Category: Linguistics 473

SQL stands for Structured Query Language, and it is a computer language used to store, manipulate, and retrieve data from a relational database. SQL is the industry standard for Relational Database Systems. SQL is the standard database language used by all Relational Database Management Systems (RDMS) such as MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres, and SQL Server. SQL functions trough allowing programmers and other computer users to get information from a database in a manner approaching plain English. SQL is composed of several structurally simple commands: Select, which retrieves data; Insert, which inserts data into a database; Update, which updates information; and Delete, which deletes information. There are other commands for creating, modifying, and administering networks.

SQL was established a standard by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and SQL is now the database standard by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). SQL is a language used to construct database objects and handle data. Several adjustments were made to specify how SQL will work, including data types, isolation levels, logical operators, syntax, data definition language syntax, data manipulation language definitions, procedures, functions, and so on (What is Structured Query Language (SQL)?  Definition from Techopedia, 2022). With a few exceptions, all of the most prominent databases now adhere to these requirements.

SQL has been a popular choice for database users throughout the years, owing to its ease of use and the very effective way in which it searches, manipulates, combines data, and performs a variety of other operations to convert vast amounts of structured data into useable information. SQL is obviously not the ideal solution for all database applications, but it has remained consistently popular among multiple industries. Further evolution of viable scenarios is possible in the future as the data analysis keeps moving forward.

Reference

What is Structured Query Language (SQL)?  Definition from Techopedia. Techopedia.com. (2022). Web.

Response 1

Any essay must consider its audience since its purpose is to deliver the authors message. For second language learners, the writers skill to present information in a suitable format is more crucial than others. Even if a learner is able to connect the meaning of a word or a phrase with their vocabulary, such a process takes a significant mental effort that disrupts the acquisition of new information (Chon & Shin, 2019). If the structure of a text is too complex and it contains multiple contextual meanings that require effort to recognize them, an essay is unsuitable for second language learners. An essay that does not consider its clarity from a second-language learner standpoint will be more likely to be avoided if the resources required for its comprehension outweigh the importance of its topic.

The audience that consists of second-language speakers can be more challenging to work with, as there may be limitations for knowledge among it. The issue becomes more prominent if an essay is meant to be read to the public. Chon and Shin (2019) argue that listening for this category of learners is more complex than writing since they must be able to process what they hear in real time, concurrently, to attend to new input (p. 62). These bounds, if left unaccounted for, create a barrier that prevents a precise delivery of the meaning of a work, making it less valuable knowledge for those who listen or read it.

There is a limit of attention for each individual, which is significantly lessened when that person puts active efforts into mental translation. When an audience of second language learners is the target audience of an English text, they have to separate their awareness and guess words that they have missed, misunderstood, or do not know (Chon & Shin, 2019). Therefore, if an essay is written without any consideration towards this category of listeners, it will not deliver the information intended by its writer in full. Moreover, such an essay will make its listeners less motivated to become engaged in any discussion regarding its topic afterward. It might be necessary to sacrifice some fluency or artful delivery for clarity.

There are several aspects of writing that must be avoided when considering writing for an audience for whom English is the second language. Literary devices, such as metaphors, litotes, ellipses, and others, must be avoided, as they are difficult to understand for non-native speakers. Moreover, it is vital to avoid slang and try to express oneself without regional dialects and technical terms, as they draw the audiences attention from the topic.

Since people are taught literal norms of English, any grammatical or punctuation mistakes may confuse them or distort the meaning of a text. The correct usage of English rules is also necessary to show a second-language audience how to utilize the language properly. If an essay is meant to be listened to, a speaker must read it with proper emphasis and pronunciation, keeping their speech slow enough to ensure that the audience processes the material adequately.

Response 2

Writing is a critical skill for any student who learns English, yet it can be troublesome to grasp all of its aspects through its simpler forms. Moreover, it is impossible to create an argumentative essay without knowing the specifics of this genre. This type of writing has a clear goal: to explain a writers point of view in a concise manner. It is based on logic as much as on writing skills. Such a task requires not only linguistic proficiency but also information collection and organization (Setyowati et al., 2017). These essays may include any comparisons with other opinions in an attempt to show why an author chose to argue from their position. However, this writing accepts that its readers may not agree with the authors points partially or wholly.

It is also vital to consider the differences between persuasive and argumentative essays. The latter type does not involve any attempts to sway a readers opinion to the authors point of view through appeals to emotion or explanation of why it is more sensible than the other options. Persuasive essays aim to get the attention of a specific audience regarding the topic, as they do not provide information only but also influence (Union Media, n.d.). Argumentative essays provide reasons, facts, and evidence in a formal language without emotionally charged phrases.

