the national language of the United States has sparked several discussions since the US does not have an official language. Though there have been arguments for and against the proposal, the idea of making English the countrys national language has been divisive. Therefore, English should be the official language of the United States for two reasons: it fosters unity in the country and increases chances for success.

Arguments

First, making English the official language can foster unity among US citizens. For example, a shared language is a uniting power, bringing individuals together and fostering a sense of identity and mission. This is especially crucial in a nation like the United States, which is home to a varied population of individuals from different cultural and linguistic origins (Barrett et al., 2022). Being able to communicate with people from diverse backgrounds is made easier by the elimination of language barriers. As a result, it guarantees that everyone is on the same page and can understand each other. This is, however, crucial in encouraging understanding and collaboration among individuals. For instance, it is easier for individuals to cooperate, share ideas, and work on projects when everyone in a country speaks the same language. Moreover, this is particularly significant in democracies because collaboration and communication are critical to the operation of the government and society.

Second, English is the most commonly used language in the world and the language of commerce, science, and technology. In addition to making English the official language, people from all origins will have equal access to information and resources, be able to participate in the economy, and achieve their goals and dreams if there is a common language. Thus, learning English is essential for immigrants success and integration into society (Simonova, 2018). They can interact with people, access resources and information, and participate completely in society by learning the language. They can also seize chances to better their lives, such as getting an education or a job and giving back to their communities.

Counterargument

However, it is important also to consider the counterarguments against making English the official language of the United States. Some contend that because it causes individuals to surrender their language and culture, it violates their right to individual freedom and respect for other cultures (Schmid, 2021). Similarly, they contend that rather than imposing a dominant culture and language, the nation should appreciate and tolerate its inhabitants linguistic and cultural variety. Despite these objections, many people still think that the United States should make English its official language to foster unity and provide prospects for success. A common language that unites people and fosters understanding and collaboration is just as crucial as respecting and preserving cultural variety. Additionally, making English the endorsed language gives people the resources they need to engage fully in society and achieve their objectives rather than forcing them to give up their native tongue and culture.

Conclusion

The idea of officially recognizing English as the national tongue of the United States should be supported for two reasons: it fosters unity in the country and increases chances for success. While there are objections against having a common tongue, they outweigh the advantages. As a result, making English the official language will promote unity, remove linguistic obstacles, and provide all residents with an equal chance to participate in society and fulfill their aspirations.

References

Barrett, R., Cramer, J., & McGowan, K. B. (2022). Language diversity in the United States. English with an Accent, 2(35), 130160. Web.

Schmid, C. (2021). The politics of English only in the United States: Historical, social, and legal aspects. Language Ideologies, 6286. Web.

Simonova, I. (2018). Enhancing learning success through a blended approach to learning and practicing English grammar: Research results. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 6980. Web.

Introduction

Human language is very unique in itself because it is not acquired biologically like other human traits but it is learned. Human beings use language to communicate by the use of symbols and signs that are conventional (Raymond, 1997). Communication systems especially language is very flexible, that is it keeps changing according to the situation and the people using the language. This happens because language is highly influenced by so many factors thereby bringing a lot of variations. This paper therefore discusses the factors that affect language patterns in Miami, Florida.

Discussion

One factor that affects the language pattern of an area is population movement. For instance, Indians initially occupied Miami, and they used to have their own language. By 1567, population movements were rampant and they saw the settlement of the Spaniards into Miami. In 1959, when Fidel Castro became the leader of Cuba, many Cubans migrated into Miami from Cuban fear of Castros governance. These population movements brought so many changes in terms of language in Florida. This is especially so because the immigrants had to look for jobs and therefore they had to create a language that could help them to communicate and interact. Population movements affect the speech pattern of an area in that, the people who migrate into that area come there with their own language and the different languages have to be incorporated into the community. This affects the language patterns used. For example the first bilingual public school in Miami was established in 1963. This is because the Cubans preserved their language when they migrated into Miami and in fact, today, Spanish is widely spoken in Miami than in any other Hispanic populations. As a result when English was declared the official county language in the 80s, this sparked violent riots among the Cubans living in Miami. This explains how population movements affect the language patterns of an area.

Another factor that affects the language patterns of an area is the settlement patterns. This situation has resulted in a lot of languages being spoken in Miami. Population movements saw a lot of immigrants settle in Miami. These immigrants altered the language patterns initially used in Miami. For instance, despite the fact that Miami is considered to be a city inhabited by Hispanics and Caribbean immigrants, this is not the case because so many other immigrants settled there and they use their native language and therefore altering the language patterns (Raymond, 1997). The other immigrants who settled in Miami apart from the Hispanic and Caribbean communities include Russians, Italians, French Canadian, Germans and French communities. Due to these settlements, the communities living in Miami have different languages that they use to communicate. Some of these languages include: Spanish, which is spoken by the majority of the population, followed by English, French Creole and French respectively. Other languages spoken in Miami include: Greek, Chinese, Portuguese, Arabic, German and Italian. In general the main language used in day-to-day talk is Spanish, though most of the population is bilingual, that is, they use English even though they are not so fluent (Raymond, 1997). Haitian French Creole is mainly used on the northern part of Miami. Mostly public announcements and signs are mainly done in Spanish, English and Creole. This is done in order to communicate to the diverse immigrants in Miami. Miami has one of the largest populations, which has a first language other than English. These settlements patterns have changed the language patterns used in Miami, for instance since many of the immigrants are bilingual, they therefore feel the need to code-switch between English and their native languages. And at times they even replace some English words with a common word in their first language. This situation has really altered the language patterns in Miami.

