Neologisms: The Word and Its Origins

The 21st century can be described as one employing a major societal change. The shift can be attributed to the technological advancements that have generated various trends, innovations, and revolutions. One revolutionary change is the use of social media, which shapes how people communicate, interact, and live their lives. It has been a concern that individuals tend to prefer online spaces to real-life communication. Thus, it is essential not to underestimate both the significance of online spaces in peoples lives as well as the overall revolution in human interaction.

The work that best suits the phenomenon is the neologism onlife. The combination of the world online and life describe the phenomenon in which an individual lives their lives online. Namely, their friends, experiences, and knowledge are all connected to their online activity. The term can be applied in a sentence the following way: My onlife is much more exciting than my real life. According to Garber, neologisms are constructed to fit specific circumstances correlating with the present (2003). Thus, onlife is a testament to future generations in regard to how humanity has converted to an online way of life.

Another change that has been generated as a result of technological advancements is verbal communication. Namely, people prefer sending texts and messages, while calls have become secondary channels of interaction. Making appointments online, texting friends, and Googling instead of asking teachers questions are the things that have replaced verbal communication. Moreover, talking has become something more intimate as it requires prompt ideas to be voiced without the person having time to think about a statement or redact it later.

The term verbaphobic is a description of the phenomenon in which a person avoids verbal communication and prefers written one. An example of a sentence can be, I am such a verbaphobic that I had to find a salon that accepts online appointments. The word is a combination of the term verbal and the adjective phobic, which exemplifies fear. Future generations can benefit from knowing the word and its origins as it is an illustration of the changing communication channels.

References

Garber, M. (2003). Academic Instincts. Princeton University Press.

Amy Tan Mother Tongue: Key Points and Evaluation

Authors Claim

In her essay Mother Tongue, Amy Tan talks about a personal issue that is close to her both as a writer and as an individual. This issue is the judgment passed by people based on the way somebody talks. Particularly, it concerns the English language version that is characteristic for representatives of Asian American minority, especially the first-generation migrants. Talking about this variety of English  the language her mother uses being a Chinese American  the author claims that it should be respected and embraced. She refuses to describe it as broken or limited; instead, she presents it as an expression of her mothers character and thoughts and the tool that shaped the authors outlook. Thus, she wants her readers to understand that imperfect language does not reflect the quality of a persons thoughts or intents and is not an excuse to treat people differently.

Authors Key Points

There are several key points that the author uses to support her claim of the importance of embracing her mother tongue. First, she talks about different varieties of English (Englishes) and how people perceive her mothers way of speaking. Then, Amy Tan continues by alluding to her feelings towards the broken language her mother spoke. She honestly tells how she used to pass a judgment about her mothers intellectual abilities by how she talked. Moreover, to illustrate how someones command of English influenced peoples attitudes, she narrates personal stories from her familys past that show the seriousness of the issue. Furthermore, Amy Tan touches upon her own experience of battling the widespread misconception of Asian Americans language capabilities while becoming a writer. Finally, she concludes her essay by providing an example of how she embraces her mother tongue nowadays  by incorporating it into her work and celebrating her mothers English.

Target Audience

The author is trying to reach out to the general public. The topic of the essay  language and its perception  does not require any additional knowledge or expertise. However, three specific groups could be more interested in the contents. The first group is people who are already involved in the issue of language perception. The second are those who struggle with embracing their parents way of speaking. Finally, the third group includes people who, on an everyday basis, get different treatment based on various factors. The authors message might resonate with this target audience personally by providing information and empowerment.

Connection with Target Audience

Amy Tan, talking to her audience, makes some peculiar choices to connect with her readers. To get close to her readers, she uses a personal and honest approach appealing to the readers feelings. However, it keeps the balance between sentimentality and humor, which makes it interesting to read. Moreover, the language that she uses is concise, up-to-the-point, and straightforward. The choice of words is informal and almost conversational: the author does not shy away from using short forms like cant or starting sentences with and. She also uses rhetorical questions and repetitions that captivate the audiences attention.

Evaluation of Claim

The authors claim is strong and well-supported. Using her personal stories and anecdotes, appealing to readers feelings, and providing some reality-based facts, she reaches the effect and connects with her audience. Upon reading the essay, a reader would be moved and convinced about the importance of respecting different manners of speaking. Moreover, it would show the reader how the language, even broken and imperfect,  does not reflect the speakers intelligence disparities. Instead, the language celebrates their unique personality and a one-of-a-kind worldview.

Features of Mandarin Chinese

Introduction

Language never exists separately from the society this is why it can be considered only in terms of culture it belongs to. Each language can be characterized not only by words typical for it, but by certain set of gestures used as means of emphasis in verbal communication. When discussing, for instance, Mandarin Chinese, it can be stated that Chinese people definitely use more words than gestures, and, studying this language, one should pay more attention namely to verbal aspects of communication. It is necessary to consider several situations one may face when communicating to a Chinese in order to show connection between Chinese personality and language of these people.

Discussion

What should be mentioned above all is that Mandarin Chinese names reflect their personalities like nothing else. The names are chosen very thoroughly and often describe features characteristic for a person. Chinese people also give names to the foreigners who, as a rule, should necessarily have a Chinese name. English, French, Italian, or any other name cannot be transliterated into Mandarin Chinese for it will be senseless and wont reflect the persons inner world or condition of his/her soul.

Secondly, Mandarin Chinese contains a number of phrases and word expressions necessary for everyday communication which, depending on the frequency of utilizing them, can help define the personality of the speaker. These include, first of all, Ni Hao which is, as a rule, used for greeting and when shaking hands. A person who uses this phrase often is considered polite and communicative. It can correspond to English hello, or informal hi, though literally it can be translated as You Good. The word Xie Xie corresponds to English thank you and is an expression of gratitude. However, it cannot be used as a respond to a compliment (one should use Na Li Na Li for this; using it frequently is the sign of modesty and sometimes even shyness and delicacy). As a response to Xie Xie (thank you) Chinese people use Bu Ke Qi which stands for English Youre welcome. No matter how strange it may sound, but each of such phrases should be repeated twice for it is the way Chinese people speak. They do it with a purpose of emphasizing words; at this the second (repeated) part is pronounced more quietly and smoothly. The repetition of these words can also be regarded as the sign of extreme politeness or gratitude which are inherent to Chinese people.

And, lastly, Chinese personalities can be characterized by their asking personal questions even if they see their interlocutor for the first time. They may ask people how old they are or how much their salary is, mostly not because they are interested but because their communication is reflective and is all about comparing themselves with other people. Though these questions may seem offensive, it is not Chinese peoples intention; it is all about the desire to know the interlocutor better for behaving properly. When other people ask the Chinese the same questions, they answer them sincerely.

Conclusion

Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, it can be stated that Mandarin Chinese is to some extent different from other languages. Communicating with a Chinese person who speaks Mandarin, one should be sure to have a Chinese name, to repeat all greeting phrases as well as those of gratitude twice and to be ready to reply personal questions in the most sincere way. This is what reflects Chinese personality and singles them out from other people.

