Category: Linguistics 473

Introduction

In my exploration of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), I came across words with interesting backgrounds and meanings. However, the ones that most interested me were able, chagrin, and dictionary. Of the words to the left of chagrin, I chose chaft as I wanted to learn more about it. I chose the suffix able as it is frequently used in the English Language.

Discussion

The suffix able originated from the Latin language word abilis. It is a suffix-forming adjective and is a French word. This suffix occurs in numerous adjectives in French formations and is also borrowed in other formats, for example, Latin, e.g., capable, mirable, etc., both of which are adjectives and have been in use since the 12th century. From verbs in the first French conjugation in -er, the suffix was expanded in French to form adjectives from verbs of all other conjugations. Examples are nourissable (nourishable) from verbs in ir, mouvable (movable) from oir, défendable (defendable) from re verbs. The suffix was then broadened to the derivatives of deverbal adjectives in English as exhibited in hybrid word formats with German roots, for example, mistrowable and unspeakable. It was further broadened to form denominal adjectives from the 16th century to the early 18th century. Examples include saleable and carriageable (Oxford University Press).

The second word selected was chagrin (noun), which means a type of leather or skin with a coarse surface, commonly referred to as shagreen. This word originated from the French language. It means a coarse and granular skin used to polish or file a surface. This usage of the word has been widespread since the 17th century and has been undergoing changes in meaning. It was used in 1678 to refer to the rough skin of a fish, in 1766 to mean a black skin full of small scales, and in 1842 to mean a tuberculated skin of the wild ass that the Levantines make the grained leather. A second meaning of the word is a shagreen (chagrin)-like surface, and this came into existence around 1734. A third meaning, that which troubles the mind, came into usage in the mid 17th century, precisely in 1656 when it was used to mean a heaviness or anxiety of the mind. This meaning has been in use to date. A final meaning of the word is a severe annoyance due to a disappointment, and this came into usage in 1716 and was used in Lady M. W. Montagues Letters published from 1716 to 1718. The word was again used in Plutarch in 1770, and the meaning is still in use. What surprised me about the word was that it can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

The third word I explored was dictionary; a book that gives information about the words of a language, this includes the orthography, pronunciation, use, synonyms, antonyms, history, and other aspects or some of these. Joannes de Garlandia, an English native, used the word Dictionarius in 1225 to refer to a collection of Latin vocables organized according to their subjects, for students use. In the early 14th century, Berchorius wrote a Dictionarium morale utriusque Testamenti, made up of moralizations on the major Vulgate words for use in theology studies. In 1538, Sir Thomas Elyot printed his Latin-English dictionary, and in 1556, John Withals published A shorte dictionarie for yonge beginners in English and Latin. Withals arranged his book according to the subject headlines. In the 17th century, the word was slowly expanded to books explaining English words. Only hard words were explained in the early English Dictionaries. This has changed, and modern dictionaries incorporate all English words.

The word dictionary has been in use since the early 15th century; W. de W. used it in 1526 to refer to Bercherius work; N. Bailey published a book entitled An Universal Etymological English Dictionary in 1721, and in the 19th century, R. W. Dale used the word in Lect. Preach. vi. 181 to explain that A dictionary is not merely a home for living words; it is a hospital for the sick; it is a cemetery for the dead. The word may also be broadened to mean a book of information on any branch of knowledge in which the items are organized in alphabetical order, for example, a Dictionary of Architecture, Medicine, History, etc. The most interesting feature about this word is its rich history and the semantic processes it has undergone through the centuries.

The final word is chaft and is in the column to the left of the word chagrin, and it originated from schaft and chaff, German and Dutch words, respectively. It means making a chewing movement with the upper jaw. However, the word refers to the upper jaw, a meaning that has been in use since the early 15th century. Besides, chaft also means a comb, for example, chaft-blade, or chaft-bone. This meaning has been used since the early 14th century in books such as Chirurg. (1634) by Lowe, Atkinson used the word Chaff-bone to refer to the jaw-bone in 1634 (Oxford University Press)

Works cited

Oxford University Press. Oxford English Dictionary Online. 2009. Subscriber: University of Houston-Victoria Library.

Introduction

Area studies, as interdisciplinary fields of research, have assumed greater importance in the light of the growing need to understand the cultural differences that exist between nations. Area studies programs usually include subjects that are associated with humanistic disciplines. Foreign philology constitutes an important part of area studies. This may be attributed to the fact that area studies have their origin in the development of foreign literature and language. It is the intercultural dimension of foreign language learning that gains emphasis in the area studies programs.

