Category: Linguistics 473

Assessment Design

In this assessment, students will choose a topic and have a conversation about the chosen topic for six minutes in pairs. Students will choose from the following topics: art, childhood, food, hobbies. It will be a summative assessment of the students knowledge of the four topics they learned during the semester. The type of this activity is a short informal chat in the form of interactive speaking.

The objectives for this speaking exam are as follows:

To enable students to speak on a topic of their choice in an informal atmosphere, develop their fluency and accuracy in word choice and sentence structure, and examine their understanding of the interlocutors thoughts and ideas. All speaking activities should be related to one of the chosen topics: art, childhood, food, or hobbies.

Secondary objectives are:

To demonstrate the use of topic-related vocabulary and choose proper words and phrases to describe the topic better.

The outline of the speaking exam is as follows:

• Provide students with lists of topics and words related to each of the four topics to ensure that they understand the task and remind them of the vocabulary.
• Explain to students the activity process: they should engage in 6-minute dialogues on one of the chosen topics.
• Provide all students with a rubric that will help them better prepare for the activity and receive feedback and grade from their fellows and the teacher.
• Ask students to write down possible questions and answers they will use in their conversations related to the chosen topic.
• Monitor students activity and provide constant feedback and assistance (for example, help with new words and pronunciation, remind the vocabulary).
• Give students some time to prepare for their conversation and allow them to rehearse their dialogues before the final assessment.
• Provide students with examples of some useful words and phrases they can use in their conversations:
• Art: A: Do you like art? What is your favorite kind of art?

B: My favorite art is (noun)

A: What art is popular in your home city?

B: The most popular art in my home city is (noun).

A: What can you tell about the work of art by (name of an artist)?

B: This work of art is (adjective related to art).

• Childhood: A: What activities did you enjoy in childhood?

B: I enjoyed (gerund verbs related to the topic)

A: What is your best memory from childhood?

B: My best memory is (word choice and sentence structure)

A: Do you think children growing in the countryside are happier than children growing in the city? Explain.

B: I think children who grow up in the countryside/city are happier because (list reasons).

• Food: A: What is your favorite food?

B: My favorite food is (vocabulary related to food)

A: What are the national meals in your country?

B: The national meals in my country are (vocabulary)

A: Tell me something about your diet.

B: My diet consists of (vocabulary)

• Hobbies: A: Do you have a hobby?

B: Yes, my hobby is (vocabulary related to hobbies)

A: What do you feel when you are engaged in a hobby process?

B: I feel (words related to the topic)

A: What activities make you unhappy?

B: I feel unhappy when I (vocabulary)

• Ask students to change their roles in the dialogues so that each of them could both ask and answer questions.
• Give examples of some students mistakes (anonymous) to provide them with feedback and assistance.
• Finally, listen to the students six-minute dialogues and assess them using the rubric.

Rationale

This exam is aimed to assess students knowledge of new words and phrases they learned during the semester. According to Spacey (2019), a lesson rationale explains why a lesson has value to students (para. 10). This speaking activity has value to students because it allows them to recollect the information they have already learned about the four topics mentioned above and check their pronunciation, vocabulary, fluency, and syntax.

The activity will be based on the five principles of language assessment: practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and washback (Baca, 2014, para. 1). The first principle is practicality, and it assesses whether the activity is practical or not. The chosen activity is not expensive and does not require much time to complete because it is a summative exam. Since students are required to use the words and phrases they have learned during the semester, they will only need time to recollect the words and create dialogues with the help of the topic-related vocabulary. Since the students and the teacher will receive the rubric before the exam, they will have some time to prepare for the assessment. The teacher will need some more time to grade each student, but they will stay within a short time frame.

As to reliability, the speaking activity should be assessed consistently. According to Tazik (2019), reliability has to do with consistent results in the students in different circumstances (p. 122). Using rubrics may be slightly subjective in the speaking exam because some students may feel nervous during the exam, and their fluency and pronunciation may suffer due to their stress. However, the rubric was made in such a way that an evaluators bias would be almost impossible. Moreover, if the students receive the rubric before the exam and the teacher explains how to use it, the risk of subjectivity in peer assessment will be minimal. At the same time, the exam will be unreliable if students are allowed to choose topics by themselves. Therefore, students should choose the topic randomly, without seeing the cards with the topic names.

The speaking exam is valid because it fully measures students speaking ability: word choice, sentence structure, pronunciation, and fluency. The exam will allow the students to demonstrate their speaking skills in the topics they learned during the semester. The teachers and other students feedback will be useful for the students to understand their progress and areas of improvement.

As to the authenticity of the speaking exam, it can be considered authentic because it imitates a real-world conversation. According to Hidayati (2016), the assessment is authentic because it represents classroom and real life settings (p. 141). Students will be able to display the use of new words and phrases in informal conversations.

The fifth principle of language assessment is washback. Washback is the influence of language assessment on teaching and learning (Bokiev & Samad, 2021, p. 555). Washback of the speaking exam is positive because students can train their skills and rehearse the dialogs before the presentation. Moreover, the teachers assistance and feedback during the activity will allow them to correct their mistakes and assess their knowledge before the exam.

Rubric for Assessment

References

Baca, M. (2014). Principles of language assessment: Practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, and washback. Blog Lightning R-md. Web.