Linguistic Politeness: Brown and Levinsons Theory

Introduction

Numerous studies of the 20th century in the field of linguistic politeness play an important role in modern pragmatic works that touch on this topic and raise issues of verbal communication. As a basis for many ideas and hypotheses, Brown and Levinsons theory is used as a valid background. However, despite the development of this concept and its universality from the standpoint of the discussions involved, its relevance in subsequent studies has been disputed more than once. According to Song (2017), Brown and Levinsons theory was presented to the world academic community in 1987. Since then, many new proposals regarding the unique features of linguistic politeness have appeared. Moreover, their authors not only created new evaluative approaches but even criticised the initial concept, referring to fallacy in the context of universal validity. This topic is significant due to a variety of judgments on the subject of what specific features linguistic politeness possesses and what manifestations are observed in the modern world. Brown and Levinsons theory cannot be considered a single and undeniable concept, particularly due to the obsolescence and bias of the concept in question.

Brown and Levinsons Approach

Since its creation, the theory under consideration has been mentioned many times the academic community. The authors of this idea understand politeness as a rational and expedient concept that is subject to certain rules aspect of communication. As Mills (2017) argues, the assumption is based on the principle of cooperation. The main purpose of politeness in terms of Brown and Levinsons theory is to maintain social unity, which, in turn, can be achieved by assuming a diversity of opinions. An abstract persons social face devoid of any national specificity model person should be a combination of two different desires  others approval and the freedom of action (Bouchara, 2015). In other words, a person feels comfort and safety when his or her personal views and self-evaluating judgments are not condemned by society but, conversely, are accepted and approved. According to Fukushima and Sifianou (2017), attentiveness is a valuable element of politeness. In addition, a good impression can be formed due to various factors: the type of activity, religious affiliation, cultural interests and other aspects that create a specific image and, thus, support the concept.

Regarding directly linguistic politeness that has become one of the main topics in the theory under consideration, penetration into the culture and features of individual languages is an important nuance. Ogiermann (2009) notes that speech acts of different nationalities contain unique properties, and peoples accumulated experience serves as a significant background for evaluating certain approaches. The author also claims that in the context of Brown and Levinsons concept, requests are considered an important element in the formation of the concept of politeness (Ogiermann, 2009). Interaction with one another allows assessing forms of intercultural communication. The universality of this approach is proposed by Brown and Levinson as a natural consequence of the study of communication features, and an opportunity to apply their concept to different languages is allowed. According to Lim (2017), the authors of the theory insist that the manifestations of typical linguistic features are characteristic of different nationalities. However, as practice shows, in many studies, this approach is criticised and justified differently, in particular, due to the universality of its nature.

Critique of the Theory

The claim to the universality of the theory, as well as the authors interpretation of a social person, is at the centre of serious theoretical objections. The subject of criticism is often the address-centricity characteristic of this concept since Brown and Levinson pay excessive attention to the sociality of addressees but not their statements that remain out of sight. Also, the authors understanding of a number of speech acts is criticised as an incorrect from the standpoint of collectivist Asian cultures (China, Japan or Korea). Fukushima and Sifianou (2017) emphasise the impossibility of using a universal model in the study of politeness. For instance, unlike European individualistic principles, in Chinese culture, speech acts of a sentence, invitation, or promise are not considered statements that threaten the communicators negative face (Al-Duleimi, Rashid & Abdullah, 2016). The concept of social identity is manifested not in the awareness of an important personal space but in the understanding of how other individuals behave (Alabdali, 2019). In many cultures, concern for group rather than personal interests is considered an anticipated behaviour. Therefore, the universality of Brown and Levinsons concept is a controversial idea.

One of the key messages regarding the unsuitability of the politeness model in the global context is its static nature. According to Al-Hindawi and Alkhazaali (2016), the actions of those involved are not viewed from a dynamic perspective, which does not allow evaluating such a theory as a flexible mechanism. This staticity, in turn, prevents human tendency to productivity and social creativity, thereby inhibiting natural progress in communication (Al-Hindawi & Alkhazaali, 2016, p. 1541). Despite the fact that, as Does (2018) states, this concept of politeness is the most authoritative and recognisable today, its provisions may be regarded as partially biased. For instance, when analysing the approaches to the formation of linguistic structure, Does (2018) notes that the openness of western people does not correspond with the indirectness of the eastern inhabitants. As a result, the inability to apply this theory to any culture indicates the limitations of its provisions. In addition, according to Piskorska (2017), intercultural characteristics of states can also influence the characteristics of linguistic politeness. Thus, the criticism of the concept under consideration is well-reasoned.

Examples of the Theory and Possible Substitutes

The manifestations of Brown and Levinsons theory may be seen in some everyday situations. For instance, Faaq (2017) provides an example of conflicts at the workplace, which either side can smooth out or avoid completely by reducing imposition. In other words, the aforementioned right to freedom is an important element of the concept under consideration. It is respected and followed, which, in turn, helps maintain positive relationships. Concerning manifestations in writing, Brown and Levinsons model can be found in literary works. Qadir and Al Ghizzi (2018) mentions the novel Lord of the Flies and notes that in it, the interactions of the characters largely convey the concept in question, which involves individuals and their perception of specific behaviours and communication. The ability to interpret the theory of politeness in such a context makes it possible to assert its rigidity and bias, which manifests itself in the overly naive and straightforward interaction typical of children. Therefore, the failure of Brown and Levinsons concept may be revealed from different angles, and its inappropriateness in the global context can be proved due to the variety of human communication forms and approaches.

As possible substitutes for the outdated and controversial Brown and Levinsons theory, other models may be applicable in the context of linguistic politeness. Kádár (2019) offers to pay attention to the macro or cultural level of politeness, thereby making the interaction system not only more flexible but also dependent on external factors (p. 154). This approach is more relevant than the one developed by the founders of the original concept. Such a model makes it possible to evaluate the categories of communication and manifestations of the features of human interaction from different countries, including both western and eastern regions of the world.

Another alternative to this concept is the theory of emotional communication. Vergis and Pell (2020) see this concept as a successful mechanism for assessing the behavioural characteristics of both speakers and making the right contact, avoiding rudeness or other forms of impoliteness. The variability of such models makes it clear that Brown and Levinson were not the only ones who worked successfully on this topic, and more flexible and convenient methodologies can be applied.

Conclusion

The ambiguous principles of Brown and Levinsons theory allow talking about its obsolescence and the impossibility of universal application due to the rigidity and bias shown in relation to individual linguistic cultures. Despite the authority of this concept, its criticism has become commonplace in the academic community. By using individual situations as an example, scholars prove the irrelevance of this model and its static nature. The considered alternatives to the interpretation of linguistic politeness are more dynamic and involve additional assessment criteria, which contributes to a more effective analysis.

References

Alabdali, T. S. (2019). Revisiting Brown and Levinsons politeness theory: A middle-eastern perspective. Bulletin of Advanced English Studies, 2(2), 73-78.

Al-Duleimi, H. Y., Rashid, S. M., & Abdullah, A. N. (2016). A critical review of prominent theories of politeness. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 7(6), 262-270.

Al-Hindawi, F. H., & Alkhazaali, M. A. R. (2016). A critique of politeness theories. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 6(8), 1537-1545.