The development of such a type of essay requires a number of preparations. An author of an argumentative essay is obliged to show substantial evidence of any data provided in their work. Authors who present their views must not only conduct thorough research on supportive data but also compile it into an easy-to-read format and present it within the text with sufficient referencing. Moreover, they are ought to recognize the existence of differing options and address their validity, basis, and provide counterarguments. Such a paper is written to show why its author chose to agree with one side of a presented topic.

References

Chon, Y. V., & Shin, T. (2019). Profile of second language learners metacognitive awareness and academic motivation for successful listening: A latent class analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 70, 62-75. Web.

Setyowati, L., Sukmawa, S., & Latief, M. A. (2017). Solving the students problems in writing argumentative essay through the provision of planning. Celt: A Journal of Culture, English Language Teaching & Literature, 17(1), 86. Web.

Teng, M. F. (2019). The benefits of metacognitive reading strategy awareness instruction for young learners of English as a second language. Literacy, 54(1), 29-39. Web.

Union Media. (n.d.). Argumentative vs. persuasive writing. Union Test Prep. Web.

Introduction

The components of a socio-communicative system serving a particular language community are in certain relationships with each other. Functional relations between the elements of a social and communicative system at one stage or another of the existence of a given language community form a linguistic situation characteristic of this community. A linguistic situation is a set of languages or forms of existence of one language and social and functional relations between them in a particular territory. Language situations are often found in modern society and give people the opportunity to communicate in different languages.

Language Situations in Families

Often language situations are inherent in families in which parents belong to different ethnic groups or nationalities. In this case, one of the parents may know one language and the other two, and usually, the children can also speak two languages. Wilson (2019) claims that 34% of children have one parent from another country in the UK. Such children will be able to learn the native language of different parents and gain knowledge about other cultures directly from the speakers of these cultures. In families, language situations are common and do not constitute big problems since one of the family members can master two languages perfectly at once. The childs education will take place primarily in the language that both parents can speak.

International Training

Language situations can also concern educational institutions, which are attended not only by students of the country in which the institution is located but also by people from different countries. In this case, the training either occurs in a common language, such as English, or native speakers can teach the lesson. Guzikova (2020) believes that studying in institutions with a non-native language helps acquire such knowledge that will help students get high-paying jobs in the future. This motivation often drives students who choose another country for education. Undoubtedly, learning with people of other cultures and nationalities benefits not only the development of the language but also comprehensively develops students.

Different Dialects and Languages in Countries

There are countries and regions in which different languages and dialects prevail. So, residents of one country may speak a little differently, which also creates a specific language situation. In India, people can communicate through the Indian language in different dialects such as Hindi and Bengali; in Singapore, people speak English, Chinese, and Malay (Ad Astra Social Team, 2021). Naturally, it is impossible to know all languages perfectly at once, yet people communicate, live in the same country, and all these proceeds quite successfully. In such countries, there is usually one common language in which TV shows, radio broadcasting, government information, and documentation are publicized. Residents of the country should know this language so as not to miss important information that the state transmits.

Conclusion

In conclusion, language situations are every day in different countries and are increasingly spreading in the modern world. With the knowledge of foreign languages, people can live, study, work in different countries. In addition, they create families with residents of other countries. People can get acquainted with the traditions, customs, culture of a foreign country expand their horizons. There are linguistic and speech communities behind each language situation, and, therefore, it reflects the social interaction of particular groups of people. The language situation is changing due to changes in socio-economic and political positions and under the influence of measures taken by the state for functional redistribution of languages and forms of their existence.

References

Ad Astra Social Team. (2021). The countries with the most official languages and how they translate. Ad Astra.

Guzikova, M. (2020). Preparing multilingual professionals: Deficiencies and prospects of foreign language education at Russian universities. Culture, Personality, Society in the Conditions of Digitalization: Methodology and Experience of Empirical Research Conference, KnE Social Sciences. h

Wilson, S. (2020). Family language policy through the eyes of bilingual children: the case of French heritage speakers in the UK. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 41(2), 121-139.

The native language of any person, regardless of nationality or social status, is an integral part that forms their personality. Comprehension of the first language for a child is associated with an acquaintance with the basic ideas about the world and basic moral concepts. In addition, the native language is the primary way not only to perceive speech but also to pronounce it, that is, language is perhaps the primary way of self-expression. However, in the context of multiculturalism and the transnational perspective along which a part of humanity is moving, the native language can come into conflict with new social conditions. Knowledge of several languages allows for imagining a picture of the world more and discovering more than one predetermined place.