Different fields may be defined within the area studies program. These fields are not absolute and may vary from university to university. However, some of the common fields of area studies include African studies, American studies, Latin American studies, Asian studies, European studies and Pacific studies.

The ways in which foreign philology is integrated in the different fields of the area studies program give us an insight into its present orientation.

 Courses offered by Princeton University

For instance, Princeton University, situated in New Jersey, US, offers both undergraduate as well as graduate courses in Hellenic studies.

Undergraduate program in H ellenic studies

The undergraduate program caters to the needs of those students interested in the interdisciplinary study of the Greek world, ancient Byzantine or modern, as well as the classical tradition (Princeton 1). The program includes language courses in Modern Greek and postclassical Greek apart from the seminars in Hellenic studies, introductory courses in Byzantine and Modern Greek studies (Princeton 1) with seminars in the relevant areas as well as senior thesis discussion group for the concentrators of the program.

Graduate program in classical and Hellenic studies

The Graduate Program in Classical and Hellenic Studies at the Princeton University has been developed for those students who are interested in

(1) the study of the transmission and reception of the classical tradition, or (2) the study of Greek language, literature, history, or culture in the Late Antique world, Byzantium, or modern Greece (Princeton 1).

Furthermore, the graduate curriculum includes work on classical languages, literature and history (Princeton 1). Besides these, the students are allowed to choose between Byzantine and the Modern Greek period (Princeton 1).

The Russian, East European and Eurasian Center (REEEC) at the University of Illinois

The Russian, East European and Eurasian Center (REEEC) at the University of Illinois offer high quality graduate as well as undergraduate programs in Russian, East European, Eurasian and Balkan studies. Its programs include interdisciplinary undergraduate major and minor as well as graduate certificate program in Russian, East European and Eurasian studies (REEC 1).

B.A & M.A degree programs

The B.A and M.A degree programs in Russian, East European and Eurasian studies offered by the Illinois University are tailor-made to suit the varied needs of the students. These provide different approaches to the study of these interdisciplinary fields within the format of a single discipline. The students are exposed to the politics, history, languages, cultures and societies of these regions.

Instruction in the Illinois University is given in nine languages: Bulgarian, Czech, German, Polish, Old Church Slavonic, Russian, Serbian-Croatian, Turkish and Ukrainian (REEC 1).

Graduate Minor in Balkan Studies

The Graduate Minor in Balkan Studies is designed for those students who are interested in complementing their M.A or PhD program with an interdisciplinary study of the Balkan regions. The basic qualification for the students eager to pursue this program is a minimum of two years of college-level study of a language of the region&Students must also submit a research paper primarily on the region (REEC 1).

The department of Slavic and Eurasian studies, Duke university:

The University offers graduate programs in Russian literature and culture, Slavic linguistics and Eurasian studies.

The masters of art degree

The degree is given in Russian literature, Slavic linguistics and Eurasian studies (Slavic 1). Students who have undergone four years, or equivalent of undergraduate courses, in Russian or any other Eurasian language will be eligible to do research in the original language (Slavic 1). Additionally, reading knowledge of French or German is required.

Undergraduate program information

• The undergraduate programs offer two majors and three minors. The majors include a major in Russian language and culture and;
• a major in Slavic and Eurasian Studies. (Duke 1)

The minors include Russian culture and language, Russian literature in translation and Minor in Turkish studies.

The Department of European Studies at the San Diego State University

The emphasis on foreign philology in the Area Studies Program offered by various US universities becomes more prominent in the case of Central European Studies. For instance, the Department of European Studies at the San Diego State University offers Majors in German incorporating different aspects of the German study that caters to the varied interests of the students.

B.A in German

The B.A program in German involves several upper-division German courses aimed at developing a proficiency in the German language among the students. Along with the German language, the students also undertake specialized courses in language for specific purposes, linguistics, literature, film, civilization and all the cultural areas where the language acquisition is put to use.

Requirements

The basic requirements for the above course include, among other things,

a minor (or double major) in another field, and completion of an approved study abroad program in a German-speaking country consisting of at least six units/90 hours (Rohan 1).

B.A in German with emphasis on German Studies

The B.A program in German with emphasis on German Studies offered by this university involves preparing the students in the German language while giving them an insight into the history, culture and societies of Germany as well as German- speaking central Europe.

Requirements

Certain basic requirements must be fulfilled by the students willing to apply for the above post. International experience is not an essential prerequisite, but a highly desirable one.