Bouchara, A. (2015). The role of religion in shaping politeness in Moroccan Arabic: The case of the speech act of greeting and its place in intercultural understanding and misunderstanding. Journal of Politeness Research, 11(1), 71-98.

Does, R. (2018). Does Politeness Theory need multi-modal expansion? An investigation of the non-verbal multi-modal expression of politeness (Masters Thesis). Retrieved from Radboud University (4043626).

Faaq, F. M. (2017). Perspectives on politeness theories and politeness strategies. Journal of Kirkuk University Humanity Studies, 12(3), 12-30.

Fukushima, S., & Sifianou, M. (2017). Conceptualizing politeness in Japanese and Greek. Intercultural Pragmatics, 14(4), 525-555.

Kádár, D. Z. (2019). Introduction: Advancing linguistic politeness theory by using Chinese data. Acta Linguistica Academica, 66(2), 149-164.

Lim, B. S. (2017). Brown and Levinsons politeness framework and studies on politeness in the 1990s. Journal of Modern Languages, 15(1), 47-63.

Mills, S. (2017). Traditional approaches to language, culture and politeness. In S. Mills, English politeness and class (pp. 25-54). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Ogiermann, E. (2009). Politeness and in-directness across cultures: A comparison of English, German, Polish and Russian requests. Journal of Politeness Research, 5(2), 189-216.

Piskorska, A. (2017). Relevance Theory and intercultural communication problems. Research in Language (RiL), 15(1), 1-9.

Qadir, I. A. A., & Al Ghizzi, A. A. F. (2018). Facework in the fictional dialogue of Goldings Lord of the Flies in terms of Brown & Levinsons politeness theory: A pragma-stylistics study. Journal of Basra researches for Human Sciences, 43(2), 32-50.

Song, S. (2017). The Brown and Levinson theory revisited: A statistical analysis. Language Sciences, 62, 66-75.

Vergis, N., & Pell, M. D. (2020). Factors in the perception of speaker politeness: The effect of linguistic structure, imposition and prosody. Journal of Politeness Research, 16(1), 45-84.

The Importance of the American Literature Course

I: Since the beginning of this term, I have known that things would be different for students taking the American literature course in their final year. My sentiments are not meant to nullify the importance of other courses offered in the school, but to highlight the significance of this course to my academics and future professional life.

Teacher: In what way has the course been important for you?

I: Firstly, I would like to thank you for your efforts and encouragement throughout the term and for the immense achievements that we have made as a class. Secondly, I would like to state that unlike other courses learnt at the beginning of the term, American literature is the climax of them all. Unlike other courses, the American literature is built on the basic notions. In this relation, the course can be regarded as an application of other courses learnt at lower levels. This application ranges from correct application of features of style, language and personification that we learnt in other courses.

Teacher: Which courses or lessons have been beneficial in this particular course?

I: We started the term by analyzing short stories and poems. The different literature tools have been beneficial in establishing the foundation of the American literature. In particular, short stories have enhanced my creativity by giving me a chance to read works of other writers. Short stories have also enhanced my ability to develop themes and other important aspects of written literature. In addition, poems that we covered through the course have enabled me to acquire an additional literature skill. Poems have enabled me to learn different methods of enhancing or creating rhythm in works of literature. In addition, reading and writing poems has enabled to enhance the flow of my writing. Finally, the different poems that we covered in the course have contributed to my ability of identifying features of style in different forms of writings.

Teacher: The course seems to have been of significance in your academics, how else have you benefited from the course?

I: I believe that social life of a student is of equal significance to their academic and social life and, therefore, there should be a thin boundary between the two aspects. Unlike other courses learnt in the school, the American literature has maintained a thin line between academics and social life. This is because American literature is the only course whereby students can socialize as they conduct studies. This was achieved through the different discussion groups and forums that we conducted throughout the course. Other than the discussion groups, the American literature is the only course that incorporates humor aspect in academics.

Teacher: I believe that you are aware of the professional life ahead of you after your studies. How do you expect to benefit from your experience with the course?

I: It is a fact that professional life is the climax of academics life. In this relation, I expect to have a successful career life established on theoretical foundations of the different lessons that we learnt in the American literature. The course has enabled me to acquire useful literature skills such as writing, listening and brainstorming. In addition, the course has greatly improved my grammar and writing style.

Teacher: I hope that you will put all that we have learnt throughout this course in practice. I also hope that you will be able to utilize the different skills that you have acquired during the term. I wish you success in your future endeavors.

Why TOEFL Scores Should Be Lowered Across University?

Why TOEFL scores should be lowered across university?

The aim of this research paper is to advocate for the lowering of TOEFL/IELTS and any other standardized English proficiency test scores in university. In doing so, the author will argue on behalf of the interests of the international student to determine whether or not he/she has the appropriate academic and language credentials for gaining admission to a regular or modified program of study (Educational Testing Service, p. 9).

Currently, international students who seek admission in this institute for any course, have to undergo the procedure of demonstrating their language competence before theyre even considered eligible for further studies. In the authors view, this is a highly discriminatory practice because it penalizes students who did do not speak English as their first language, and are being obligated to do so by the current admission system which is biased towards fluent English speakers. Not only it robs many bright internatonal students the golden chance to study in an American university, it likewise denies US universities access to brilliant researchers and technical experts who could prove to be a tremendous asset to our learning environment, if such an unnecessary language barrier did not exist.

Moreover, any efforts to create a homogenous study environment in which all international students are assumed to be equally competent in English, is contradictory to the principles of diversity in the campus, and in the opinion of the author, is nothing but language chauvinism on the part of the university admissions committee. For true diversity, you would want the student and faculty bodies to embrace the idea of allowing students who speak another language, to participate in the admissions process on an equal measure, as native English speakers

Furthermore, getting a high score on standardized tests like TOEFL has never been a guarantee of international students becoming readily familiar with American accents as soon as they arrive on campus. While it is true that they have an edge over other students who couldnt perform as well on these tests, they are still perceived as perpetual second language speakers because of their different accents, vocabulary usage and non-familiarity with words and expressions used in a typical American context; slangs, colloquialisms and such.

The author is of the opinion, that the expression second language speaker is a highly derogatory label on campus, and is a constant reminder to the international student, that no matter how well he tried to perform on standardized test scores such as TOEFL, he would forever be perceived as an incorrect speaker of English. This is certainly a very intolerant approach because outside of the United States, most countries are bi-lingual or even tri-lingual. For example, in Latin America where Spanish and Portuguese languages dominate, communicating your ideas in another language such as English or French is celebrated as a huge achievement, apart from the speaker being lauded for his/her efforts in learning the local language, rather than criticized over minor grammatical and structural errors.

Its only here in the United States that a PhD scholar of a reputed institute from a non-English speaking country, is subjected to the humiliation of being considered inferior in knowledge or ability, because of his/her lack of comfort in English. Its for this reason alone many foreign language speakers feel discriminated against when it comes to submitting dissertations, research proposals and other study-related documents. The current academic climate in American institutes which projects non-English speakers in a negative light is contradictory to the greater ideals of education which aim at tolerance, global understanding and creating an enlightened mindset. This is certainly not the scenario for other respectable educational institues in the developed world including France, Germany, Sweden and Japan.