Bokiev, U., & Samad, A.A. (2021). Washback of an English language assessment system in a Malaysian University Foundation Programme. The Qualitative Report, 26(2), 555-587. Web.

Hidayati, N. (2016). The authenticity of English language assessment for the twelfth graders of SMK (vocational high school) Negeri 4 Surakarta. Premise Journal, 5(1), 140-159. Web.

Spacey, J. (2019). 6 examples of a rationale. Simplicable. Web.

Tazik, K. (2019). Validity and reliability reports in applied linguistics research articles: The case of tests and questionnaire. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching & Research, 7(28), 121-134. Web.

On Language was weekly New York Times Magazines regular column that discussed some language-related topics such as new or unusual usages and popular etymology; the very first column was published on February 18, 1979. William Safire, a famous American journalist and columnist, was one of the most well-known and frequent contributors until he died in 2009. The purpose of this paper is to discuss Safires article that was titled Kiduage and also published in On Language.

Kiduage appeared in 2004 and became one of the most famous in this column. In this article, Safire assessed slang words evolution of over the years and evaluated a rather interesting phenomenon  the way teenagers are changing the dimension of language by coming up with new words and expressions. In the modern age, adolescents contribute to the development of the language and provide a new meaning to many words that used to mean differently in the past. For example, in this article, there is the term crunk that has been given a new meaning and now describes a person who is crazy and drunk simultaneously (Safire, 2004). Moreover, the author postulated that teenagers bring back some terms that were used in the past. For instance, tight, which has the extended meaning of innocent intimacy with someone (Safire, 2004). It is a rather interesting process of connecting a term and a meaning that were not supposed to be linked.

There are several reasons for teenagers to produce new words and meaning and change the language. Among others, Safire (2004) highlights that the state of excitement generates new verbs (p. 28). The introduction of words emanates significantly out of the information that adolescents acquire in their daily interactions. This article is rather crucial since it revealed the English language changing into various forms. Safire (2004) stated that hundreds of new expressions and words are being used to simplify lengthy words and craft new language relations amongst teenagers. Although many of these meanings are only known by adolescents  a small group of people, their continued development is undeniable and significant.

Reference

Safire, W. (2004). Kiduage. The New York Times, 6, 28.

Introduction

Under the processes of globalization and integration, the development of new techniques and methods of language acquisition becomes even more important. The ongoing cultural exchange and intensified business contacts stimulate the determination of the most effective and fastest methods for language acquisition. The term paper is devoted to the comparison of behaviorist and rationalist approaches to language acquisition.

The Differences in Scientific Methods

The scientific methods differ. They can be divided into behaviorist methods and rationalist ones. Nowadays most scholars think that both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages. Whereas the behaviorist approach considers a problem from psychological and philosophical concepts to some extent, the rationalists believe that only empirical methods should be used in research.

The Importance of Knowing the History of Language

Albert C. Baugh in his work on linguistics mentions that it is not expected that everyone should be a philologist or should master the technicalities of linguistic science (Baugh, p. 1). Certainly, he is right because there are a lot of different professions which require special knowledge and people have to spend more time on deepening their knowledge in their occupations. However, Baugh also states that it is reasonable to assume that the liberally educated man should know something of the structure of his language, its position in the world and its relation to other tongues, the wealth of its vocabulary together with the sources from which that vocabulary has been and is being enriched, and in general the great political, social, and cultural influences which have combined to make his language what it is (Baugh, p. 1).

The author of the book The Territory of Language: Linguistics, Stylistics, and the Teaching of Composition pays close attention to the pedagogical strategies that could help students to establish more practiced authority over the skills needed to write effectively (McQuade, p. 1). Without any doubt, the knowledge of the history of a mother tongue is crucial for everyone. In addition, without the basic knowledge of linguistics, it would be difficult to learn other languages.

The Differences between Behaviorist and Rationalist Approaches

The determination of the specific features of the behaviorist and rationalist approaches to language acquisition is necessary not only for the theory of linguistics but also for practical purposes. In contrast to the rationalist approach, the behaviorist one is based on situational analysis as well as the determination of the behavioral factors which impact the culture and language of a nation. The knowledge and understanding of these factors are important for the development of the methodologies for language acquisition.

The rationalist approach requires adherence to the fundamental principles of learning languages such as the enrichment of vocabulary, wording, and many others. It should be mentioned that the rationalist approach does not involve physiological concepts in linguistics research, while the behaviorists pay attention to them.

Conclusion

To summarize all above mentioned it should be said that the knowledge of the history of languages takes an important place in language acquisition. Modern linguistics uses the behaviorist and rationalist approaches each of which represents the specific methods to language acquisition. The knowledge of both approaches is important for a better understanding of the process of studying languages developed by different scholars.

Works Cited

1. Baugh, Albert. A history of the English language. 2nd ed. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1959. Questia. Web. 2011.
2. McQuade, Donald A. The Territory of Language: Linguistics, Stylistics, and the Teaching of Composition. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986. Questia. Web. 2011.