For a detailed consideration of the influence of language knowledge on a person, it is required to involve the perspectives of the two authors, significantly different in their cultural backgrounds but possessing a similar attitude toward the power of language. Writer David Foster Wallace begins his essay with an assertion of the internal confrontation of political forces that are seen in published and replicated dictionaries of the English language. It is claimed that conservative and liberal ideas about the world order and vision of the global future clash in modern English.

Language in contemporary realities emerges as a space of struggle between worldviews and ideologies, which represent a true national identity differently. Wallace speaks of the impossibility of perceiving a text or language really objectively since an act of interpretation is always somewhat biased, i.e., informed by the interpreters particular ideology (47). Therefore, thinking within the framework of one language is not enough for a more open and free perception of the world. However, there is an opportunity to look at the problem of one language from a multinational perspective.

In her essay The Domestication of the Wild Tongue, Anzaldua addresses the problem of preserving original identity from a transnational perspective. By citing numerous examples, the author shows to what extent the desire to standardize the English dialect in migrant children can distort their perception. Learning a new language and its clear fixation is aimed at supplanting the original freer ideas about the dialect. In other words, the domination of one, supposedly the only correct language, over others can change and limit the human psyche and freedom. How patient we seem, how very patient, says the author of her social group adapting to survival in America by speaking in a unique mixed dialect (Anzaldua 54). The existence of knowledge and the freedom to use it is, on the contrary, capable of creating a new, freer identity.

Thus, the preservation of the native language is a condition for the preservation of ones original personality. Deformed under the pressure of the need to speak a new language, human thought is forced to become more wounded in its rights. At the same time, the knowledge of other languages should not necessarily imply their oppression of personality. On the contrary, several languages open up more freedom in expressing oneself and give a more precise opportunity for self-expression as well as self-knowledge.

Works Cited

Anzaldua, Gloria E. How to Tame a Wild Tongue. Borderlands La Frontera: The New Mestiza, Aunt Lute Books, 1987, pp. 53-64.

Wallace, David Foster. Tense Present: Democracy, English, and the Wars over Usage. Harpers Magazine, vol. 302, no. 1811, 2001, pp. 39-58.

In any language, the words that express the deed(s) of someone or something are called verbs. Verbs inform about actions being taken, things or beings held and the position taken by a subject.

There are different classes of verbs; among them formal and informal verbs. The sense of formality and informality arises as a result of the nature of the verb in use. Some words are more serious in nature than others; even though they may be used to pass the same message. Normally, informal verbs are those that humans use commonly in normal communication. Majority of them tend to be short words that are less serious. On the other hand formal verbs tend to be neglected in day to day communication as they are more in serious nature and often long.

Needless to say, like any other word, a verb can be broken down to phonemes. This simply means that we can find small bits of sounds in every particular verb of any language. All these bits are necessary in the meaning of the verb. For instance an English verb run compared to bun. The sound of r in run and b in bun completely changes the meaning of these words in communication. Japanese language has its own unique way of pronunciation. Common vowels of the English alphabet are pronounced differently by the Japanese. Consonant pronunciations vary as well. When these vowels and consonants are put together to form a word, the difference in pronunciation of each word could portray a whole different message away from the intended. Where a Japanese speaker puts stress in speech is different from where an American English speaker will put stress. In this way, the phonemic breakdown of verbs in Japanese becomes a challenge to an American English speaker taking an exercise in Japanese verbs.

Notably, if the verb roots in Japanese language are broken down, they generate a pattern that can enable an individual studying this language to formulate the rule behind roots of formal and informal verbs. One clear observation is that there are three types of verbs in Japanese. These are distinguished by their suffixes. The meaning of any verb in Japanese can be changed by simply altering its suffix sound. In Japanese, the subject of the verb does not matter whether in single or abundance. The first, second or third person do not matter either. Moreover, only two tenses of time are captured in Japanese. Tense can only be either past or not past. In this view, an American English speaker taking a study in Japanese formal and informal verbs is bound to find it challenging.

The dictionary or plain form of a verb in Japanese language exists as the basic reference word. If any verb from the dictionary form is used in its form of existence, then that represents a less formal state of the verb in use. It is therefore true to say that the informality of a verb in Japanese is only when its suffix has not been altered from its basic form.

A more formal form of verbs in Japanese is called the masu form. Like the English formal verbs, the use of masu form of verbs is not often. Masu verbs when used normally give simple orders, or formally express status of a subject.