Considering the premise of above arguments, the author would like to appeal for a lenient approach in the admission criteria of international students. Ideally, it is important that at some point of time, TOEFL/IELTS score values are altogether abolished as an admission criteria for international students, especially those who have a high scholastic aptitude. However, in the light of current academic climate and considering the fact that there will be vehement opposition to such a demand from many, the author would seek to simply lower the score range for the current criteria of admission at his university.

Accordingly, the minimum mandated TOEFL score should reduced from 527 to 500 for the paper-based test and from 71 to 61 for the computer-adaptive Internet-based test (iBT). Also, the minimum acceptance scores for IELTS should be dropped from 6.0 at present, to 5.0. The author also would like to advocate a case-by-case analysis of a students statement of purpose which means details such as work experience, grades/marks received and other related concepts should be given higher weightage in deciding the admissions criteria of a student.

Why use TOEFL/IELTS as a benchmark?

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is a standardized test in English language which measures the aptitude of international students in a number of key areas of comprehension including reading, listening, writing and speaking abilities (Educational Testing Service, p. 11).

The whole premise is based on the flawed assumption that if the student succeeded in getting a high score through several hours of methodical preparation, and after shelling out thousands of dollars in getting preparatory material, he would at one point of time, become fluent in English, and will be very comfortable in an American classroom setting which seemingly, has zero tolerance for non-English speakers. Apart from the authors downright objection to imposing English upon international students, there are several points of disagreement about the validity and reliability of a test-taking tool like TOEFL to determine the ability of an international student to study in the USA. Some of the points of disagreement are mentioned below:

The TOEFL is administered by a private company called Educational Testing Services (ETS) which has the sole aim of making profits. Not only are the test fees, which stand at more than $140 per test session, prohibitively expensive for an international student especially one who is coming from a modest background in a poor country, it makes no allowance on the students financial status which is often a favorable point of consideration when an admission committee decides on whether or not to extend financial support to an international student.

While, most American universities of repute have generous provisions on cutting tuition fees along with awarding grants, Teaching Assistantships (TAs) and more to meritorious international students based on their privileged academic background, standardized tests like TOEFL make no such allowance to the academic background of an otherwise intelligent student appearing for the test. So, a bright PhD scholar who would stand a chance to qualify for an institute like Yale or Harvard based on his/her knowledge and experience, is automatically denied to do so because of a lowered TOEFL score. This is solely based on the fact that he/she comes from a country where English language is not used or understood that well. Moreover, the author finds it highly objectionable that a private testing body like ETS gets to decide on the academic chances of a student when its sole intention is to make a profit.

The stakes get much worse with IELTS, which is currently administered by the British Council of the United Kingdom using the same, or similar testing criteria as TOEFL (Clapham, 12). Like TOEFL, this examination is also very discriminatory against non-English speakers. A bigger objection is raised on the fact that students who give IELTS and TOEFL are often encouraged by test-taking companies to repeat the exam each time they get a lower score (Clapham, 23; Educational Testing Service; 45).

Since, so much money has to be spent on each testing session, its certainly not a cheap option for international students. Consequently, the author is of the firm opinion that standardized test scores such as TOEFL/IELTS should not be held as a major criteria in determining the admission ability of an international student. At best, the minimum entrance scores should be reduced; that too, after making severe allowances for the students academic background, work experience and other sound credentials.

It remains to be seen that whether TOEFL, a highly rigorous academic test, which is often a major determiner of an international students ability to perform satisfactorily in a US university, is equally applicable to American students. At present, no US-born student or someone coming from a major English-speaking country such as the UK or Australia, has to appear for this examination. The author believes its an act of discrimination even when making allowance for the fact that a native English-speaker is bound to be better at English, and would actually get much higher results on standardized test scores.

The latter still remains to be proven as studies have shown that many American teen-agers actually suffer from an inability to express themselves well in English, especially written English, even though they are native speakers of this language (Dillon).

So, it is possible to argue, that on one hand, US universities are giving a carte blanche to our own teenagers who are severely handicapped in their ability to write English well, and couldnt be bothered to write one page apart from a statement of purpose which is quite often written by their friends and peers, on the other hand, meritorious students of international background are being subjected to the rigors of a standardized test, supposedly to prove they can be equally comptetent in a US classroom environment. This is nothing but, a tyranny of the majority and should have no place in an institute of higher learning.

There should either be a singular criteria of admission of all students, whether Americans or foreigners, or none at all.

The technicalities of TOEFL and other standardized tests are a major point of contention. Test companies like ETS argue that their testing procedure is quite fair and evenly-balanced, and does not discriminate against students in any way (Educational Testing Service, 39). However, the author is deeply unsatisfied with this explanation.

For instance, in their standardized guidelines for cracking English comprehension tests, international students are being encouraged to emulate American accents and spend time listening to Hollywood, MTV and other mass media originating from the USA (Educational Testing Service. 111). The author believes this is also a very discriminatory recommendation.

What this really means is whenever an international student expresses a desire to study in an American institute, he/she should start assimilating into American culture even when in their home countries. By mentioning an automatic preference for emulation of standard American accents, and ascribing these preferences to an international student body, we are seriously condoning a highly discriminatory approach towards not only foreign speakers of English, but also those who have a different accent than what you hear in academia and US mass media. The author believes if foreigners are to be encouraged to appreciate American culture, which many actually do, and learn about our great nation and its values, the job actually lies with the Office of Travel and Tourism Industries, an official agency of the US department of Travel which promotes tourism in the United States among foreigners. Its quite ridiculous when the same has to be promoted by a private tutorial institute like ETS.

Considering the seriously bad reputation of Americans abroad, thanks to unpopular foreign policies of an erstwhile George W. Bush regime, the last thing we need is alienating ourselves from international students, who are the ambassadors of goodwill from their respective countries. Recent news events have shown that there has actually been a sudden drop in the arrival of international students across US institutes of higher learning. Some ascribe it to the recession in the past year, and the emergence of other education hotspots such as Australia, Canada and Germany which have liberalized their admission criteria in recent years to include more diverse students.

The author believes another factor could be unbridled arrogance from American university admission committees who are little in touch with the actual background of international students. The rigid approach of granting admission to them based on their English language skills alone, does not endear them very much to our systems and processes. If the admission committee believes that such a rigid stance is justified because thats the way it has always been, the author seeks to disagree with this majority viewpoint because he does not seek to live in an isolated island, with an infrequent contact of outside world.

In Conclusion

Having argued extensively on the position of why standardized tests such as TOEFL/IELTS are not fair determiners of admission criteria for international students, the author seeks to put to rest some final concerns which may arise on this subject.

First, it may well be argued that from a practical point of view, TOEFL/IELTS scores are necessary because the international student, when on American soil, has no other choice but to speak in English because thats the whole environment hes going to be surrounded with. It is for this reason alone that the author advocates a base acceptance score which is significantly lower than the current admission scores. Hence, the mandated TOEFL score may be reduced from current value of 527 to 500 for the paper-based test, and from 71 to 61 for the computer-adaptive Internet-based test (iBT). Also, the minimum acceptance scores for IELTS could be dropped from 6.0 at present, to 5.0.