Conclusion

To conclude, it may be said that the importance of foreign philology in the area studies program can be judged from its primordial function of bringing to the forefront the cultural differences that exist between different societies. It plays a key role in bringing the nations closer through better understanding and appreciation of the variety that exists and that cannot be ignored. The gradual transformation of the world into a small global village has forced the nations to come together and work in tandem for overall development. In this context, development of foreign languages and literature plays a crucial role. Hence, steps must be taken to encourage foreign language acquisition which will also enrich our literary and cultural world.

Works Cited

Duke. Undergraduate Information. Duke.edu. 2010.

Princeton. Undergraduate. Princeton.edu. Web.

Rohan. Major Program. Rohan.sdsu.edu. 2010.

REEC. Minor Students. REEEC.Edu. 2010.

Introduction

English has become a global language. It is the adopted language of many non-English speaking countries. Literary works are being produced in hundreds from places where English is still a second-language for the masses. However, the cultural influences on the language are undeniable. This influence has led to the formation of different structures and styles in the English literary arena. Alastair Pennycook (2003) suggests that post-colonial literature in English has been strongly influenced by the local as well as the original language of the coloniser.

The social, political, and economic influence of the adopted language has developed a linguistic imperialism in the texts produced by the non-English speaking countries (Pennycook 2003, p. 7). Further, English of the colonised countries has transformed due to the influence of the original language of the coloniser and the local language of the colonised. The dual influence of the colonised and the colonisers linguistic variations has created a heterogeneous world language (Pennycook 2003).

In other words, global English has become a hybrid language. Consequently, English adopted by the colonised varies significantly in form, style, grammatical usage, and other linguistic characteristics. Largely, the influence of local culture changes the adopted language (Pennycook 2003). In this paper, I discuss the variations in the linguistic style and structure of literary English used in the Caribbean. For this purpose, I will analyse a part of the text from the novella The Girl with the Golden Shoes, written by Colin Channer (2007). I believe, the cultural and social impact on the adopted language creates variations in linguistic style and structure. This is analysed using an excerpt from the novella, Big Tuck sat with his belly & you what to do with you life? (Channer 2007, pp. 23-24).

Background of the Novella

Literature in English from the Caribbean became popular in the 1950s. The novella by Channer was set in 1942, during the Second World War. The novella was published in 2007. Channer is a Jamaican living in the US. He is a believer of the Creolization of Caribbean culture and believes that the presence of cultural plurality helps in creation of a hybrid identity among the Caribbean people.

The novella is based on the historical setting of the Second World War, in the fictitious island of San Carlos, somewhere in Jamaica. This reflects the authors inclination towards the Caribbean. Further, the dialogues in the novella are mostly in the Caribbean English that creates a unique amalgamation of the English and Caribbean dialects.

The influence of the Caribbean Creoles in the language used by Channer in the novella is evident through various aspects of the text. The genesis of the new Anglo-Caribbean language occurred during the colonial rule and the plurality of identity that colonisation created among the Caribbean people (Winford 2006; Murdoch 2012). Murdoch (2012, p. 68) points out that the English languages in the Caribbean evolved and transformed itself. This gave rise to manifold & structure and effect (Murdoch 2012, p. 68). In the following section, I will discuss the cultural variation in the language of The Girl with the Golden Shoes and the linguistic changes that have occurred due to this hybridity of the English language.

Linguistic Analysis

Standard and Non Standard English

Kathryn Shields (2006) point out that the social mores and attitude in Jamaica in the decades of nineteen forties and fifties closely modulated the Standard English form, however, the native speakers were unable to follow this standard, and hence, a Jamaican Standard was formulated. English was believed to be the elite tongue of the educated Jamaican. However, the native speakers usually resorted to the broken English that did not adhere to the structure of the Standard English. This was termed as Jamaican English (Sheilds 2006, p. 7). This discrepancy between the Standard and Jamaican English is evident in the excerpt from The Girl with the Golden Shoes.

Omission of preposition contrary to the Standard English syntax is present in the text. For example, you only want keep me here to fish (Channer 2007, p. 24). In Standard English, some verbs, adjectives, and nouns come with specific prepositions. The use of these prepositions is predefined and mandatory according to the syntax of the language. In this specific example, the sentence should have been you only want to keep me here to fish. The omission of to before keep in the sentence, expresses the syntax used according to the Jamaican English.

In another instance, the format of asking a question has been modified: Is where you getting these thoughts (Channer 2007, p. 24). This should have been From where are you getting these thoughts? This again is an example of non-standard usage of English. Further, pronouns have been wrongly used in the text. For instance, them has been used instead of their in the sentence How hard them work could be more than selling fish (Channer 2007, p. 24).