In general, the rules behind Japanese formal and informal verb formation are a challenge to America English speakers as has been explained in this paper.

Introduction

It should come as no surprise that people from various cultural backgrounds have quite varied perspectives, ideas, and methods that they might use to alter an organization significantly. It is critical to understand how to create successful Business Communication Across Cultures in order to optimize international cooperation. The impact of language barriers on knowledge processing in multinational teams by Helene Tenzer, Markus Pudelko, and Mary Zellmer-Bruhn was chosen for the paper critique to understand such performance better. This work was written for the Journal of World Business a journal in the field of international business for people involved in it. This qualitative research looks at how communication and, in turn, knowledge processing are impacted by linguistic variety in global teams. The main tasks are to answer two questions how do language barriers affect communication in multinational teams (MNTs), and how do language-induced communication impediments affect MNT knowledge processing? Overall, the article studied is conceptual since it focuses on qualitative research. In addition, it uses induction and abduction instead of empirical pieces of evidence to support the arguments.

Discussion on the Issue

It is possible to think of cross-cultural management as involving cross-cultural decision-making, cross-cultural communication, and negotiation with others, as well as cross-cultural leadership and motivation. By analyzing the article chosen, discusses the grasp of the complex ways that language barriers affect learning assessment and communication in multinational teams. It is impossible not to agree that language barriers frequently hamper international business communication. Misunderstandings are more likely to occur when one side speaks a foreign language or has a translation. It is crucial to consider that many cultures and languages play their roles in a global work environment in different ways (Tenzer et al., 2021). For example, depending on the culture, a maybe can mean an actual maybe, or it can also be a politely worded refusal. Therefore, an ignorant view of cross-cultural management can even decrease the work efficiency of international team members.

Results

In addition, this research presented some findings on the importance of language in business communication. MNTs frequently bring together speakers of several mother languages, in addition to people from various national and cultural backgrounds; this communication is extremely sensitive to language barriers (Tenzer et al., 2021). The biggest attention is paid to the language barrier, which can even influence transaction costs and affect the selection of target countries for direct investments. According to extensive qualitative interview data in this essay, two types of language barriers, evident and hidden, have a detrimental impact on intercultural dialogue participation and sensemaking. In multilingual teams, it has also been summarized that linguistic variety impacts communication, which in turn affects how information is processed (Tenzer et al., 2021). As a result, the reduced team engagement in communication impedes both simple and complex tasks of knowledge-based processing, which is due to a lack of lexical and syntactic competency in a specific language.

Contributions

To conclude, multinational firms use team-based techniques to adapt to shifting economic conditions and international competition. This article presented that teams rely on intense communication to align the contributions of their members and celebrate diversity since the interdependence between them characterizes teams. Since the research contrasts the socio-cognitive viewpoint on knowledge with language as information processing, the paper unquestionably adds to the understanding of cross-cultural management and diversity. The analysis in this article reveals that language challenges that emerge in the process of building international businesses across cultures can be serious. It is important to continue researching the impact of both overt and covert barriers between speakers of various national languages. However, this work makes a significant contribution since it proves that nationality is not the only group membership that affects a persons language use. In future research, language should be tied to such dimensions, much as cultural diversity is not just related to national diversity but also to variety in professions, functions, organizations, social class, education, ethnicity, age, or gender.

Reference

Tenzer, H., Pudelko, M., & Zellmer-Bruhn, M. (2021). The impact of language barriers on knowledge processing in multinational teams. Journal of World Business, 56(2), Web.

One important role of a countrys education system is to ensure that its students can compete favorably in the international job market. To achieve this, the education system must emphasize the topics of relevance like technology, management, ethics and above all languages which act as the tool of communication that can enlarge an individuals sphere of communication. Similarly, Taiwan has been among the countries that have put this into consideration. This is exhibited by their decision to come up with a language policy that introduced English which was perceived to be an international language for business.

On the other hand, adoption of a foreign language can negatively impact the national identity of the language. As a result, Taiwan decided to implement, within its program the local language learning so that it could maintain the national identity. These two intentions led to the formation of the language policy that included the English Language Learning (ELL) and the Local Language Policy (LL).

Despite this, disparities have been witnessed in the outcomes of the two policies. This has been attributed to implementation hurdles. Studies have pointed out that the Implementation of the English Language Policy was comparatively better as a result of availability of resources and good planning. However, the Local languages were characterized by poor outcomes due to poor implementation, lack of resources and poor planning. In addition, one of the greatest tools for the implementation of a policy was sidelined. These were the parents. Studies have shown that parental attitudes played a champion role in the poor outcomes of the policies. Studies therefore point out that good planning and involvement of all key stakeholders in policy planning and implementation are a prerequisite to success.