Secondly, it may be argued that other countries which have some other language apart from English as their main medium of instruction, also mandate learning that language for admissions.

The author believes that this is for the most part, untrue. After having checked the education portals of France, Germany, Sweden and Japan, the author has arrived at the conclusion that none of these countries mandate the knowledge of French, German, Swedish or Japanese as a major criteria in the admissions process. Moreover, for any international student who seeks to study in institutes in above countries, the university often arranges free language courses to enable the student to come to a level where communication in that language becomes easy.

In that case, the author finally argues that it would be a far better approach if American universities also start conducting free English language lessons for all arriving foreign students who face difficulty in grasping the language, instead of continuing with the present discriminatory system where standardized test scores are a must.

Works Cited

Clapham, Caroline. The Development of IELTS: A Study of the Effect of Background

Knowledge on Reading Comprehension. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Dillon, Sam. US Students Achieve Mixed Results on Writing Test, 2008. Web.

Educational Testing Service. The Official Guide to the TOEFL Test. New York: McGraw Hill Professional, 2009.

Comparing and Contrasting American English, Spanish, and Arabic

Introduction

English is deservedly considered one of the most widespread languages globally because hundreds of millions of people from different countries speak it. This state of affairs contributes to the fact that numerous individuals learn this language to connect with an international community. When it comes to English language teachers and students, they should understand that their native language plays a crucial role in how successful a learning process can be. In particular, these individuals should be aware of the characteristic features of their mother tongues to understand how these peculiarities are similar or different from those in the English language. This knowledge allows teachers to draw more attention to language specifics that are essential for a specific learners group. Thus, American English, Spanish, and Arabic have certain similarities and differences on various levels, and being aware of this information can facilitate English learning among students from Spanish and Arabic groups.

General Overview of the Language Development

American English

Even though colonizers from Britain brought English to the USA, it is impossible to state that the language developed identically in the two countries. In the early 18th century, American English impressed with its homogeneity irrespective of the fact that people from Britain, Ireland, and other European countries lived in that territory (Luu, 2017). However, this fact does not mean that the language was easily understandable for newcomers. The rationale behind this fact is that American English became enriched with borrowed words from the languages of Native Americans and immigrants from France, Germany, Spain, and others.

American English developed against the background above and the desires of the local population to have a distinct language. That is why American English set specific pronunciation and word use rules that were different from those in British English. Another essential step toward making American English unique occurred after the end of World War I, when American pride was rising, and the state of Illinois declared that the American language was official. However, the modern era is witnessing the opposite trend because globalization processes and numerous manifestations of popular culture contribute to the fact that the distinctions between the American and British English languages are disappearing.

Spanish

The history of the Spanish language is deep and has a few essential capstones. In the beginning, one should admit that Spanish is an Indo-European Romance language, meaning that it originated from Latin (Arias, 2019). That is why many modern words from Spanish have a Latin origin. The following essential aspect refers to the fact that the Iberian Peninsula, the territory of modern Spain, was invaded by many peoples, including the Moors from Northern Africa, the Visigoths from Central Europe, and the Christians from the Roman Empire (Gonzalez, 2020, para. 12). As a result, the Spanish language absorbed many characteristic features of different cultures.

Irrespective of the events above, some Spaniards contributed to the development of their mother tongue. Alfonso X, the Wise, was one of them, and he assembled to create many works on history, law, and astronomy in Castilian that was a continuation of spoken Latin (Arias, 2019). Juan Manuel Fernández Pacheco was one more prominent figure who founded the Royal Spanish Academy in 1713 to unify the Spanish language (Arias, 2019). Another significant period started when the Spanish Empire formed its colonies in the USA, which made the language assimilate with local cultures and dialects. As a result, there appeared a language variation that was different from Standard Spanish. This long path contributed to the fact that Spanish is one of the most spoken languages today.

Arabic

Arabic is a widespread language in North Africa and Western Asia. In particular, it is the official language of 22 countries, including Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Libya, and others, which makes more than 200 million people speak (Huafeng et al., 2019). Arabic emerged approximately in the 5th century AD when an organization of French-speaking countries required a unified language (Huafeng et al., 2019). The language significantly expanded its coverage area in the 7th century. That period witnessed the expansion of the Arab Empire and the spread of Islam, and this event contributed to the fact that more people were forced to use Arabic (Huafeng et al., 2019). Years passed, and the Empire started losing its power over vast territories. As a result, in approximately the 10th century witnessed various regional dialects appeared, and they were notably different from the literary language (Huafeng et al., 2019). However, this fact did not lead to the decay of Arabic, and this language remains widespread in the modern world.

Analysis Comparing American English, Spanish, and Arabic

This section represents the most significant part of the given essay because it analyzes and compares the three selected languages. A specific structure will be followed to ensure a logical and transparent flow of thoughts. Four subheadings will separately focus on various language levels, including phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics, which will allow for identifying similarities and differences among American English, Spanish, and Arabic.

Phonetics and Phonology

When it comes to comparing languages, phonetics and phonology are essential because they determine how people sound. In American English, individuals should draw sufficient attention to their pronunciation since the misuse of a single sound can significantly change the meaning of a word. There are consonants and vowels in American English, and they differ according to functions and creating patterns. 24 consonants are created by using an obstruction to the airstream, and they are subdivided into plosives, affricates, fricatives, nasals, and approximants (Carley & Mees, 2019). Some of the most characteristic features include the interdental [¸, ð], glottal [h], bilabial [w], and nasal [m, n, K] sounds.

In turn, vowels are syllable-forming sounds, and they are significantly different from consonants. The rationale is that the vowels are created with no obstruction in the vocal tract to the air as it passes through it (Carley & Mees, 2019, p. 122). Tongue and lips play a crucial role in making vowels. In American English, vowels can be short or long, and the presence of monophthongs and diphthongs is a characteristic feature of this language. According to Carley and Mees (2019), diphthongs involve a glide from one vowel position toward another during their production, while monophthongs do not have such a peculiarity (p. 130). R-coloring is another characteristic feature of American English, which implies pronouncing the r-sound when it follows a vowel.

Now, it is possible to use the information above as a basis to compare and contrast the three languages, and the following paragraphs are going to comment on similarities. Firstly, it is possible to mention that the consonant systems of American English and Spanish have certain shared features. For example, the two languages have affricates, fricatives, bilabial, interdental, and dental consonants (Rao, 2019). Secondly, multiple similarities exist between vowels in Spanish and American English. The rationale is that vowels are also voiced and syllable forming in Spanish, diphthongs are frequent, and these sounds have similar articulation properties because Spanish vowels can be high, front, back, mid, and open (Celdran & Elvira-Garcia, 2019). This information denotes that the two languages have resembling phonetics and phonological peculiarities.

One should admit that Arabic also has some similarities with the languages above. According to Mustafawi (2019), the number of consonants is also greater than that of vowels in Arabic, while vowels are used to create syllables. This language also has some similar sound production approaches because Arabic has affricates, fricatives, interdental, and nasal consonants as American English and Spanish do (Mustafawi, 2019). Furthermore, vowels can be high and low as well as front and back, while diphthongs are also used (Mustafawi, 2019). This information allows for concluding that phonetics and phonology of the three languages have some shared features.