A third factor that affects the language pattern of an area is the physical geography/environment (Raymond, 1997). For instance the physical environment of a person encourages him/her to adapt to that environment. Similarly since one has to communicate with the others there is the need to find a common language of doing this. Raymond says these immigrants had to learn English since it is the main language that is used when conducting business and in government offices. Their physical environment requires them to be bilingual in order to communicate well, this affects altered the language pattern of Miami. French and Portuguese are other languages that are spoken in Miami but these are centered on the tourists destinations. This situation explains why certain languages are used in specific regions in Miami, for example Spanish is spoken along the south of Miami, Haitian Creole along the north of Miami and French and Portuguese along tourists destinations sites.

Conclusion

Language is unique to human beings and cannot exist in isolation. People use symbols and signs (language) in order to communicate. This means that, if necessary, the language has to change to meet the needs of the people. The change is brought about by many factors and some of them have been discussed in this paper. For instance code switching is one way in which people modify their language to easy their communication. As a result this change definitely alters the language patterns of an area. Initially most communities are monolingual but due to the factors that affect their language, like population movements, population settlements and physical adaptation, these same communities end up being multilingual. This results in changes in their language patterns as highlighted in the case of Miami, Florida.

References

Raymond, A. The Making of Urban America, New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997.

Spanish among Miami Cubans.

Bilingual language use in Hispanic adults.

Introduction

Oral language is one of the fundamental parts of human development. This aspect is the basis for the formation of reading and writing skills that young children will develop at further stages of development. Having a well-formed foundation in oral speech will also help develop communication, as well as strengthen confidence and a sense of well-being. A special role in this process is played by teachers and parents who guide and teach children. Thus, the study of oral speech, its milestones and functions will help greatly facilitate this process.

Oral language is characterized as a certain system by which a person uses words to express. Moreover, this characteristic includes the development of listening skills, which are also valuable in communication (Neaum, 2012). Transcriptions with dialogues with three-year-old children were used for this language samples. The pseudonyms of the study participants will be considered Suzy and Ken. The language they spoke at home was English. At this stage of oral speech development, children listen to adults and learn the meaning of phrases mainly through context. Moreover, at this age, children already know more words than they can use. In addition, all toddlers sentences often consist of no more than three or four words.

Language Analysis

As already mentioned, the study of the oral language at an early age is of particular value, as it is the basis for the formation of other important skills. After conducting a language sample in this study, an analysis of the results was carried out. These data include a study of the development of oral speech at the stage of early development, the functions for which children use language in everyday life and criticism of the participation of teachers and parents in language exchange.

Development of oral language

The main part of oral speech is formed in a person by the age of four. This aspect has a significant impact on the readiness of children to attend such an educational institution as kindergarten. Moreover, the level of formation of oral speech affects the success throughout the learning process and the effectiveness of communication in its duration. By the age of three, as children participating in the language sample, they should be able to call their first and last names, have from two hundred to five hundred words in stock and be able to answer simple questions (). In addition, they should be able to form sentences of four or in some cases six words and often speak these complete sentences. Furthermore, speech at this age should already be more or less clear and correct in terms of construction. These milestones are related directly to the speech milestones of this age, but there are also others that are worth mentioning.

Oral language consists in the ability to master the native language, which includes speaking and listening. Furthermore, this function is used to carry out communication between people and is the basis for reading and comprehension (Fellowes & Oakley, 2020). Important main aspects of the formation of children at the age of three years are also their cognitive abilities. This is due to the fact that their knowledge can greatly facilitate the learning process. Hence, by the age of three, children should understand the speech of an adult and repeat it correctly. In addition, they should be able to fantasize and pretend if the situation or conditions require it. Additionally, a three-year-old child should be able to repeat some parts of the story told by an adult and understand the concepts of time, which also have a specific value.

Oral language is often one of the main components of the English language, which is the main one in this study. In the broadest definition, an oral language consists of phonology, grammar, morphology, and vocabulary. The formation and consolidation of these skills occurs at an early stage of human development. That is why it is important to have a correct and well-designed oral speech training at this age, as it can have a strong effect in the future. It is also worth noting that the vocabulary of children at this stage of development is expanding as they share their experiences. To strengthen the components of the language, it is most effective to use listening to the spoken word during conversations. The more words children hear and understand, the faster their oral language develops.

Functions for which the child is using language

This paper examines the language functions that were derived by Michael Halliday. Thus, the researcher noted that its seven functions show how children use language, depending on different situations (Kearns, 2017). Moreover, Holiday believed that children learn the language because of the need to fulfill certain goals and tasks, and the man divided the functions depending on the need (Halliday, 2020). Thus, instrumental, regulatory, interactive and personal functions fulfill physical, emotional and social needs. In turn, heuristic, imaginative and representative help the child cope with the world around them.

Now, it is necessary to consider each function of using the language separately. Thus, the instrumental function is used in everyday life and helps in the process of communication and expression. In other words, this aspect helps to achieve a certain goal, the tool for which is oral language (Fellowes & Oakley, 2014). Further, the regulatory function helps to control both the behavior of the person who is speaking and who he or she is talking to. Interactive feature is directly related to the process of people communicating with each other and is also of considerable importance. It also contributes to the achievement of a communicative goal by forming the process of exchanging information and thoughts. Further, the personal function of language is conditioned by the fact that it provides data about the people who speak and their relationships with others.

The heuristic function is responsible for how the human brain organizes, analyzes and processes the information it receives during communication. Moreover, this feature helps people make decisions in a given situation. The penultimate function is imaginative, which is responsible for a persons ability to transmit mental images using verbal and non-verbal tools. The last aspect, but not the least, is the representational function, which is related to how people use words to describe certain things, situations or people. Taking into account all these aspects is critically important in the formation of oral speech at an early stage of development.

The language register is defined as the level of formality with which a person speaks. This causes people to use different registers in different situations. Thus, the language used provides ample opportunities for learning and content (Emmitt et al., 2015). However, it is worth noting that three-year-old children do not have this sense of formality, since this concept is just beginning to take shape. That is why both language samples had no significant differences in this aspect.