Performance is the use of knowledge, skills, and abilities to accomplish any work. The performance also shows how a question of ethnic identity can be linked to humor. It also helps in a proper understanding of the building of white as an ethnicity. Performance also helps in an essential part of building Indian ethnicity. Performance can describe group standards through enacting their opposites, sending the message (Hill, 2008). Competence means having adequate skills, knowledge, and capacity that enhances humans ability to perform a task. Linguistic competence is in contradiction with linguistic performance. Linguistic competence is the language precisely as it is in the human mind, while linguistic performance is the language that human speaks. Linguistic performance is restricted while linguistic competence is infinite. Performance limitation at times creates grammatical ambiguity, which is the existence of two or more meanings within one sentence, and misunderstanding.

Prescriptivism is the concept that is all about inflicting some rules on the operation of language. According to this idea, people impose regulations to use the correct language during communication (Hill, 2008). These rules may include vocabulary or spelling. These rules are grouped into two constitutive laws and regulative rules. Regulative rules are assigned agreements. They are entrenched and sustained artificially. Constitutive rules are submitted observations. These rules occur and are supported naturally.

Descriptivism deals with the analysis of simple language that native speakers exercise without emphasizing correct or proper use. A good example is a language spoken by a group of people in the same age group in the same area (Hill, 2008). Both prescriptivism and descriptivism are engaged with the shape of language. Prescriptivism deals with how the language must be used, while descriptivism deals with how the language is used. Descriptive concentrates on how local and non-local speakers use language without observing norms or references of the correctness of rules. Prescriptivism concentrates more on imposing standards of correctness and setting constraints followed by the people using the language (Hill, 2008). In descriptivism, rules are made each day using the language by the local or non-local speakers. In prescriptivism, rules governing the language and set of standards are specified. In descriptivism, language usage change according to the speakers meaning it does not follow norms. In prescriptivism, language must follow grammar restrictions set by the native speakers of the language.

Language is a way through which people change or can their information with other people. Communication is the process by which information is conveyed from one person to another. Language is an arrangement of communication that depends predominantly on non-verbal or verbal codes to give the information. Communication is how people exchange information or messages between more people or two, emphasizing the message (Hill, 2008). Language is an instrument of communication. Communication is the way of exchanging messages or information. The methods of communication do not change. Language everyday new day new words are added to the dictionary (Hill, 2008). Language changes incrementally since new words are formed. Communication is termed static; this is because the steps and methods remain the same. For example, in any language, English, French, Chinese, sign language, or any language, people learn to convey a particular message to another person who knows the same language. The language here is termed as the instrument of communication. For instance, if someone wants to say am here, they can use any language to convey the message, but communication is all about the information, not the language.

Reference

Hill, J. (2008). RacismThe Everyday Language of White Racism. Hilla John Wiley & Sons Publication.

To begin my research, I had to define the keywords and search terms which would be utilized. They would also have to be divided into categories. First, it was important to find articles and papers that explore the more general topic of second language acquisition. Second, the search narrowed by including papers which targeted language acquisition among Arabic-speaking students, non-adult learners, and papers which included the use of technology in their literature reviews or studies. As such, the search terms included second language acquisition, Arabic-speaking, English acquisition, children, technology, online learning, as well as other variations of these terms. Some of the terminology overlapped in certain papers, while most of them are specific to each paper.

The following list includes a number of peer-reviewed journals. The journals were from the list provided in the class or from other sources which were respected within the language learning field. From the suggested list, the journals that were selected included Second Language Research, TESOL Quarterly, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, and Applied Psycholinguistics. Other selected journals included Language Learning & Technology, Language Teaching Research, Focus on ELT Journal, and the International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies. All of the articles have been peer-reviewed and published recently. The databases that were used to find these articles included the Cambridge University Press, the La Trobe University Library, ProQuest, and for papers that are slightly more difficult to locate, the Google Scholar engine was employed.

There is a distinction between the papers as some are literature reviews, either of theoretical investigations or past experiments, while others are studies that have been recently implemented. The literature reviews allow for greater insight into patterns found within language acquisition and past practices that can then be compared with recent developments in language learning. The studies show the direct effect of certain methods or issues that are currently being observed within the field of language learning. Both types of papers are inherently important to further the research on my specific questions regarding language acquisition in Arabic-speaking students.

A specific portion of the papers is primarily concerned with learners that are originally Arabic-speaking. As such, it is essential to understand the primary issues which such students encounter. These can include grammatical errors that are commonly encountered, such as pluralism or pronunciation difficulties. Other issues can include the lack of motivation, practice options, or engaging methods of learning. Essentially, the papers discuss the prevalence of these issues and whether any current methods are able to assist with language acquisition in the case of such issues.

Additionally, the list of articles includes both studies and reviews of subjects that are both adults and children learners. Current academic research in the field of language learning is primarily focused on adult subjects, but studies concerning children also exist. In an age in which technology is widely available, especially for the purpose of studying, it is interesting to observe ways in which younger learners are able to utilize these tools. Additionally, patterns between children learners can indicate ways in which adult-learning issues can be better addressed.

A significant number of the papers also address the implementation of technology, online practice, and studies, as well as their effects on language acquisition. More and more frequently, new tools and software are becoming available in order to perfect language learning. As such, it is essential to understand and analyze the effectiveness of such new technology.

References

Atkinson, D., & Shvidko, E. (2019). Natural Pedagogy in Second Language Learning and Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 53(4), 1083-1114.