However, the three languages have notable differences that deserve attention. As for American English and Spanish, the latter is unique because it has triphthongs (Celdran & Elvira-Garcia, 2019). Another peculiarity is that Spanish vowels are the only syllable forming sounds, while some English consonants can perform this function, and word little is an example since sound [l] creates a syllable. Furthermore, one should admit that some Spanish sounds imply production characteristics that are unique to English. For instance, Spanish has a sound [ñ] that is palatalized, and vowel nasalization is present (Celdran & Elvira-Garcia, 2019). Finally, there is no vowel reduction in Spanish, which results in the fact that this language does not have a counterpart to schwa from American English.

As for Arabic, it implies some notable differences that should be described. Firstly, one should admit that this language uses a distinct system of symbols to represent its sounds orthographically (Mustafawi, 2019). These symbols make it challenging for people who are not familiar with the language to guess how these symbols should be pronounced. Secondly, a peculiar development process could not result in unique features of Arabic. For example, the language has a voiceless uvular stop that has no counterparts in American English and Spanish (Mustafawi, 2019). Simultaneously, Arabic is different from American English because lenition or palatalization and pharyngealization are present in the former (Mustafawi, 2019). These phenomena explain why Arabic may sound strange to Americans and Europeans.

Morphology

Morphology is a part of grammar study, and it focuses on the structure of the word, how it is created, and what separate elements can be distinguished. In the American English language, a root is the most significant part of a word (morpheme) because it conveys a leading meaningful component. Derivational affixes can be added to roots to change or modify their meanings. If an affix precedes a root, it is a prefix, while suffixes follow roots (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2017). In addition to that, American English has inflections or inflectional affixes that can create different forms of words. For example, inflection ed is used to create the Past Tense of verbs, er makes a comparative degree of adjectives, while -(e)s serves to create plural forms (Carstairs-McCarthy, 2017). When it comes to the plural form, it is worth admitting that some words do not follow the strategy above. Such words can have identical forms for the plural and singular (sheep), change root vowels (man-men) or use different inflections (phenomenon-phenomena). In addition to that, introducing is used to indicate possession. Finally, American English has compound words that consist of two and more roots.

Now, it is rational to represent whether the other languages have similarities to what was mentioned about American English. On the one hand, Spanish also focuses on morphemes as leading components of words. There are the root, derivational, and inflectional morphemes in this European language. In Spanish, inflections are also used to indicate plurality and make clear what time a verb describes (Erichsen, 2018). Prefixes and suffixes are frequently used to modify the meanings of nouns, verbs, and adverbs in Spanish. On the other hand, Arabic morphology does not have many similarities with the other two languages. Word structure is one of the shared features because Arabic words have roots, and various affixes can be added to them with or without changing categories or grammatical meanings (Igaab & Kareem, 2018). The possessive case is present in the Arabic language even though it is marked by adding al-kasrah at the end of the nouns or adjectives (Igaab & Kareem, 2018, p. 99). This language also has suffixes, prefixes, and inflections similar to American English and Spanish.

However, the morphology systems of American English and Spanish have many notable differences. The European language has a more developed system of inflections because they indicate the genders of nouns and adjectives (Erichsen, 2018). Simultaneously, Spanish is considered a language with fixed word order, but this rule is not strict, meaning that some variations are possible. In such cases, specific prepositions are typically used to demonstrate where a subject and an object are (Erichsen, 2018). Finally, Spanish nouns cannot have a genitive or possession case (ending in English), and appropriate pronouns are issued to indicate such a relationship between words.

In addition to the fact, Arabic morphology has a few characteristic features. Firstly, it only studies variable words that can be changed or modified to make a new meaning. This fact denotes that, for example, pronouns and articles are not covered by Arabic morphology. Secondly, this branch focuses on derivation which implies adding specific templates to the existing nouns and verbs, and this process results in creating new meanings (Igaab & Kareem, 2018). Finally, Arabic is different from English because its verbs are inflected to demonstrate gender (Igaab & Kareem, 2018). This peculiarity represents a leading challenge for those people who have only started learning Arabic.

Syntax

The syntax is supposedly one of those features that made English a language of international communication. This language has a strict word order, meaning that a sentence should begin with a subject and predicate that are followed by secondary sentence members. The word order allows people to understand relationships between words and uncover the whole meaning. According to Nordquist (2020), the English language has nine parts of speech, including the noun, verb, pronoun, adverb, adjective, preposition, conjunction, interjection, and article. The given language has an extended system of pronouns that are actively used in sentences. Finally, the discussion of syntax should include the explanation that the subject and predicate should agree in number. This statement means that inflection -(e)s or a corresponding form should be used if a verb in Present tense refers to a singular noun. The rationale behind this statement is that verbs in English do not have a grammatical category of gender.

The Spanish language has the same parts of speech as those mentioned above for American English. Furthermore, Erichsen (2018) states that the rule of fixed word order in sentences exists in Spanish, but the following information will comment on this fact in detail. The Spanish language also has many pronouns and extensively uses them. These findings could allow for supposing that American English and Spanish syntax systems are identical, but the truth is the opposite. Firstly, Spanish is different because it is not always necessary to follow a strict word order, meaning that a subject can be omitted when it is easily understood from the context (Erichsen, 2018). Secondly, this European language is gendered, denoting that a subject and a predicate should agree in number, tense, and gender. Simultaneously, one should also ensure that an article agrees in gender and number with a noun.

When it comes to Arabic, its syntax is much different from that of American English and Spanish. Firstly, the Arabic syntax only offers three parts of speech, including the noun, verb, and particle (Saryara, 2020). While the verb denotes to do something in all three languages, the noun is specific in Arabic because this part of speech includes nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs in their traditional meaning. Simultaneously, Arabic particles can be considered analogs of conjunctions and prepositions in English. Secondly, Arabic is peculiar because this language does not have a fixed word order, which provides speakers with more freedom to choose language means (Saryara, 2020). Finally, Arabic sentences can be nominal when a sentence begins with a noun or when a verb is absent (Saryara, 2020). That is why the agreement between subject and predicate is not always the case, but when the two are present, they should agree in time, gender, and tense as in Spanish.

Semantics

Semantics deals with understanding and interpreting the meaning of words and sentences. In American English, words can have a direct or figurative meaning, and the latter gives rise to multiple expressive means, including metaphor, metonymy, and others, to enrich communication. As for sentences, they have grammatical and referential meaning in American English. The first one focuses on the fact that a sentence should have the correct grammatical structure, meaning that its members should agree in tense and number. Simultaneously, a referential meaning consists of the meanings of every word that is included in the sentence (Magrath, 2017). An example will explain the distinction between the two because the sentence (Laziness eats a hamburger) is correct grammatically, while its referential meaning is absurd. Simultaneously, American English is open to new words, and many word-formation strategies are productive. They include affixation, compounding, borrowing, and creating neologisms because many new phenomena appear and enter the language.