Critique of adult participation in the language exchange

Adults play one of the decisive roles in the formation of oral language skills in young people at an early stage of development. Thus, they can significantly expand the communication abilities of the child through the process of playing and simply communicating with children during the game. Thus, by participating in this creative and interactive process, children set their educators as role models. At the same time, adults need to carefully monitor their behavior, since children copy almost everything from them.

There are many techniques that contribute to improving and enhancing communication with young children, which were used during the study. Firstly, it is important to always maintain a calm atmosphere while maintaining this criterion restlessly in speech. Moreover, adults need to choose words and phrases that are suitable for the age of the child. For example, when communicating with three-year-olds, short phrases are used, for better understanding, for example, What color is this?, and not Please tell me what color is this ball on the top of the sheet? Furthermore, older people should always repeat sentences if necessary, replace mistakes with corrections and constantly maintain eye contact with the child.

It is worth noting that adults also need to demonstrate and simulate active listening skills in order to develop speech, language and communication skills especially in early stages of development. If there are any difficulties in teaching a child an oral language, parents can contact educator. This specialist will help solve problems and advise the necessary techniques and methods that will significantly improve the process of forming speech skills.

Conclusion

The early childhood educator family partnerships in relation to childrens oral language development is of critical importance. This is due to the fact that such interaction can play fruitfully in relation to many factors. Hence, it can contribute to improving the performance of children and their attitude to learning. It is noted that in the case of interaction between teachers and parents, social skills are also significantly improved, the occurrence of behavioral problems decreases and the ability to adapt to situations increases (Bickley, 2008; Harris, 2013). Moreover, parents and teachers also have a certain benefit from working together. Thus, parents increase their knowledge about the upbringing and education of the child and the peculiarities of formation at a certain stage of adulthood. Teachers, in turn, have the opportunity to better understand students and can influence the learning of children with fewer difficulties and behavioral problems.

The interaction of teachers and parents plays a special role in the formation of a childs oral skills. First of all, because the guardians need to know how to properly build their speech and behavior so that the child learns them correctly. Moreover, this type of relationship helps parents feel more comfortable and gain confidence in their parenting skills. In addition, the parent, in case of some concerns, can share concerns with the teacher so that the educator can track them and correct them in the educational environment. Both parents and teachers should take into account the necessary techniques for provoking speech and take into account the peculiarities of the oral language in children.

References

Bickley, M. (2008). Building a partnership with your child care service. NCAC.

Emmitt, M., Zbaracki, M., Komesaroff, L., & Pollock, J. (2015). Language & Learning: An Introduction for Teaching. Oxford University Press.

Fellowes, J. & Oakley, G. (2014). Language, literacy and early childhood education (2^nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Fellowes, J., & Oakley, G. (2020). Language, literacy and early childhood education (3^rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Halliday, M. A. (2020). Linguistic function and literary style: An inquiry into the language of William Goldings The Inheritors. The Language and Literature Reader, 19-28.

Harris, P. (2013). Language learning in diverse settings. David Barlow Publishing.

Kearns, K. (2017). Supporting communication, language and literacy: Frameworks for learning and development. Cengage Learning Australia.

Neaum, S. (2012). Language and literacy: For the early years. SAGE.

There is a well-known model in which three circles of the English language spread: the inner circle, the outer ring, and the expanding circle. Countries of the inner circle are the states in which English is the official and native language for the vast majority of the population. However, even today, in the UK and the USA, there are fewer and fewer native English speakers due to an increase in the number of immigrants. For them, English remains their second language, and these users are not the ones who set the language standard. The outer circle includes countries that used to be under British rule. In these regions, English has historically performed and continues to be the second official language such as India, Singapore, the Philippines, and Tanzania. 30-40 years ago, in these countries, the representatives of the middle class were practically bilingual, and today, this position has been largely lost. But in the third circle countries, the English language study is going at an accelerated pace. A whole industry of teaching English has emerged, which is a path to the world of business, science, innovative technologies, and politics.

English as an international language is spreading rapidly across the globe. In this regard, many teachers and even linguists believe that there is no need to force students to imitate the speech patterns of native speakers. In South Africa, it is customary for a particular segment of the population with a high educational level and social status to speak English including elements of the Hausa language. In the countries of the outer circle, attention should be paid to the commercialization of English-language training. The lack of native speakers from first-circle countries forces Chinese families to invite English-speaking governesses from second-circle countries. In the future, their children will be able to get higher education in English and find work in prestigious international companies. At the same time, it is doubtful that native speakers of New English can do this just as quickly. However, for them, the period of language adaptation will be much shorter than for people who do not initially speak the English language. The processes described above are taking place in Asia, Africa, Oceania, and Latin America. Inhabitants of these regions are striving, through mastering the English language, to integrate into a new world of globalization.

The scheme of dividing countries into circles is beneficial for analyzing the English languages degree of prevalence globally, and not all countries fit into it. In Roman-speaking countries, the French are strictly opposed to the English language invasion, seeking to preserve their language identity. Spaniards, Portuguese, and Italians also prefer to communicate with foreigners in their languages. Political events play an essential role in the popularity or rejection of a particular foreign language. Thus, Belgrades bombing did not increase the English languages popularity in Serbia, especially its American version. Speaking of English as a worldwide contact language, people signify its communicative status as a means of communication in limited areas of social contact. Therefore, the provided model does not consider the political or cultural features which may affect the usage of the English language in some specific regions.

Introduction

The Multilingual World

The foundational principle for the successful outcome in the development of any field is that field avoiding stagnation. With the acceleration of processes related to utterly different, and often quite distant spheres of human activity  from technological and scientific advancements to cultural and linguistic diversification, it has gained importance. Only recently the evolving situation in the linguistic domain of the worlds population has been exposed to some form of recognition from the professionals whose work is directly related to the cross-cultural communication. For the most part, these educators are the ones responsible for the next generation working in their profession  which is of high social significance  and therefore, are required to evolve according to the social changes.