Azaz, M. (2020). Structural surface overlap and derivational complexity in crosslinguistic transfer: Acquisition of English genitive alternation by Egyptian Arabic-speaking learners. Second Language Research, 36(4), 529556.

Godwin-Jones, R. (2018). Chasing the butterfly effect: Informal language learning online as a complex system. Language Learning & Technology, 22(2), 8-27.

José De la Fuente, M., & Goldenberg, C. (2020). Understanding the role of the first language (L1) in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA): Effects of using a principled approach to L1 in the beginner foreign language classroom. Language Teaching Research.

Kazu, I. Y., & Issaku, Y. (2021) The opinion of ELT students on technology-based classroom approach. Focus on ELT Journal, 3(1), 3342.

McEnery, T., Brezina, V., Gablasova, D., & Banerjee, J. (2019). Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 39, 74-92.

Oliver, R., & Azkarai, A. (2017). Review of Child Second Language Acquisition (SLA): Examining Theories and Research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 62-76.

Paradis, J., Rusk, B., Sorenson Duncan, T., & Govindarajan, K. (2017). Childrens Second Language Acquisition of English Complex Syntax: The Role of Age, Input, and Cognitive Factors. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 148-167.

Safaa, M. A., & Maram, H. H. (2018). The Acquisition of the English Plural Morphemes by Arabic-Speaking EFL Learners. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 6(2), 3439.

Williams, S. A., & Korko, M. (2019). Pause behavior within reformulations and the proficiency level of second language learners of English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 40(3), 723-742.

Wilson, R., Dewaele, J., Schmid, M. S., & Dusseldorp, E. (2010). The use of web questionnaires in second language acquisition and bilingualism research. Second Language Research, 26(1), 103123.

Father, mother, banana, hello, and lollipop are among the first words that a child learns to pronounce. The adult spellings for these words are dad, mom, banana, hello, and lollipop. A child would pronounce these words in various forms as listed. The pronunciation of dad by kids is dada, daddy, or papa, and mum is mommy or mama. Most children pronounce banana as nana, and hello is commonly said as ahoy. For lollipops, many kids tend to change the wording of the word to sound like poppy-pop. As children grow, they learn new and different words that they pronounce in various unique ways as they attempt to say them correctly.

I hypothesize that these are the first words a child would learn because they carry essential meaning and are frequently mentioned in their little world. For instance, if a child requires something, they would first call their mother or father, who are the closest people that a child first builds trust. Many children tend to have lollipops as their first snack, thus learning to pronounce them whenever they see or want one. A banana is also a common first fruit for many children. Thus, they learn to pronounce it earlier than other words.

Furthermore, greetings are another significant part of early speech development in a child. Hello is the most common type of greetings learned, primarily because of its overuse by adults while making phone calls. Children mostly use cooing, nouns, and verbs as the most common first sounds. Nouns refer to objects, and people and verbs refer to things children would like to do (Oller et al., 2013). For instance, a child can say play, sing, or dance without making actual sentences and still communicate effectively to their caregivers.

A child speaks mostly to attract attention, express their current emotional state, ask for something, and seek play from others. Children primarily intend to attract attention when they speak and react by crying if their needs dont get met (Hutauruk, 2015). In conclusion, despite childrens quirky expressions of words, they still manage to communicate efficiently with the people around them. Moreover, people find it enjoyable to listen to children say the words distinctively.

References

Hutauruk, B. S. (2015). Childrens first language acquisition at age 1-3 years old in balata. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 20(8), 51-57. Web.

Oller, D. K., Buder, E. H., Ramsdell, H. L., Warlaumont, A. S., Chorna, L., & Bakeman, R. (2013). Functional flexibility of infant vocalization and the emergence of language. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(16), 6318-6323.

Introduction

The short story under analysis is entitled Crimson Abbey. This horror story dwells upon a patient at a mental hospice of the future. It is necessary to note that the story addresses an issue of insanity, which is quite popular in modern society. At present, literate people tend to cherish their sanity, and diving into insanity seems the most horrible outcome for them (Tayler 2016b). At the same time, the story touches upon such themes as faith, love, parenthood, which makes the story potentially interesting to a wide audience.

The story is well-written and can become popular as it follows major rules of horror writing. There are such elements as suspense, fear, and surprise (Tayler 2016a). The story can also be characterized by a fresh approach that is important for the modern reader. This paper includes a brief analysis of such elements as genesis, horror stories conventions, audience and market, language, and material language. The paper also includes a reflection on the work.

Genesis

One of the most important elements of a good horror story is the major theme and setting. The story in question touches upon such topics as faith and religion, and it is set in a monastery. Scott (2012) addresses the issues of religion and spirituality and comes to quite an interesting conclusion. According to Scott (2012), the major aim of religion is to scare people and to make them fear. The ideas highlighted in the book became central to the short story in question.

It is doubtless that faith and religions have inspired and sometimes forced people to do different great and horrible things. Marina, the protagonist of the short story, is one of the victims of faith and the Holy Catholic Church. The short story makes people think about the dark side of their faith. The appeal to this area and some of the most intense fears of a human being makes the short story relevant and potentially popular.