To start with, this paper will make an exploration of the literature that has been written concerning the topic. It will identify the several contributions of the towards the mentioned research questions and critically analyze their relevance to the topic. The paper will then make a conclusive summary of the arguments pointed in the various studies pointed out within the literature.

Discussion

From the different perspectives, it is evident that Taiwan, just like any other country that engages in a language policy implementation, has been faced with daunting tasks to ensure that its targets are achieved. Unfortunately, what is pointed out is a failed planning and implementation. To begin with, the policy formulators failed to put into consideration all the dimensions of the theory of language planning (Kloter, n.d, p.1). What the Taiwanese government focused on was the orthographic standardization of the languages involved but they forgot to ensure a good standardization of the phonological and grammatical aspects of the languages in question. In addition, the program did not also put into consideration other dimensions like status planning which is an essential part of language policy planning and implementation.

These do not mark the only weaknesses of the policy in Taiwan. Several other weaknesses were identified in the program. Language policy planning and implementation can be difficult for a multicultural and multilingual community (Wei, 2006, p. 90; Chen, 2006, p.89). These studies have pointed out that without a good plan and implementation, this could result in division and competition rather than unification and identity. The policymakers are therefore urged to ensure that they employ very neutral methods when engaged in language elevation or abolishment. This is because the language plays an important role in the image identification of a people as a whole.

The program also met with other challenges like the lack of resources, inadequate time, attitudes from key players like government, teachers, students and parents were all cited as impediments during the implementation and planning of the policy (Su, 2006, p. 270; Oladejo, 2006, p. 4; Kloter, n.d, 54). This has pointed out that for a successful program implementation, the key stakeholders must be put into consideration for any form of success to be witnessed. Without this, parents and students attitudes towards the local languages could implicate negatively their decisions to learn these languages. In addition, teachers attitudes towards English and the local languages could lead to their decisions to teach or not teach these subjects. This could be attributed to the lack of English teachers during the implementation of English language policy in Taiwan.

However, the different governmental approach towards language in Taiwan has greatly implicated the countrys linguistic hierarchy. The governments decision to ban the use of local languages during the KMT government and later the reintroduction of these languages back into the curriculum has had great impacts on Taiwan. While the move could be attributed to the need for self-identification and validation, it is evident that the move is slowly leading to a language shift with many urban dwellers switching from Tai-Gi to Mandarin (Liang and Sandel, 2006, p. 129).However Language shift can have great implications on the country. Apart from the symbolic representations which lead to the identification of the people, the language also acts to further social, economic and political interest (Scott and Tiun, 2006)

Despite these drawbacks, the mentioned challenges must be addressed squarely. This is attributed to the importance of language to the nation as a whole. To begin with, language serves as a tool for national identification. In addition, these languages could be used to advance political, social and economic interests (Hsiau, 1997, p. 23). Therefore, it is important that this language planning in Taiwan is implemented in a more professional way that will help reduce the mentioned drawbacks.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is evident that Taiwans language policy was a good plan that would have benefited the people of Taiwan greatly. This is in terms of the linguistic capital, self-identity as a nation and togetherness and democracy of the citizens. However, the process of planning and implementing this program can never at any point be easy. The policymakers must actively involve the parents, students, schools and even local government. The attitude of teachers or parents can impede the process of policy implementation. In addition, policy formulators must underscore the importance of identifying the different dialects of a local language and fairly and in a neutral way coming up with the language that would be elevated. Standardization should take place holistically. This means that the different aspects of the language including its phonetic characteristics, grammatical and lexical structure must be put into consideration because without this, no unity can be achieved. In addition to this, the theory of language planning dictates that status planning must be considered great because, without this, no standardization can be achieved. Policymakers must observe these specified impediments so that they come up with better program structures for both duration and implementation. Without this, the policy will be termed a failure.

Introduction

The theory of signs proposes that a word never has a particular natural meaning and only acquires one when the people using it come together and agree that the combination of sounds represented by the word indicates a certain object or idea. This, according to Ferdinand de Saussure creates a system of connections comprising a signifier (vocal or graphic representation of an idea or object) and a signified (the idea or object itself) which together make a sign. Saussure also suggested that the representation of an object or an idea does not in any way define it (68-73). It is common knowledge that for the learning process to be seen to take place, people must constantly interact with each other thereby sharing knowledge amongst themselves. This paper, however, seeks to use Saussures theory of the sign to illustrate that human beings do not learn from each other but instead share information that is common amongst them.