In order to understand the purpose of the current literature review, a closer inspection of the specificity of these changes is needed. It is reflected in Garcia & Wei, todays global village has become more culturally and linguistically diverse with the majority of students receiving education in a language other than their own (as cited in Charamba & Zano, 2019, p. 4). Due to the influence of colonial times, which is particularly substantial in the countries of the developing world, many children are the segregation between the language of the instruction and the language(s) they use to communicate with their peers and family members. As Carroll & Morales (2016) note, as instructors and researchers, we recognize that our students come into the classroom with rich linguistic repertoires that are not always acknowledged (p. 249). As a result, for reasons that will be discussed further in this paper, large quantities of students experience major drawbacks in their academic performance.

In contrast to the official policymaking practices, there has been recorded a growing need for an alternative method of teaching. This fact only reassures the gap between the methods which educational facilities employ and the needs of the population. Bilingual and multilingual education has been sparking controversy mainly for political reasons (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015). The concept of translanguaging was originally developed in Wales in 1996, where the issue of children speaking different languages in official and informal setting is particularly pronounced (Williams as cited in Hoffman, 2017). Nowadays, translanguaging approaches are used worldwide, and they have raised questions about the utility value of the traditional method of teaching (Carroll & Morales, 2016). The term itself encompasses several shades of meaning, however, in the current study it will be used in the context of a pedagogical strategy. Translanguaging method allows for educators and students to use the entirety of their linguistic and semiotic resources (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 251). Despite the fact that translanguaging was proven to aid in learning of bilinguals, there still an ongoing debate of whether or not the strategy is useful.

Problem Statement

The efficacy of the translanguaging method has received positive feedback from students and educators alike. However, on the administrative level translanguaging is still perceived as part of an experimental teaching strategy and not as an established pedagogic system. This situation is problematic, as large quantities of bilingual individuals are struggling with their language of instruction  English for most parts of the world, as they do not have deep comprehension of its grammar and lexicon. This failure in discernment of scientific concepts worded in English has a direct link with poorer academic performance. Additionally, bilingual and multilingual students are forced into a monolingual thinking model; a tactic that only furthers the decline in their linguistic potential.

Review of Literature

There is a sufficient body of research done on the subject of translanguaging and applied translanguaging techniques in the educational framework. Translanguaging was utilized in a variety of settings and assisted in a number of purposes. To picture the scope of usage of translanguaging methods, a qualitative study by Hoffman et al. (2017) can be evaluated. The study records the results of using translanguaging in an educational setting with deaf adult bilinguals, who are accessed on their metalinguistic processes and reading strategies that they employ (p. 1929). The study aims to cover the gap of research in Deaf education and reading studies that only focused on deficit models and comparing deaf students with monolingual hearing ones (Hoffman et al, 2017). As noted here, translanguaging is a majorly useful tool for language learning, but can be used just as successfully with content learning (Hoffman et al, 2017). The same principle is illuminated in another study, which is concerned with implementing translanguaging in the context of 10^th grade Chemistry class in a South African school (Charamba & Zano, 2019). Regardless of the difference between the setting, the results are overall positive.

The multifunctional nature of translanguaging is not a thoroughly studied topic, although the translinguistic method has proven to be a highly adaptable and versatile system. According to Carroll & Morales (2016), the term can be understood differently  as a language theory implying the normality of bilingualism, and as a transformational process that constantly reinvents the meaning-making (p. 251). However, the most relevant definition for current research is a pedagogic stance aimed at drawing out linguistic and semiotic resources which is what the current review is declares as one of its core interests (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 251). The said study focuses its attention quite narrowly, on an English as a Second Language (ESL) course, and in that way, employs translanguaging in its traditional sense.

The study is particularly concerned with estimating the efficacy of the method particularly in an inherently bilingual setting, Puerto Rico. The researchers aim to utilize the full linguistic repertoire that the children possess while also testing whether or not translanguaging educational strategies affect the students academic performance in a positive manner (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 249). Additionally, the translanguaging approach was implemented to increase student participation and provide a meaningful literacy experience with the assigned novel that they discussed in literature circles (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 255). As a result of this intervention, by allowing students to express themselves in a language that they felt the most comfortable using, a greater degree of comprehension of the text was accomplished (Carroll & Morales, 2016). Thus, it can be noted that the mother tongue is significantly better transmitting the meaning of ideas to a bilingual speaker is true.

In another study conducted against a multilingual background, taking place in Turkey, a similar approach was applied. Ilhan & Aydin (2015), agree with the majority of a priori research that emphasized that forcing minority language children to make a transition too soon towards being educated in a new language can be detrimental to their learning process (p. 147). In the process of conducting a Bilingual Education Perception survey among the educators, it was established that the majority of academics agree that the situation in Turkey educational system is insufficient and needs to change (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015). Thus, the faculty members believe that students should not be treated differently because of their ethnic background, which is exactly the case (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015, p. 152). The needs of ethnic minority groups in regards to the language of instruction are principally ignored; as a result, the academic performance and overall quality of education they receive. The students from minority groups are underachieving because they fail to comprehend the language of the instruction as well as they can understand their first language.

The same dynamic is also identifiable in a study by Charamna & Zano (2019), which aims to determine whether the translanguaging approach will improve students performance in a science classroom. In a similar way to their Puerto Rican counterparts, the students were struggling in comprehension of the tasks when they are worded in English, which resulted in a handicap of their intellectual capacities and thus, the students exhibited poorer performance. At the end of the intervention, the students gave interviews which reflected the positive impact of translanguaging pedagogy methods in chemistry class. The findings of the South African study is somewhat accordant with Leonet et al. (2019) study on the subject of applying translanguaging to increasing morphological awareness. Once again, the principle of cross-linguistic instruction, as is traditional in translanguaging pedagogies is exemplified here; although, the study does show some insufficiency of the method  some of the tasks implemented did not relate specifically to the translanguaging intervention. As is the case with Hoffman et al. study, the participants clearly emphasized their preference towards the employment of translanguaging rather than studying according to the monolingual-centered curriculum.