Readership / Market and Possible Outlets

As has been mentioned above, religious issues are still relevant in society, which makes them a good theme for fiction writing. Horror stories, novels, and films attract large audiences that include people of all ages and different backgrounds (Tayler 2016a). Some various subgenres and subtopics can be used. Reyes (2014) notes that contemporary horror writing is characterized by body gothic as the stories are packed with details concerning corpses and associated details. The present story has certain features of the body gothic story, which makes it a part of mainstream fiction.

It is necessary to note that the short story can be published in a variety of literary magazines. Dietz (2014) claims that both digital and print magazines can be a proper platform for a short story. The author also adds that it can be beneficial to take part in a contest, which increases the chances of getting into the public eye. The short story under consideration can be published in one of such magazines.

However, it is also possible to address several publishers (both big companies and small enterprises). The focus can be on large publishers as they have the necessary resources to bring the story to a wide audience (Anderson 2013). These companies products are more publicized and more noticeable. Nevertheless, a small (local) publisher can also develop a platform for the storys success. The use of social networks can also help in promoting the story.

Principles and Conventions of the Genre

It is necessary to remember that the major factor contributing to a short storys success is the literary value. Publishing and marketing are the only elements that create a platform for success. Therefore, a short story should be properly written to become successful. Crimson Abbey is written by the major conventions of the short story. There is suspense, fear, and surprise in the short story. Suspense is achieved through the use of numerous intensifying details.

The protagonist becomes a witness of a horrific scene where another patient loses her child and is violently beaten. The details include the patients half-naked body, blood, and the associated noise and screaming. Suspense is also created through the description of Marinas visions and thoughts. Her inner world becomes quite an effective contrast with reality.

One of the first scenes described above also sheds light on the protagonists (and the readers) major fear related to the loss of a child. The major conflict is developed around this topic. However, at the end of the story, the reader is still surprised. It is anticipated that Marina will lose her child, but it can be quite unexpected that she kills all of the carers. At that, the major surprise is the appearance of the protagonists husband who eventually strangles her to death.

A Fresh Approach

The short story in question can be regarded as an illustration of horror stories conventions. However, the use of contrasts can be regarded as a fresh approach. There are several contrasting points in the story. The material world is contrasted with the spiritual one. For instance, the talks about faith and quotes from the Bible are intermingled with the description of female bodies and dying people. Furthermore, the world of religious delusions is contrasted with reality, the protagonists insanity is contrasted with the hospice employees pragmatism.

Material Elements of Language

As has been mentioned above, the suspense is achieved through the use of details that create the scenery as well as the necessary mood. The focus is on sound and color in this short story. When describing the hospice, patients abuse, scenes of murders, Marinas walk outside the hospice, specific attention is paid to sounds. Sounds create the mood and help the reader to plunge into the atmosphere.

For instance, the description of sounds of a fight including the sound of nails escaping the victims flesh creates a microcosm of the scene that can make the reader feel the pain of the victim and the abuser. Sounds appeal to the readers fears making the story scary. At the same time, colors help to set the scenery. The color is one of the central themes, and it is present as early as in the title. Another example of the use of material language is the prevalence of quite short sentences. This tool enables the author to make the story dynamic and create the necessary suspense at the same time.

Advanced Elements of Language

Horror stories like any other type of fiction writing benefit from the use of literary devices that make the writing more appealing (Reyes 2014). Since the story is related to religion and faith, it is but natural that several allusions are used. For example, the story includes allusions to the structure of the afterlife world (heaven, limbo, and hell). References to the Bible also create conflicts that make the story stronger. Apart from allusions, the use of metaphors and similes (as well as the abundance of adjectives) makes the story detailed and even picturesque.

Reflection

I believe all these tools and methods are used to contribute to the short storys effectiveness. The short story is an effective horror story that can become successful among wide audiences. First, the story addresses the topics that are relevant to contemporary society. People willingly discuss various instances when religious beliefs led to deaths and destruction. People are likely to be willing to read about such instances. The story is also effective as it follows all the major conventions of the genre. Horror stories lovers will be delighted to enjoy all those details that create the scenery and the atmosphere.

When writing a story, I already had a plot in my mind. However, the story evolved in quite an unexpected way. I decided to add the scene involving Marinas husband as I wanted to create a sense of surprise. First, I thought of an accident, but it came across my mind that the husband could take the reader by surprise especially his decision to kill his wife. Of course, I changed numerous details and words during the editing process. Anderson (2013) stresses that editing is an important element of writing and it is essential to be ready to change a lot. I understood that it could be quite difficult to change some parts as every word seems to be related to other ones.

I would also like to note that I was influenced by the reader-response paradigm. I believe that writing a story is a form of communication. When talking to people, I always try to make my remarks relevant, helpful, and amusing. Writing a short story is nothing different. I tried to understand the readers fears, anticipations, prognoses, and so on. I also asked several people to read the short story and provide their feedback.