The commonsensical position that an individual knows about a certain object or idea and then proceeds to inform another person of the existence of the said object/idea has been complicated by Saussures semiotics theory to a great extent. First, according to Saussure, two people have to come together and agree that a certain combination of sounds represents a particular idea (68-73). In essence, according to this proposition, an individual cannot come up with a certain word for a particular thing and then prompt this word upon other people to use when referring to the thing. People have to sit together and come to the settlement that all other combinations of sounds could not.

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represent the thing that has been placed in front of them and therefore settle on a particular word. From this theory, we can therefore deduce that there is no way people can learn from each other because for communication to take place in whatever language, the two parties involved must have prior knowledge of the meaning that a given combination of sounds represents.

Saussure also proposed that in language there are only differences and no positives (69-70); meaning that if a new object or idea is discovered and a word has to be coined to refer to it, people have to look at other words that already exist and work at creating a word that differs from these others. It would therefore be wrong for one to assume that people learn about the world from each other because according to Saussure, new things are learned as long as one knows other things that are different from this new idea. In practice then, people are required to have similar knowledge of other ideas before they can learn new things.

Saussures theory of the sign also proposed that the meaning of language itself is generated by the system of language itself and not from the users of that language. This is true because words have no definite links to objects or ideas that they refer to and therefore the meaning of a word (signifier) can change from time to time without affecting the thing that it was initially meant to refer to (signified). With this in mind, it is evident that individuals dont learn how to communicate in a given language from other people but rather the communication process itself creates

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Meaning for particular combinations of sounds which then the people adopt as a language.

Saussures distinction between langue and parole also served to exclude the contribution of human beings to language (72). In an actual sense, he almost seemed to support the idea that language existed as an individual entity and that human beings were just avenues through which it could be expressed. This again made the rational idea that human beings learn from each other a fallacy because based on his findings, all people have a uniform level of knowledge. Therefore, even when we think that a teacher is passing on new knowledge to his/her students, it is not exactly so because for the students to understand him/her, they must first be able to relate all combinations of sounds (words) that are used in the communication process to particular objects or ideas. In this sense, the teacher will just be telling the students what they already know but unlike how it is usually assumed, this knowledge does not exist in the students brains but rather within the language itself.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is worth noting that Ferdinand de Saussure was a great linguist whose work cannot be ignored. His semiotic theory encouraged other linguists to disregard the idea that language is an entity occurring on its own and instead embrace the impression that for a language to grow, active participation of the individuals who use it is required. His studies were and are still influential when it comes to explaining the evolution of human language as well as the process of acquisition of knowledge; facts that have been the focus of this paper.

Works Cited

Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistics. Ed. Charles Bally, Albert Sechehaye, Albert Riedlinger. Trans. Wade Baskin. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966; pp. 68-73.

The way we speak in informal settings is different from the way we talk or write in formal settings and there are some times I say something and someone corrects me saying that I am not observing the rules of grammar. Sometimes I start a sentence using a conjunction and other times I use contractions like aint in speech. In informal settings people are not keen on observing the rules of grammar and you will find a person using sentence fragments, ending sentences with a linking verb or a preposition, using dangling participles, splitting infinitives and using plural pronouns to refer back to singular nouns. Is this usage of grammar wrong? I do not believe it is wrong to use grammar in the aforementioned ways because the contrasting variables of prescriptive and descriptive grammar creates some quasi-paradoxical consequences and the rules used in descriptive grammar may not apply wholly to descriptive grammar.

Prescriptive grammar prescribes rules for writing and speaking language while descriptive grammar explains how language is used in ordinary settings. Prescriptive grammar works on the notion that there is only one way of doing things and tends to view other alternatives as wrong. However, these alternatives are not wrong because language, being part of a social system can not operate at the level of prescriptive rules. Components of social systems are flexible and if all speakers speak in a way that is acceptable socially, then there is no need for laying out rules to prescribe linguistic behaviour. If everyone is breaking the same linguistic convention consistently, then there is no need of putting prescriptive rules to govern the way people use language. There is no need of telling people that they are grammatically wrong when they bend the rules of grammar for their own convenience. These rules cannot work in settings that do not have linguistic variations. There is a difference between grammar and language though grammar is part of language. People need language and not grammar to communicate and this means that grammar is not a prerequisite for communication. As long as people can understand each other in informal settings, they should not be preoccupied with the rules that govern the language they speak. In some settings, you will find people using phrases like me : Me I went to school, Me and my mother went out on Saturday, Us guys will not tolerate nonsense, that is a lesson learnt by we and many more ungrammatical phrases. From a prescriptive point of view, these phrases are wrong because they flout the basic rules of grammar. However, the fact that they defy the basic rules of grammar does not make them universally wrong. The people using the statements still communicate their intended message in English language. The speakers are using English to communicate and the most important thing in social context is the message to be understood by the recipient meaning that observance of prescriptive rules may not affect delivery of the message. While prescriptive rules are very important in keeping the language pure, it is the descriptive rules of grammar that matter in flexible social contexts where people are unconscious of the principles of grammar. Therefore, it is not wrong to defy the rules of grammar in informal settings as many linguistic purists tend to postulate. It is important to note that prescriptive rules can only be used in regulated contexts.