When it comes to the semantics of the Spanish language, it has many similarities with that of American English. Firstly, Spanish also uses a grammatical category to describe the meaning provided by the syntactic structure and a referential or conceptual category that is stored in the lexicon (Marquetta, 2018). Secondly, words in the Spanish language can also be used with either direct or figurative meanings. As for word-formation strategies, they are approximately the same in the two languages, but Marquetta (2018) admits that compounding is associated with higher structural complexity in Spanish. This information allows for concluding that communication in Spanish is not different from that in American English because the two languages follow identical approaches to their semantic systems.

Even though it can seem surprising based on the dissimilarities between the languages above, the Arabic semantic system is not very different from American English and Spanish. The rationale behind this statement is, for example, that Arabic has polysemy which is a common feature of the other two languages (Albader, 2017). In addition to that, Hamdan and Al-Salman (2021) stipulate that neologisms are an accurate and efficient method to enrich the language with new concepts that come from other countries. Thus, it is possible to suppose that all three languages are similar when it comes to their semantics. One can conclude that such a state of affairs is present because all the languages have common goals to enable communication among people, and the semantic systems are designed to meet them.

Implications for Teachers

The information above can be helpful for teachers of English learners (ELs) who have Spanish or Arabic as their native languages. The rationale behind this statement is that the findings above reveal the most significant differences and similarities between the languages under consideration. Even though similar sounds exist in American English, Spanish, and Arabic, their phonology and phonetics systems are peculiar. Thus, Spanish-speaking ELs should get accustomed to vowel reduction in English, while it can be challenging for Arabs to learn how to read sound symbols in English. It is of value for teachers to ensure that their students understand these peculiarities. English morphology can be considered easier for students because this language does not have gender inflections, and this fact also contributes to the fact that it is not necessary to agree on English subjects with predicates on gender. Simultaneously, English teachers should highlight that this language has a fixed word order, which is different from what is found in Spanish and Arabic. As for semantics, teachers should explain that word-forming strategies and communication patterns are approximately the same in the three languages.

Conclusion and Personal Reflection

Finally, this essay is helpful for me because I have identified the most characteristic features of American English, Spain, and Arabic. Based on the comparison of the three, I have understood why English is a language of international communication. A possible rationale behind this choice is that this language has simplified morphological and syntactical systems compared to other languages. In addition to that, the project will be valuable for my future work with English learners from diverse backgrounds. If I understand the peculiarities of their native languages, I will manage to determine what aspects will be challenging for them to grasp. For example, Spanish-speaking learners find it easy that it is not necessary to agree on nouns and verbs in gender, while Arab-speaking ones can face challenges with fixed word order and a different symbol system. Thus, I will draw attention to these peculiarities to ensure that English learners from diverse backgrounds can achieve the best learning outcomes.

References

Albader, Y. B. (2017). Polysemy and semantic change in the Arabic language and dialects. Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik. 66, 71-100.

Arias, A. M. (2019). A timeline of the Spanish language. Speechling. Web.

Carley, P., & Mees, I. M. (2019). American English phonetics and pronunciation practice. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

Carstairs-McCarthy, A. (2017). Introduction to English morphology: Words and their structure (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.

Celdran, E. M., and Elvira-Garcia, W. (2019). Description of Spanish vowels and guidelines for teaching them. In R. Rao (Ed.), Key issues in the teaching of Spanish pronunciation: From description to pedagogy (pp. 17-39). Routledge.

Erichsen, G. (2018). A linguistic look and Spanish. ThoughtCo.

Gonzalez, J. (2020). The Spanish language: History, evolution, and influences. Learn More Than Spanish.

Hamdan, H., & Al-Salman, S. (2021). The use of Arabic neologisms in social media applications. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies, 21(1), 45-60.

Huafeng, H., Zhihao, F., & Xuezhen, G. (2019). The history of the Arab nation and the Arabic language. Arabic Language, Literature, & Culture, 4(3), 48. Web.

Igaab, Z. K., & Kareem, I. A. (2018). Affixation in English and Arabic: A contrastive study. English Language and Literature Studies, 8(1), 92-103.

Luu, C. (2017). When did colonial America gain linguistic independence? JSTOR Daily. Web.

Magrath, D. (2017). The importance of semantics in ESL instruction. Multibriefs: Exclusive.

Marquetta, B. (2018). Restrictions in the semantic interpretation of English and Spanish compounds. IBERIA: An International Journal of Theoretical Linguistics, 9, 1-35.

Mustafawi, E. (2019). Arabic phonology. In E. Benmamoun & R. Bassiouney (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of Arabic linguistics (pp. 11-31). Routledge.

Nordquist, R. (2020). The 9 parts of speech in grammar. ThoughtCo. Web.

Rao, R. (2019). Introduction. In R. Rao (Ed.), Key issues in the teaching of Spanish pronunciation: From description to pedagogy (pp. 1-13). Routledge.

Sarayra, D. (2020). Arabic syntax. Kaleela. Web.

Bibcitation
Bibcitation
Bibcitation

He Died With His Eyes Open by Derek Raymond: Reading Critique

Introduction

In the story He Died with His Eyes Open, the narrator explained how an upper-class drunkard was found cruelly murdered through being beaten, and left to die. The man was later discovered by an unidentified police officer, who worked in an outmoded branch of the London Metropolitan police. It is indicated from the story that, the police officer after going through the dead mans tapes and writings; revealed that the man used up his later days wracked with blame over the crumple of his matrimony and trying frantically to triumph the love of a lady; whose coldness and cruelty was honestly horrifying (Raymond, 2006).

Discussion

The term genre in literature means type; it is established by fictional techniques, tone and substance. It can be seen from the story that, the writer wrote a dramatic and appalling novel which illustrated the genre of crime fiction. This can be seen from the plot of the story where it starts by explaining how the deceased was found being cruelly murdered. In this case, the reader is introduced into the action of murder where the writer indicated a region where the cruelty in a murder contrasted by the refinement of bushes; and a corpse exposed during the rush-hour. In another instance it can be seen that; both arms and one of his legs were wrecked with the bone jabbing out azure, through the trouser fabric. Additionally, his head was found to be beaten in; underneath the hairline and blains spilled on his left cheek into the earth (Cruse, 2004).

It can be argued that in the novel the crime fiction genre is characterized by different linguistic features including semantics. For instance, it is well indicated that despite the wounds which had been inflicted on the deceased body, he did not pass away immediately but, within his tedious eyes brushed some reminiscence that he intended to take with him in every place he went. Based on this, it can be argued that his eyes indicated something he had all along intended to know in his life. In this case, this statement indicates that he intended something and had a vision as it is told that; he died with his eyes open. It can be argued that he had seen everything but could not be in a position to comprehend it until he was killed. This can be used to mean that, he was killed because he knew something but was not in a position to understand it. Based on this, one can say that he had seen signs of his murder but failed to understand them. From the way he was killed it can be deduced that there was a struggle before he died, as it is indicated that he did not die on the spot (Steinmetz, 2008).

The other linguistic feature includes phonetics; which comprises of speeches and non-sound speeches. In this case, it can be argued that the dead mans eyes indicated that he had some memory which he intended to carry on his whole life. On the other hand; the randomness of the wounds on his body indicated that he was beaten up by more than one individual, who knew precisely where to strike. Further, the lack of blood under the corpse indicated that the killing did not occur at the place where the body was; but had been dumped there (Roach, 2001).