Anderson (2013) notes that peers feedback can be valuable. I changed some parts to meet the needs of potential readers. I think this approach has positively affected the short story that became more interesting, intense, and horrifying. It is quite clear to me that the writer is not writing for him/herself, but tries to entertain people. Hence, it is essential to understand peoples needs and fears to write an effective short story.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is possible to note that the short story Crimson Abbey is an example of a conventional horror story characterized by the use of some fresh approaches. The focus on details (sound and color) makes the story intense and horrifying. Another peculiarity of the story is its being consistent with readers needs and expectations. The short story is effective as it appeals to a wide audience and people can live through some of their most intense fears while reading the piece. It is also noteworthy that the book can be published in different ways. It can be a part of a literary magazine or even a participant of a competition held by a literary magazine. Social networks can be another effective platform for the storys promotion.

Reference List

Anderson, L 2013, Creative writing: a workbook with readings, Routledge, Abingdon.

Dietz, L 2014, Online versus print: the reputation of literary fiction magazines, Short Fiction in Theory & Practice, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 7-21.

Reyes, XA 2014, Body gothic: corporeal transgression in contemporary literature and horror film, University of Wales Press, Cardiff.

Scott, S 2012, Religion vs spirituality  one psychics point of view, BalboaPress, Bloomington.

Tayler, H 2016a, 11.18: elemental horror. Web.

Tayler, H 2016b, 11.21: Q&A on elemental horror, with Steve Diamond. Web.

Introduction

The word bitch in the modern world can be used in several ways, for example, traditionally as an insult or as a joke appeal among friends. This word has a long history of use in a negative context against women, but the peculiarities of its meaning were changing. Even though the bitch has long been used as a tool of humiliation, the modern world weakens its negative sense.

Discussion

The word bitch was not always an insult but only applied to a female dog. The Online Etymology Dictionary (2022) traces its history back to the Old English bocce used for dogs, which probably originated from the Old Norse bikkjuna of the same meaning. Its application to women dates back to the 15th century, and in the 18th, it became one of the most brutal offenses (Zhou, 2020). Such an appeal was supposed to show that women cross borders.

Bitch as an insult was tied to its original meaning. The word applied to women that showed strong sexual desire, like the dog in heat (Cooperman, 2021). In the 20th century, the use of bitch became more common, for instance, in media or literature. According to Zhou (2020), this trend was a reaction to the womens suffrage movement to protest their receipt of such power that traditionally belonged to men. However, the world is changing, and the bitch is decreasingly used as an insult.

The humorous use of the word bitch carries more positive connotations. For example, Cooperman (2021) believes that such appeal promotes camaraderie when applied to a group of women. In some cases, bitch is used for persistent and confident women and may be regarded as a compliment (Cooperman, 2021). A gradual shift from using this word as an insult can help change its meaning and make it more positive.

Conclusion

Thus, the word bitch comes from Old Norse, and its original meaning is a female dog. However, since the 15th century, it has also been used to insult women. Often, such treatment should have reminded women that they were outside the boundaries of societys accepted behavior. In the modern world, bitch is used in a more humorous approach, which contributes to changing its meaning to a more positive one.

References

Cooperman, J. (2021). The evolution of the bitch. Common Reader. Web.

Online Etymology Dictionary. (2022). Bitch. Web.

Zhou, L. (2020). Use of the word bitch surged after womens suffrage. Vox Media. Web.

In my opinion, language development occurs during a specific time in a persons life, which is known as a critical period. First language acquisition happens due to exposure to the language between age two and puberty (Hartshorne et al., 2018). After this stage, it becomes more difficult for an individual to learn the language. The existence of the critical period is exemplified by the case of Genie Wiley and bilingualism.

Genie Wiley is a girl who grew completely isolated from human contact because she was confined by her parents and denied important childhood milestones. When she was rescued at the age of thirteen years and nine months, Genie could not speak (Carroll, 2016). She was exposed to language for several years after her rescue. Although Genie developed lexicon, she could not acquire grammar (Carroll, 2016).

The case of Genie supports the critical period hypothesis (CPH) because it shows that developing language after a certain age is difficult or in this particular case, impossible. Studies on bilingualism and language development also support the critical period theory. According to a study conducted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, people are skilled at learning a second language up to the age seventeen or eighteen years (Trafton, 2016). Additionally, they can only achieve the proficiency level of a native speaker if they start learning it by age ten, which confirms the CPH.

I would advise parents to expose their children to language early in their lives. During this stage, the brain actively engages in language processing. Children can easily learn new words and then how to form sentences from these words. For a first language, language acquisition after puberty becomes more challenging or even unattainable in some cases. Learning a second language is also harder in adulthood. Due to these findings, it is advisable for parents to initiate language development when their children are still young.

References

Carroll, R. (2016). Starved, tortured, forgotten: Genie, the feral child who left a mark on researchers. The Guardian. Web.

Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition, 177, 263-277. Web.

Trafton, A. (2018). Cognitive scientists define critical period for learning language. Massachusetts Institute of Technology News. Web.

Language variations between speakers of two different languages have existed for quite a long time. The variations between Chinese and English are seen in their expressions of politeness, formality, solidarity, and discourse, and genre type often cause misunderstanding between the communicating parties.

For example, when a native English speaker says Hello!, How are you? practically it is a polite way of greeting among English speakers, but a Chinese speaker may interpret it to mean a lack of concern due to its generality. Similarly, a Chinese will approach greetings with such statements as Have you completed the work?, where did you go to? What are you doing now? etc. to express politeness and concern to the other person.