Description

The study by Roberts and Liszka investigates the processes of second language learning. The authors examine a particular linguistic issue that is researched by other scholars from many angles, namely the acquisition of tense and aspect morphology (Roberts & Liszka, 2013). According to the researchers, they aim to assess whether advanced German and French learners of English can detect mismatches in sentences that have a fronted temporal adverbial and an inflected verb in their structure. This question is further connected to the idea that the ability of the participants to correctly find these agreement violations can be explained by the first language of these individuals. Therefore, the study supports the idea that ones L1 can influence the acquisition of L2 in many aspects.

The authors present a study based on a reading experiment. They outline a number of research problems that are debated in the field of second language acquisition. First of all, the fact that every language has its own structure and such features of it as tense and aspect can vary significantly from one language to another presents a plethora of possible questions for further research. For instance, the authors examine the notion of temporal expression of various languages having such distinct characteristics that the process of L2 acquisition may be complicated for individuals who learn a second language distinct from their first one. Furthermore, the interpretation of these characteristics may vary not only in terms of language variation but also regarding ones type of usage. Here, the authors present the issue of implicit and explicit knowledge and state that ones ability to put theoretical knowledge to practical use may be further complicated by their mother tongue. The authors discuss these research problems in detail. They define the terms of implicit and explicit knowledge and temporal adverbs and their morphology using other studies and writing.

Moreover, Roberts and Liszka (2013) present some earlier findings on the issues connected to tense and aspect acquisition in the L2. The description of both functional and formal perspectives on this topic is displayed. However, according to the authors, neither of these views offers an extensive amount of research on the use of tense and aspect morphology, instead focusing on other features such as learners production and knowledge. This study argues that the adoption of a specific theoretical framework is not necessary as the hypothesis that the authors make can be looked at from both perspectives. Roberts and Liszka use various primary and secondary sources to show the scope of research on this issue and highlight that the argument about L1 influencing L2 is supported in many works.

The hypothesis of the paper is investigated through the individuals knowledge of the English past simple and present perfect forms (Roberts & Liszka, 2013). The methodology of the study uses the results from sixty participants, including twenty German, twenty French, and twenty native English speakers. German and French participants can be considered advanced English learners on the basis of a language assessment test. The utilized materials include forty-eight items such as two sets of twenty-four sentences with past simple and present perfect structures. Moreover, each sentence has either a match or mismatch of a temporal adverbial and a verb. The participants complete two tasks. First, they read given sentences and evaluate their acceptability on a scale from one to six. Then, they read the sentences word by word and answer comprehension questions at the end of every sentence in order to eliminate the possibility of misunderstanding. This process is necessary to see whether the participants are paying attention and making their decisions based on their knowledge.

The findings of this research confirm the hypothesis that the authors make. According to the results presented by the scholars, a persons L1 can significantly affect his or her process of L2 acquisition as one interprets learned structures according to ones native language. Furthermore, Roberts and Liszka (2013) conclude that language learners may understand new information about L2 through the lens of L1 and use known sentence structures from the first language to create similar forms for the second one. This process occurs in online comprehension as, according to the study, offline understanding does not follow the same rules. The findings suggest that both learners and native speakers successfully detect mismatches during an offline reading. However, the interpretation of violations online shows that learners are possibly influenced by L1 as the Germans, for instance, are not as sensitive to the processing of the items with past simple as the French. This result is explained by the fact the specification of this temporal verb pattern is not present in the German language. Therefore, the authors conclude that the studys findings fully support the proposed hypothesis.