It is noteworthy that not only students of various faculties become translanguaging intervention participants, but professors do, too. This particular study by Baker & Hope (2019) is of great interest because it involved assessment in proficiency of one of the two language bilingual professors spoke using translanguaging techniques. This can be considered an unconventional way of using translanguaging, however, it plays well along with the aims of the current literature review and significantly contributes to the set of practices of translanguaging.

Purpose, Hypothesis and Research Questions

The primary purpose of the current review is to assess the state-of-the-art translanguaging educational practices applied in secondary language acquisition and understand their nature as well as the extent to which they are applied. Secondly, the review aims to gain a deeper understanding of the potential that the translanguaging method encompasses, such as being used beyond the purposes it was specifically designed for. A broader purpose of this review beyond assessment of publications was increasing popularity of translanguaging among the general public and in particular among the faculty members. The notion that translanguaging method is highly impactful on the outcome of learning a secondary language among bilinguals, but is not limited by this sole purpose and can be used in assistance with a variety of subjects, serves as the hypothesis for this study. The research questions are as follows:

• How widely translanguaging is used for teaching a foreign language in multilingual communities around the world?
• What are the main variations in application of the translanguaging theory? What are the traditional methods and how educators can innovate it for the benefit of a more effective learning?

Data Collection

All the data used in the present literature review was obtained through Google Scholar, which led to corresponding databases of peer-reviewed journals and standalone articles. After conducting a search through the databases, the 6 key articles used in the current review were selected. The articles were chosen on the basis of a) being about a translanguaging method in education, b) complimenting the others in terms of being original in the application of the method. As a result, the articles were studied, analyzed, and synthetized in the present study.

Data Analysis and Results

In the process of the present review, a few key concepts were distilled that possess a great relevance to the concept and practice of translanguaging. First, it was established that bilingual participants were eager to utilize their full linguistic repertoire when put into settings encouraging it. (Baker & Hope, 2019; Hoffman et al., 2017; Charamba & Zano, 2019). The majority of participants, from university professors and bilingual students to deaf bilinguals, felt it was beneficial for their reception of information and provided them with a chance of enhanced self-expression. As could be seen in a Leonet et al. study, translanguaging not only influenced better comprehension, that was could an expectable outcome, but also greatly assisted in the development of cross-lingual morphological awareness (2019). For ensuring the homogeneity in perception towards translanguaging, a number of perspectives, from both the educators and the students was obtained (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015; Charamba & Zano, 2019). Thus, the translinguistic method proved to be highly effective in learning a secondary foreign language as well as content-learning.

Writing and Organization of the Articles

The majority of research papers analyzed followed a fairly standard organizational template, however, some exhibited a number of distinct features. For instance, Hoffman et al. study included descriptions of the processes that could be considered extensive, however, they contributed to a deeper understanding of the research process, despite not being strictly necessary  for instance, the entire section on Coding and Narrative (2017, p. 1937). Ilhan & Aydin (2015) study lacked proper structure and exhibited a small amount of spelling mistakes  an example would be compiling discussion and conclusion sections into one. One the contrary, Carroll et al. exhibited clear structure and other articles did the same.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The current literature review demonstrates the scope of usage and the range of particular techniques of translanguaging when applied within bilingual settings, particular circumstances of which vary greatly depending on the countrys educational policy. However, in every case, ranging from the assessment of faculty members on their bilingual capacity and conducting tests in chemistry class for 10^th grade students to enriching the learning experience of deaf individuals, it was always effective. Thus, the hypothesis of this review was confirmed; translanguaging has a significant positive effect on the outcome of learning a secondary language, and as a matter of fact, goes beyond that. In terms of recommendation, future research could be directed to studying translanguaging implications conducted under different circumstances, for instance, in mixed environments  involving both monolingual and bilingual participants.

Action Research Study

Ideas for future research on the basis of this literature review could include expanding the present set of practices that translanguaging implies. For instance, there is a significant gap in understanding how translanguaging can work at larger scale, as most samples consisted of quite limited amounts. Another very important gap that future researchers must address is tailoring translanguaging techniques to specific circumstances, like working with the languages of deaf and blind people or a an ethnic group that lacks certain vocabulary present in other language. Additionally, it would be useful conducting studies that would focus on the perception of parents and caretakers, whose children are subject to translanguaging at an educational faculty.

References

Andrews, J., Clark, D., Hoffman, D., and Wolsey, J. (2017). Translanguaging supports reading with deaf adult bilinguals: A qualitative approach. The Qualitative Report, 22(7), pp. 1925-1944.

Aydin, H., & Ilhan, D. (2015). Perceptions of higher education faculty members on bilingual education in Turkey. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(3), pp. 146-155.

Baker, B., & Hope, A. (2019). Incorporating Translanguaging in language assessment: The case of a test for university professors. Language Assessment Quarterly, 16(4-5), pp. 408-452

Carroll, K.S., & Sambolin Morales, A.N. (2016). Using University students L1 as a resource: Translanguaging in a Puerto Rican ESL classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 39(3-4), pp. 248- 262

Cenoz, J., Gorter, D., & Leonet, O. (2020). Developing morphological awareness across languages: Translanguaging pedagogies in third language acquisition. Language Awareness, 29(1), pp. 41-59.