In reality, the two speakers place a lot of value on politeness in any statement or speech. However, an English speaker may easily be persuaded to believe that the Chinese way of greeting is offensive and even unacceptable.

In the study of sociolinguistics in 1971, Labov as cited in Bonvillain (1997) described basic sociolinguistic question as one posed by the need to understand why anyone says anything rather than a critical analysis of the specific form of grammar used for the ease of social connections between the two different speakers (p.29).

It is thus more important to seek a functional explanation in the study of sociolinguistics, where the explanation is meant to help foster the social relationship between the two speakers.

Introduction

As a Chinese, Working with a native English speaker can be quite complex in many aspects. The variations between Chinese and English are seen in their expressions of politeness, formality, solidarity, and discourse. It may be tricky if the social purpose of communication between two speakers of different languages is not achieved.

In the study of sociolinguistics in 1971, Labov, as cited in Bonvillain (1997), described basic sociolinguistic questions as one posed by the need to understand why anyone says anything rather than a critical analysis of the specific form of grammar used (p.29).

So in the study of sociolinguistics, one could interpret this to mean that the actual goal of the theory of uttering a word or making a statement is to expose why the statement was made or for what purpose was it made in order to achieve the social goal interaction and sharing. In short, it is more important to seek a functional explanation in the study of sociolinguistics.

This paper seeks to establish a comparison between English and Chinese languages in use in the context of choices and conventions that exist in relation to such dimensions as politeness, solidarity, and discourse. It also investigates the available explanations in the literary world together with specific instructions on how to manage such choices in each of the two languages.

Further, it also explores how adequately such texts reflect how the choices are typically employed in our speech communities, and finally relating the findings to the larger role of sociolinguistics in building linguistic competence and social cohesion.

In every society, there are rules governing communication. One such rule is the expression of politeness in the spoken word or statement made. In different languages, it is important to note how a greeting, for example, is expressed in the speech as a sign of politeness.

According to Brown and Levinson, cited in Zang (1993), greetings occur in all languages and that they provide the basis on which to start a new conversation in an appropriate manner and at the same time, for the establishment and maintain social relationships.

In an interview with one of the Chinese negotiators, Lai Lam, in Chinese- American contract to build roads in China, he expressed disappointment with the way Americans show lack of commitment in the negotiation process right from the moment of introduction, highlighting some introductory greetings like Hello! to be too brief and show little concern (Singleton 2000, p.9).

Similarly, a Chinese will approach greetings with such statements as Have you completed the work?, where did you go to? What are you doing now? etc. to express politeness and concern to the other person. In reality, the two speakers place a lot of value on politeness in any statement or speech.

However, when I interviewed one of my schoolmates, who is an English speaker, he is easily persuaded to believe that the Chinese way of greeting, as highlighted above are offensive and even unacceptable.

Under normal circumstances, a native Chinese will find it normal to greet a long-time friend who he or she had not seen for say a decade as, there is no change in you, you still look young just like you were ten years ago, why? realistically, a native English speaker will be offended by that and will definitely interpret the statement to mean that there is no progress in his or her life as expressed by my interviewee.

Xu Langguang, cited in Lihua (2001, p.90), calls this variance individual-centered versus Situation- centered. That native speaker of English is from a culture which advocates for individual-centered approach, where only needs, feelings, and privacy of individual take center stage in all levels of communications.

On the other hand, the culture of the Chinese influences them to be situation-centered and in essence, emphasizes the groups needs as well as concerns rather than privacy.

In expressing formality, the degree of variations exists between native and non-native speakers. For instance, when I asked approached one of my friends, Jose, with the question, When will you finish this job?, Its taking you too long to finish the work, yet I want to see you this afternoon?, as an English speaker, he considered this to be more of an abrupt command than a sincerely polite request.

Luzhu (2000), however, explains that a native Chinese speaker, due to their limited linguistic resources, would find it easier to shorten and simplify pre-sequence structures and just make a more direct request, which sounds abrupt to the native speaker.

He further elaborates that most Chinese do overuse pre-sequences in rather informal situations when talking about trivial issues, and when the social distance is short, a situation that is likely to create misunderstanding with a native speaker of English (Luzhu, 2000). As a native Chinese speaker, I will, in a formal situation, ask questions like What? when asking a colleague to repeat something he or she said or uttered.

To an English speaker, this sounds rather rude, and in actual sense, the English will feel offended. In normal informal situations, a native English speaker will not be asking a person he or she has just met his or her age, marital status, income, level of education, type of job, as shown by my interviewee.

He considered these information formal issues and a taboo in the informal situation. A Chinese instead does not differentiate the formality or informality and hence can apply it anywhere. Xuezeng (1999) explains that there are many differences in the area of taboos that exist between the Chinese and the western culture and that one problem of communication in this area is usually found in the way the two groups treat privacy issues.

Singh (1996, p.212) says that there are specific communication rules, which they refer to as a principle or regulation that govern conduct and procedure. In communication, the rule acts as a system of expected behavior patterns that organize interactions between individuals.

These rules mainly rely on the context to which the language is spoken and thus are as diverse as language itself. Singleton (2000) further explains that intercultural communication can be very complex and difficult because the rules that govern communication is not only fixed within the cultural context but is also bound by the context.