Some topics for further research are also outlined by the authors. For example, the issues connected to ones level of proficiency can be studied in order to find the difference between the interpretations of new and advanced learners. Roberts and Liszka (2013) propose the idea that individuals with more exposure to a second language can distinguish the aspects of tense and aspect easier and more instinctively than new students. Furthermore, the pairings of different languages can be studied in more detail to support the outlined hypothesis and provide more data for other studies. Finally, the difference between learners lexical and morphological interpretations can also be investigated further.

Evaluation

The described article by Roberts and Liszka clearly supports the theory that an individuals L1 can significantly affect his or her process of L2 acquisition. The purpose of the study is stated explicitly as the authors go into great detail about explaining the current trends in the development of the L2 acquisition research. Many sub-problems are presented in this article. For example, the issue of online and offline comprehension is described extensively as the authors focus on finding differences between learners theoretical and practical implementations of knowledge. The terms that are discussed in the paper are also studied thoroughly. The authors devote a number of pages to exploring such concepts as implicit and explicit knowledge in order to explain the intuitive aspect of their sub-problem. The description of temporal adverbs and their correlation to proper verb forms are included in the paper as well. The authors use examples from the English, German, and French languages and compare their structures to show the differences visually.

Moreover, the explanation of such variations and their significance for ones process of learning is also present. However, it is possible that ones understanding of various languages may be insufficient to see apparent differences between them. For example, Roberts and Liszka do not always explain the particular grammatical problems which may be present in sentences that are not translated. Thus, one may not fully comprehend the fact that L2 learners may face in the process of language acquisition. Although it is possible to argue that such information is not essential as the article focuses on the process of English language acquisition, it is safe to assume that readers should be able to grasp the concepts of all described language differences from this article. However, most of the variations are defined to the degree that is sufficient enough for other researchers to understand.

The hypothesis and sub-problems defined in the paper are specific as they are expressed in precise terms. The existing theories and perspectives are also described in the article. The explored argument is not unique to this particular study as many other pieces of research investigate it and provide their evidence supporting it (VanPatten & Williams, 2014). Literature that is analyzed in this work shows the same hypothesis being evaluated by other authors using different conditions, aspects, and language combinations (Salaberry & Shirai, 2002). Furthermore, some recent papers can also contribute to this theory. For instance, Qian (2015) samples data from English learners whose L1 significantly differs from languages described in this article. The findings of this author, however, suggest that ones L1 can affect the results of ones learning process and especially the study of tense and aspect morphology. Moreover, many researchers support this hypothesis as well. According to Slabakova (2016), the process of finding mismatches can have various degrees of success for learners with different first languages, which can be explained not by their level of proficiency but by their ability to comprehend well-known and unfamiliar structures. Thus, the literature review of this article provides evidence of the articles value.

The authors describe the population involved in the study and provide extra information through the notes of the paper. Moreover, they offer some additional calculations in order to support some statements that were deemed unclear by previous reviewers. Thus, their results are presented in a number of forms, which only strengthens their arguments. The experimental studies are described in detail as the researchers provide an analysis of every calculation. Moreover, some nuanced moments are also discussed. For instance, Robets and Liszka (2013) admit that their decision to choose participants according to their completion of the Oxford placement test may not show the full scope of the individuals knowledge. However, they argue that questions of this examination evaluate information that is used in this study as well, which renders this type of evaluation viable. The findings are interpreted and discussed by the authors with the focus on the outlined hypothesis.

The implications of this study for the sphere of foreign language teaching can be clearly defined. First of all, the literature review of this study gives one an idea about the current state of developments in the field of L2 acquisition research. Moreover, the hypothesis of the article can be used as an approach to teaching students. Using the theory that learners understand new information on the basis of their L1 can give teachers ideas for various activities and lesson plans (Larsen-Freeman & Long, 2014). Some applications for further research are presented as well. One can study how learners from different backgrounds can interpret specific rules of the English language. The study by Roberts and Liszka offers a solid foundation for understanding how people with various first languages comprehend particular structures of English.

References

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (2014). An introduction to second language acquisition research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Qian, C. (2015). Lexical aspect and L1 transfer in the acquisition of tense-aspect morphology. In 2015 International Conference on Education Technology and Economic Management (pp. 286-292). Beijing, China: Atlantis Press.

Roberts, L., & Liszka, S. A. (2013). Processing tense/aspect-agreement violations on-line in the second language: A self-paced reading study with French and German L2 learners of English. Second Language Research, 29(4), 413-439.

Salaberry, M. R., & Shirai, Y. (Eds.). (2002). The L2 acquisition of tense aspect morphology. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing.

Slabakova, R. (2016). Second language acquisition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

VanPatten, B., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (2014). Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.