Charamba, E., & Zano, K. (2019). Effects of Translanguaging as an intervention strategy in a South African chemistry classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(3), pp. 291-307

Basic Knowledge

Paul Ricoeur is one of the most distinguished linguists and philosophers of modernity. His book on the evolution of the understanding of metaphors, titled The Rule of Metaphor, observes its evolution from antiquity to modern times. Ricoeur postulates that metaphors brought about the ending of old rhetoric and the emergence of neo-rhetoric being used in communication and marketing today. First, the book advanced my theoretical knowledge of rhetoric and philosophy by demonstrating the importance of metaphors in rhetoric. Second, it showed the evolution of metaphors from simply being deviations in singular words to the sentence-context structure. Third, I learned that similarity of pronunciation and meaning is not always required for metaphors to be effective.

These notions, thoroughly discussed across different case studies, have challenged my existing perceptions of metaphors and their influence on modern discourse. My understanding of rhetoric and philosophy of communication advanced as well. I was able to see how the former was transformed under the influence of the latter, focusing on being holistic and accurately representing the meaning of what was meant to be said rather than simply remaining as an art of convincing people. While I am certain that our use and understanding of metaphors will further evolve in the future, this book offers an excellent perspective on its various elements.

Metaphor and Argument

The central question of scholarly inquiry guiding the book was to perceive the evolution of the meaning of metaphors as they transformed classical rhetoric, semiotics, semantics, and hermeneutics. The linguistic entity in which the metaphor functions was also expanded from simply one word or one sentence to the entirety of the discourse. The dominant themes and idea clusters as presented by the author are as follows:

• The views on metaphors as presented by classic rhetoric restricted it to deviations in word choices alone; this view was shallow and eventually led to the departure from classic tenets of rhetoric (Ricoeur 71);
• Expansion of metaphor to be viewed in the context of the entire sentence led to a greater understanding of them but was incomplete (Ricoeur 149);
• Finally, the evolution of the understanding of metaphor from a hermeneutic standpoint expands the reach of meaning and understanding of the subject beyond word, sentence, or even text, tying it to events outside of any given piece of writing to achieve a full picture being painted (Ricoeur 293).

My position is that metaphors were different for different people at different stages of developmental and historical progress. The rhetoric of the past reflected how metaphors were used back then and how different they are from now. I do not believe that our modern understanding of metaphors would be fully applicable to how they were used back then; it constitutes a modernist bias.

Relevance

The hermeneutic viewpoint of metaphors in modernity applies to communication in the marketplace. They are widely used in constructing advertisements and reaching out to customers. Including deep metaphors in ones message can positively affect advancing a product or a service. If they are utilized, they have to convey the message within the parameters of discourse and relate to the situation in the country the advert is aimed for, or even the entirety of the world. Some metaphors are universal, whereas others are useful only in a specific environment and time frame. Examples of universal metaphors could include transformation, balance, journey, safety, connection, resources, and control. These can be conveyed through scenarios, colors, objects, and actions in an advertisement and allow the customers to associate these metaphors with the product.

Other metaphors could be more region or idea-related. Traditions, modern problems, the issues of the environment, peoples rights, and so forth can be utilized to do social marketing. Advertisements using these metaphors can promote goods, services, and noble social causes. However, they would not work outside of their hermeneutic environment, where they are attached to words, events, and meanings relevant to specific places. This knowledge can be applied in crafting and designing ways to communicate messages to customers and advance the company through meaningful relationship-building.

Works Cited

Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language. Routledge, 2004.

Language planning and policy are vital elements in establishing a relationship between nationalism, language, and identity. In order to create a strong nation with a unified language, governments have the power to define one or multiple official languages. Being a part of the European Union, France and Finland face migration and the influence of foreign languages. The way these countries governments have dealt with these issues through language planning and policy can be defined opposite.

Finland has a long history of bilingualism; the two official languages are Finnish and Swedish. Being a part of the EU, Finland faces migration and thus accommodates a significant number of languages on its territory (Kartushina 117). In Finland, Swedish is supported by laws and policies; for example, it is taught in schools. Despite the fact that Swedish is less spread than Finnish, their co-existence is generally peaceful (Kartushina 118). The constitution states that no language is forbidden in Finland; people who use other languages have the right to be provided with interpretation and translation. All the official information is presented not only in Finnish and Swedish but also in English. Finlands language planning and policy clearly work towards developing and encouraging a multilingual society.

French language policy and planning is known to be less open to foreign languages and cultures. According to Devine, the French language has significant cultural value and serves as a symbol of centralized identity and cohesion (45). French has been used as a political tool to consolidate power by uniting and distinguishing French national identity throughout French history. With the purpose of promoting and protecting the language, the French government passed the Toubon Law. The law limits the presence of other languages in the media, official documents, public signage, all workplaces, schools, and even commercials (Devine 9). The laws passing followed the increasing presence of the English language and American culture to secure French status and purity (Devine 47). The passing of the Toubon Law represents the French governments fight against foreign languages, multilingualism, linguistic and cultural diversity.

The presence and influence of other languages and cultures forced the Finnish and French governments to take action. There is a clear difference between the ways Finnish and French governments develop language planning and policy. Finland openly welcomes bilingualism by adding a second official language to Finnish, providing freedom and safety for a multilingual society (Kartushina 116). On the contrary, France works toward banishing other languages and cultures from its territory, viewing them as a threat to French existence and purity (Devine 40). By analyzing these approaches, it is clear that the Finnish government identifies its responsibility in protecting citizens and their freedom despite their nationality or language. Opposite to that, the French government perceives the situation as an issue and acts accordingly. The language planning and policy of both countries reflect their views and concerns for the stability of language and national identity.

In conclusion, being a part of the European Union, France and Finland face the inevitable influx of foreign languages and cultures. The approaches these countries governments have taken towards this are not only different but opposite. Additionally, the difference in Finland and Frances language planning and policy correlates with their governments views on the situations. While the Finnish language planning and policy work to achieve a stable multilingual society, France aims to eject any foreign influence from its territory.

Works Cited

Devine, Mary Catherine. La Loi Toubon: Language Policy and Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in France. Carnegie Mellon University, 2017.