Hatch (1992, p.233) says that what worsens the situation is that people tend to transfer the rules of guiding their own culture of communication to the intercultural communication, which eventually causes the conflict or misunderstanding. I will briefly look at some of the theories put forward by different scholars to explain these concepts the solution.

Leechs Politeness Theory in English culture

According to Leech, cited in Hatch (1992, p.139), politeness involves some level of maxims. Some of the maxims, which I could consider to be relevant here, are Approbation maxim (minimizes dispraise of others, maximize praise of others), and Modesty maxim (minimizes praise of self, maximize dispraise of self).

The politeness core ingredient is seen in the way Chinese regards the act of valuing and respecting others at their expense. That is, they can afford to minimize self-praise to cultivate the virtue of modesty and politeness, a strategy that may not go down well with the English native speakers.

Lihua (2001, p.90) gives an example that as a native English speaker, you may be tempted to offer a sincere compliment such as you look pretty today! and the native Chinese responds negatively as, no am not pretty may sound abnormal and unreasonable to the native speaker but to the Chinese, it is purely a sincere and honest way of expressing modesty and politeness.

Brown and Levinson Face theory

Brown & Levinson, cited in Singleton (2000, p.66), front two theories to explain the face aspects. The first is a negative face, which represents freedom of action, and the second is the positive face that everybody would want to appreciate (p.67).

Simply put, the negative face is the message that you do not want to be disturbed and wants independence while positive one wants to be connected to the others.

Why is this important? It is expected that if someone makes a negative comment in a conversation and the other party expresses disapproval through negative face, the person responsible for this response should be ready to act to save the face. Likewise, if the face is positive, then it means approval, and it should be acknowledged.

Gu Yueguos Theory in Chinese Culture

Gu, cited in Singleton (2000) and Luzhu (2000), says that there are some notions that are the basis of Chinese politeness concept: respect for other which is interpreted as respectfulness, denigration of self which is interpreted as modest, warmth toward other which is described as attitudinal warmth and refinement in language use.

This is important as it explains some of the negative Chinese responses to a genuine compliment and further explains why the native English speakers response to some of the greetings from the native Chinese speaker, as highlighted earlier in the paper.

How can these problems be solved? It must be noted that many of the problems and failures that occur between the native and non-native speakers of the language are as a result of the non-native speakers failure to acquire the culture of speaking the language.

In other words, they are still under the strong influence of their native language and culture, and this result in the notion that what might be perfectly normal in one culture may actually be completely unacceptable in the other culture of the language.

According to Labov, cited in Singleton (2000), people should learn to accept the fact that people from different language cultural backgrounds express themselves differently when at different situations with different audience i.e., depending on the social setting.

He adds that the problem may be significantly simplified by just focusing on one major aspect of style (Singleton, 2000). For example, in the formality aspect, He observes that at any one moment, everybody communicating across culture will make at least an intuitive distinction between formal and informal manners of expressions.

Even though many scholars and researchers acknowledge that formalitys definition is sometimes ambiguous in itself, Hatch (1992) outlines the underlying assumption that most approaches that form formal languages have some traits of special attention to form does not hold much but the most fundamental thing is that one gets to communicate effectively.

Speech Communities

Ordinarily, many people would not see any form of confusion on what kind of language they speak. That is, they would not see any form of offense towards another non-speaker of the language. For instance, the Chinese, Japanese, or Korean speaks Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, respectively, as Coulmas, cited in Wardhaugh (1986, p.27), puts it language and ethnicity are virtually synonymous.

A Chinese may find it somewhat surprising that a person who appears Chinese does not speak Chinese, something that may also happen to speakers of Japanese.

According to Hudson & Ferguson, cited in Bonvillain (1997), there are some human speech patterns such as sound, words, and grammatical features that we can uniquely associate with some external factors such as geographical locations or social groups. These variations make the specific community of language known uniquely to a specific group of people known as the speech community.

So what the role of sociolinguistics in building this knowledge? In simple terms, the work of the sociolinguistics is to basically determine if the unique sets of patterns in language do actually exist. It is the work of the sociolinguistic to identify such areas as while some people may be claiming that they speak a particular language, they may not, on most occasions, be fully qualified to as the original speakers of the language.

This is because, as they may be speaking, they may realize that what they said was not actually what they passed as the message to the listener. Likewise, a native speaker of the language will accept the reality that the variations exist, not just merely in grammar but mostly in choices and conventions to accomplish the goal of communication, social cohesion, and understanding.

Reference List

Bonvillain, N. 1997. Language, Culture, and Communication: The Meaning of Message. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hatch, E. (1992). Discourse and Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lihua, W. (2001). Cultural Comparison of using language properly in English and Chinese. Journal of Anshan Teachers College 12, 3(4): 90.

Luzhu, L. (2000). Contrast of English and Chinese and pragmatic failures in the cross-cultural communication. Journal of Liming Vocational University, 28:39.

Singh, R. (1996). Towards a Critical Sociolinguistics. New York: John Benjamin Publishing Company.

Singleton, D. (2000). Language and the lexicon: An introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wardhaugh, R. (1986). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Xuezeng, D. (1999). Comparison of Chinese and English Culture and Customs. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Zhang, A.W. 1993. Whats Wrong? Beijing: Huaxia Publishing House.