From the story, it can be inferred that, the deceased was killed by more than one person because of something he had no comprehension of. In this case, it can be argued that there was something held secret; which they feared the deceased would reveal through his speeches. Based on this, because of his urge for money he was trapped and killed in a vehicle before being dumped where he was thought to appear like a dilapidated hit-and-run. It can also be said that, when he was dying something was revealed to him that he had not known before, as it was indicated by the memories from his eyes (Raymond, 2006).

In support of this inference, it can be indicated from the story that his face had illustrations of one that had seen everything happening; but which could not comprehend it until the time he was being killed. On the other hand, his eyes seemed to have an unsteady shine of some memory that he intended to carry on in his whole life. Additionally, it is well indicated from the story that there was no blood spots under the corpse; indicating that the killing had occurred elsewhere. From this it can be deduced that, he had been dumped to appear as one who had been ran over by a motor vehicle; in order to complicate any investigation about his death. Based on this it can be deduced that, he died with the memories of a certain thing, which he had not known before (Raymond, 2006).

The authors of the story chose to formulate their words as He Died with His Eyes Open, to indicate that he died with the knowledge he did not have before. In this case, the deceased had seen or known something but could not understand it, until it was revealed to him when he was dying. By saying that his eyes were open, it may mean that the issue he did not know was revealed to him before his death. From this It can be said that, he had not understood all what he knew until when he was dying. In this case, he knew why he was being killed; or was told the reason as to why he had to die. Further, by some of his face being left may indicate that; the killers left slight information of why they had killed him. Based on this it can be argued that, despite the fact that his death was intended to appear like a hit-and-run case; it was not distinctive as to whether, he had been run over by a vehicle or fallen victim of an armed burglary (Raymond, 2006).

In order to hide the inference of what happened in the story, another way of rewriting the passage may be he died with unrevealed memories. In this case, it would mean that he didnt have the slightest idea of what he all along wanted to know in life, or why he had to be killed. By rewriting it this way, the reader could not infer the reason leading the death of the deceased. Based on this, his eyes would not have indicated anything concerning his death, nor would his face indicate any knowledge or comprehension of anything that had happened. In this case, it is indicated that he was murdered because of something he had an insight of; but which he had not understood until he was dying (Raymond, 2006).

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is clear from the story that the writer(s) wanted to pass a message to the reader that the deceased received an insight of something; which he had not known before. It can be said that, the murderers revealed a certain thing to him as they were killing him. On the other hand one can say that, he knew something but could not comprehend it until when he was being murdered.

References

Cruse, D. A., 2004. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Raymond, Derek, 2006. He Died with His Eyes Open. London: Serpents Tail

Roach, Peter, 2001. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. 3rd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Steinmetz, Sol, 2008. Semantic Antics: How and Why Words Change Meaning. New York: Random House Reference Publishers

Importance of Oral Language Activity

The most effective approach to engaging students in active speaking in a foreign language is the use of various communicative activities. The latter allows the teacher to create an environment of real communication. Spontaneous communication in the classroom occurs when the learning situation turns into a natural situation (Bachelor, 2017). This communication has the following features: its content is not always predictable; transitions from one topic to another are possible. In addition, unfamiliar or forgotten words and insufficiently learned grammar are required. During such classes, a variety of communicative strategies are applied  a foreign language is used in real action.

One exercise that can be used is to comment on proverbs and find their equivalents in students native Spanish. The usefulness of using proverbs and sayings in English in learning a foreign language is undeniable. Almost every person who learns English faces problems with pronunciation, poor vocabulary, slow and uncertain speech (Seraj et al., 2021). Performing this task helps to activate half-forgotten lexical and grammatical constructions. First, the teacher should show the students a list of ten suggested proverbs in English. Students may be asked to comment on how they understand the meaning of each of these sayings. This task develops spontaneous speaking skills  students have only about a minute to prepare. During this time, they are allowed to make notes in a notebook with the keywords that will be used in an oral statement.

The exercise that will be used involves practicing the social and academic language. The sayings themselves often contain information about the structure of society. In explaining their meaning, students will have to utilize words used in everyday speech. This is how social speech skills will be developed during this exercise. In addition to explaining the proverbs themselves, the teacher should ask the students what proverbs are, how they came to be, and so on. At the same time, it is important to control that the students feel the difference between explaining the meaning of the proverbs and reasoning about their essence. A slide with the words on it, which will help construct the answer, will be needed. If the teacher realizes that the students do not have much information about proverbs, it is necessary to hold a mini-lecture on this topic beforehand.

After each person has participated in the discussion, it is important that they reinforce what they have learned. To develop their writing skills, they could be asked to write an essay with the topic being a favorite proverb of the student. The length of the essay depends on how much time is left after the assignment has been completed. It is essential that while students are writing the essay, there will be phrases on the slide that will help them structure the essay. It would help if the teacher did not leave this assignment as homework. If there is enough time, students can continue to practice speaking skills  the teacher may ask them to retell the content of their essay in their own words.

Since the task requires offering equivalents of proverbs, it can be concluded that this oral activity successfully uses the connection with the native language. The teacher may ask students to comment on the similarities and differences between the two proverbs. In addition, there is a possibility that this kind of searching for equivalents contributes to a better memorization of the material. This happens on the basis of the students associations with their native language.

References

Bachelor, J. W. (2017). Increasing student communication and spontaneous language use in the L2 classroom: A careful consideration of the flipped classroom model. The TFLTA Journal, 6, 5-11.

Seraj, P. M. I, Habil, H., & Hasan, M. K. (2021). Investigating the problems of teaching oral English communication skills in an EFL context at the tertiary Level. International Journal of Instruction. 14(2), 501-516.

Language as a Tool for Marginalizing Certain Groups

According to Anzaldua, the Chicanas who have grown up speaking Spanish Chicano have concluded that other people spoke Spanish poorly. According to other people, the language has been used by the dominant culture for marginalization. Therefore, it resulted in language differences between the two groups (2950).

From the above quote, language has been used in extreme to damage the minority groups. Through believing that the dominant group speaks poor Spanish, there was a lack of comprehension and understanding of the significance of language, which further led to indifferences between the groups. At the same time, people use their fluency levels and mastery of art as a way of clustering people into different classes in societies.

In some instances, I have faced language discrimination or marginalization, which affected my personal life. I had just moved into a new state and had not mastered the common language spoken. Consequently, I did not shy away from telling the little I had learned; however, I was judged and marginalized by how I spoke the language. I believe that there exist ways in which this can be corrected, for instance, through political correctness. The government should provide guidelines that offer protection against marginalization or discrimination in language. Although most people believe that society is correct politically, the reality of the matter is that there is a need for addressing language in a step-by-step manner.

Moreover, there should be awareness creation on the consequences of underrepresented words regarding language. In our world today, there is a diverse range of identities regarding race or ethnicity. Therefore, it is crucial to consider our language and how we relate with one another, especially those we regard as minorities or the marginalized.

Work Cited

Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La frontera: The new mestiza. (1987).