Kartushina, Elena A. Language Planning in The Reality of Multilingualism (The Case of Finland). Institute of Foreign Languages, 2019, pp. 113-122.

The term fossilization is bereft of general definition and it has not been explained empirically and sufficiently. The term introduced by Selinker captures the imagination that the majority of the second language learners are not able to meet native-like fluency in the language they wish to learn which is also called the target language. This general dearth of meeting the end differs sharply from the first language acquisition where native ability is the rule. The zeal to comprehend this manifest infirmity has been instrumental in maintaining interests in fossilization but has not been succeeded in producing empirical description and consensus-based view of the phenomenon. The present conception of the term starts with an introduction to the pertinent conceptual and empirical issues in fossilization research.

Despite the mammoth research undertaken by the scholars, the problems remain as such. Research dissection of the current fossilization research has revealed that a great deal of variety exists in the contemporary definitions and explanations of the term. Han has made the differentiation between the local and international side of the concept. On a bigger scale, fossilization impacts all inter-language dictating it unlikely that any other second language learner will be able to imbibe it further. According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age at which the language was learned. For example, linguistic Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the critical period hypothesis( Hyltenstam, K & Abrahamsson, N (2003). Maturational Constraints in SLA. In Doughty & Long).

This sense emerges from general depictions of the end of development, where no endeavor is undertaken to differentiate special subtypes or attributes of fossilized grammatical knowledge. On the other side of the prism, it can also be viewed in local terms that special features can fossilize while progress in other domains moves ahead persistently. For illustration, such a synthesis of development and stillness for one Japanese learner is examined by Schmidt. The acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as Second Language Acquisition or SLA (Patkowski, M. 1980: The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language).

The number two thing is that fossilization is a matter of substitution taken as an outcome or process. Seen from the product perspective, it is the condition of everlasting static development either globally or locally. Historically, speaking, this view has descended from this definition, [fossilization is] the long term persistence of plateaus of non-target-like structures in the inter-language of non-native (Selinker and Lakshmanan, 1992: 197).

Statements like this mean that is in the realm of possibility to identify and document fossilized structures using an empirical probe. Many attempts for this sake have been undertaken by the subject researchers. From the perspective of process, it does not require essentially the absence of development in a special domain rather than it can also allude to the inclination towards the demise of the progress. While there are many similarities between L1 and L2 learning, the variation in situation and other factors also produces many differences. One difficulty is filtering out differences that are accidental rather than inevitable. L1 children mostly acquire language in different settings with different exposure to language than L2 learners and they are at different stages of mental and social maturity. It may be inherently impossible to compare equivalent L1 and L2 learners. A more precise version of this question asks whether adults still have access to Universal Grammar in the mind (Bley-Vroman 1988, Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition.

First of all the conception of fossilization sprang from Selinkers idea of a fossilization mechanism element of the latent psychological structure. The activism of this mechanism overtime was considered to distract L2 development in most of the learners. This may reach up to 95 percent of the learners. Therefore the term fossilization pertained to the description for declining/stagnant progress and could be percept empirically merely through its symptoms like backsliding. The process versus production demarcation summaries to the points whether the term alludes to a condition that is observed directly or a perceptive process to be noticed indirectly.

In recent times, this demarcation has been confused or blurred to some extent. Han has re-sketched the process from the perspective of the empirical forecasts it generates. She stresses that evidence of fossilization can be present without endorsement that learning has become stagnant absolutely, though the fossilizations process should not be comprehended as a description or mechanism for this to be like this. On the other hand front the product viewpoint, there is no unity that it must stand for an absolute dearth of transformation or variability in the IL. One scholar grooms the concept permanent optionally, which suggests that second language learner end state can grasp a variety of unknown linguistic abilities. By constant, another researcher debates his study of Ayako, a Japanese immigrant to Hawaii in 1948, who still shows explosive inflectional identification on nouns and verbs.

Lastly, directly relevant to this production process differentiation is the issue of whit is made up of feasible empirical description of fossilization. Several researchers have investigated to document structures in adults. For the objective of the study of fossilization to develop effectively, some conceptual consensus is required. In the absence of it, whether it can be active on a global or local level, whether it is an outcome that can be evaluated or an inclination to be noticed or whether it must show stability or stable optionally, it is beyond the realm of possibility to delineate acceptable empirical studies and to gauge their findings. The endpoint of research is to reorient an initial account of the flaw in second language acquisition. Here the failure is taken as the everlasting deficiency of grasp of the second language despite uninterrupted exposure to sufficient feedback, thus fossilization can be synonym with such flaw in SLA.

There is a fundamental requirement of a one and systematic approach to the research which is also the propellant behind it. It is expected that a compact comprehension of fossilization would be instrumental in assisting an accomplished theory of SLA. Hans conceptual reference is the basis of his great work on fossilization. He is actuated by the goal of coherence in fossilization research. There is the need to comprehend the term on two levels and they are macroscopic and microscopic. Fossilization research on the macro level explains why kids learn language more productively as compared to adults overall. Particularly, critical period influences are considered as macro-level agents. On the other hand, at a micro-level, fossilization research takes into account the linguistics attributes that mostly fossilize differently in learners. Morphology has more chances of being fossilized than vocabulary. And the agents that provoke learners to vary in their overall learning capacity and proficiency. The biological and perceptive hindrances that are present on the macro level cannot explain the variation in acquisition products that have been endorsed in the literature. A microscopic level of analysis is also essential for understanding the processes. We can take into account the definition of fossilization about ultimate achievement. The fossilization puzzle continues to intrigue, challenge, and confound second language scholars and practitioners alike. Over the years, it has attracted researchers from a myriad of theoretical orientations and backgrounds and inspired hundreds of studies. In a book that is both open to and respectful of differences, Han and Odlin have assembled a collection of some of the most recent studies by esteemed scholars. As such, Studies of Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition has much to offer its intended readership of SLA researchers, students, and practitioners. However, as it presumes a rather sophisticated understanding of English grammar (and its accompanying Metalanguage) and a fairly solid grounding in the theoretical underpinnings of fossilization research, this volume may be beyond the reach of some readers(Columbia University Working Papers, 2006, Studies Of Fossilization In Second Language Acquisition).

L2 ultimate attainment has three aspects of not more than that. They include: cross general failure, inter learner differential success or failure, and intra learner one. It is quite patent and manifests that in this framework of ultimate attainment success and failure move side by side. However, the three aspects of ultimate attainment do show fossilization in that they entangle everlasting constrained progress of some type. This explanation appears to knock out the possibility of absolute success as chances of failure of always there reminding the fact that is inherent in the process. Furthermore, it is also emphasized that fossilization is local as compared to global that is so by process and not the product. The last of these is more polemical. It is again mentioned here that encompassing fossilization as a process needs researchers to investigate proof of inclination towards permanent stabilization as compared to an invariant goal. However, empirically knowing that an inclination towards the demise of learning is present is not present without its issues. Additionally, for the explanation that L2 learners are universally prepared fossilization both biological and perceptive hindrances are taken into rime account. The ultimate end is to reach at censuses what fossilization is and how it can be explained empirically. Here at this point, insufficient developments have happened. We have seen that theoretical unity in some areas has been reached by the authors represented here. Nevertheless, perspectives on fossilization remain diverse and idiosyncratic. Empirically, as well, there is little consensus as to what methodologies for investigating fossilization  apart from conducting multi-year longitudinal studies of learners immersed in the target language  will yield reliable results. Moving forward from this point, new methodological perspectives and additional empirical research will hopefully pave the way for increasing clarification of the issues that have been raised within these works( Han, Z.-H. and Odlin, T. 2005: Studies of fossilization in second language acquisition).

Reference

Patkowski, M. 1980: The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning 30, 44972.

Hyltenstam, K & Abrahamsson, N 2003. Maturational Constraints in SLA. In Doughty & Long (Eds.), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Blackwell.

Han, Z.-H. and Odlin, T. 2005: Studies of fossilization in second language acquisition. Multilingual Matters.

Han, Z.-H. and Odlin, T. 2005: Studies of fossilization in second language acquisition. Multilingual Matters.

Columbia University Working Papers, 2006, Studies Of Fossilization In Second Language Acquisition. 2006, Vol. 6, No. 1

Bley-Vroman 1988, Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition.elis 94. 2008. Web.

Schachter, J. 1988. Second Language Acquisition and its relationship to Universal Grammar. Applied Linguistics 9, 3, 219-235.

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For many people, learning a second language is a very difficult phenomenon. This problem does not only affect learners but it also affects teachers who deal with teaching them. For one to effectively learn a second language, it calls for the teacher responsible of teaching him or her to come up with a competent outline of how to undertake the studies. This is because learners go through different stages as they study their second language. In all these stages, learners have different understanding of the language and failure by the teacher to effectively address their need may lead to them giving up leaning the language. There are different journals that elaborate on various principles followed when acquiring a new language. These journals can be of great help to teachers and learners (Futrell, Gomez & Bedden, 2007, pp. 381-385).

Most of language acquisition principles highlight on requirements and standards that every learner of new language is expected to attain. In most cases teachers treat students learning a second language as special. Such students are given simple assignments on the language compared to others. One of the principle states that every student learning a second language is expected to attain the same standard in performance as other students. This helps teachers in ensuring that they emphasize on such students working hard. Treating these learners as special makes they not quickly learn the language (Villegas & Tamara, 2007, pp. 14-32).

Second language learners go through various stages as they learn. This calls for teachers to come up with different methods of evaluating and teaching them. From the journals, teachers learn the importance of creating an acceptance environment for learners. To ensure that they understand whatever they learn, teachers can conduct physical response on the learners. For a leaner to completely become used to a second language, he or she has to show proficiency in reading, writing, listening and speaking the new language. These journals help teachers on how to nurture good listening skills in their learners (Brody, 2006, pp. 32-36).

Despite the stipulated principles being helping learners and teachers in ensuring that they effectively undertake their second language, there are some practices that are less effective. Teachers need not to teach new languages without informing their learner the benefits they can accrue from studying them. This helps in ensuring that learners accept the study. Teachers also need to ensure that they have aligned their curriculums and instructions with the language requirement. This is to help learners as they go through various stages of learning. In addition using remedial readings and speech therapy as a tool for determining how well learners understand the second language does not help in meeting all their needs.

Use of Structured English Immersion in learning English as a second language facilitates in ensuring learners effectively understand the language (Babad & Taylor, 2005, pp. 120-125). Students are grouped according to their degree of proficiency in the language thus making it possible to understand the needs of different groups. In return, all their needs are met making it possible for them to learn the language easily. Teachers employ instructional techniques that take English as a foreign language. This makes both the learners and teachers keen when going through their studies. According to Walqui (2000, para. 3), most of second language teachers believe that once they have graduated, they are qualified to teach. They do not take time to prepare when teaching second language. This is one of the factors that have led to second language not being liked by many learners.

Reference

Babad, E. & Taylor, P. J. (2005). Transparency of teacher expectancies across language, Cultural boundaries. Journal of Educational Research, 86(2), pp. 120- 125.

Brody, C. M. (2006). Using co-teaching to promote reflective practice. Journal of Staff Development. 15(3), pp. 32-36.

Futrell, M. H., Gomez, J. & Bedden, D. (2007). Teaching the children of a new America: The challenge of diversity. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(5), pp. 381-385.

Villegas, A. M. & Tamara, L. (2007). Preparing culturally responsive teachers: Rethinking the Curriculum. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), pp. 14-32.

Walqui, A. (2000). Working on the Development of Teachers Understanding to Work with English Language Learners. Web.