The use of non-standard English in dialogues helps the readers understand the cultural background of the characters. The language demonstrates the use of a different kind of non-standard English typical to Jamaica. The wrong use of English in the dialogues was deliberate. It helped to understand how Jamaican English was spoken. Further, the wrong usages demonstrate that the economic class of the characters is lower than that of the elite, English-speaking class of Jamaica. Therefore, the deliberate use of non-standard English has helped the writer to create characters and establish their ethnicity.

Morphology and Syntax

Jamaican English does not conform to the Standard English rule for the use of contraction and auxiliary verb in sentences (Sheilds 2006). In the excerpt from the novella, the non-standard use of English is evident in the dialogues. The dialogues have errors in grammar according to the syntax of the Standard English. For instance, I aint disbelieve you or from the other day she start to read she getting different (Channer 2007, p. 23).

In these two quotes from the dialogues, it is evident that the non-Standard English of the Caribbean has been used. I aint disbelieve you has been used instead of I dont disbelieve you. It is apparent from the text that Jamaican English substitutes dont or do not with aint. In many of the dialogues from the excerpt, do not or did not has been used as aint. Some other instances where dont have been interchangeably used for aint are as follows:

1. She aint suppose to drink no rum. It aint have any beer? (Channer 2007, p. 23).
2. Rose, you aint see shes a woman? (Channer 2007, p. 23).
3. I aint know what kind o work there is (Channer 2007, p. 24).
4. But I just aint get the chance to even know what I could do. (Channer 2007, p. 24).

The language of the novella is simple. It adheres to the narrative structure of a fable infused with magical realism. However, the infusion of the text with cultural lingo is unavoidable. Therefore, a deliberate tendency to adopt Jamaican English in the narration is observed in the excerpt. Aint is used as a contraction for to do not, which is a non-standard use of the contraction and is usually observed in Jamaican English (Irvine 2008).

Aint is also substituted for did not, thus emphasizing on tense-neutrality in the adopted English of the Caribbean. Channer uses the generic aint to denote both do not and did not to emphasize the tense-neutrality of Jamaican English. Tense neutrality and wrong use of contractions allowed Channer to build a character that was Jamaican. The presence of the linguistic variation in the dialogue created characters those were not like the other English-speaking characters from novels written in English. Instead, Channers characters are distinctive because of the kind of English they speak.

The text demonstrates wrong use of verb. Wrong application of singular plural verb is observed in the use of is in the text. For instance, Things is things. This shows a disagreement between the subject and the verb in number and person. This sentence should have been written, as Things are things (Channer 2007, p. 24). The text uses is instead of are that shows a deliberate use of the non-Standard English. This subject verb disagreement has been observed in other parts of the text as in case of she start to read she getting different, She start to know everything, she teach herself to read, and when she tell me (Channer 2007, p. 23).

In all these cases, singular noun as the subject requires singular form of the verb. According to Standard English, she tell, she teach, or she start are wrong. In another instance, the verb has been omitted from the sentence: Who going to tell me (Channer 2007, p. 24). In this sentence, the copula be is the verb that forms the sentence. Therefore, the sentence in the Standard English syntax should have been Who is going to tell me.

Use the wrong form of verb-tense is observed in the text. Channers dialogues are imbued with wrong verb-tense usage again directly point to a deliberate attempt to show the hybridity of the language. For instance, from the other day she start to read she getting different (Channer 2007, p. 23) shows deviation from the standard English. First, Channer uses from the other day where the preposition from has been wrongly used.

Further, the tense of the verb get is wrong. The sentence would have sounded correct if it was written as follows: You know, the day she started to read, she became different. This wrong use of the English syntax is deliberate. Further, the incorrect use of the word got shows a deviation in the semantics. Channer wants to emphasize the cultural setting of the novella through deliberate syntactical error.

Clearly, the language used by Channer in the novella for the dialogues is different from that of the narration. The characters speak in non-standard English. There are various errors in syntax observed in the text. Primary of these are the subject and number agreement, which is not marked by finite verbs. Further, the verb does not show inflection as there is almost no use of -s and most of the verbs are used in their regular form. The omission of tenses while describing scenarios creates a time-vacuum in the novel. However, the avoidance of verbs is common in Jamaican English.

Punctuation

The punctuation of the speeches is used perfectly, as commas, periods, and question marks used in the appropriate places. The dialogues were within parenthesis as demanded by the conversation structure of the English literary works. However, in one particular sentence a hyphen has been used instead of a period: She start to know everythingeven things that nobody aint suppose to know until they dead (Channer 2007, p. 23).

This sentence should have been divided into two sentences instead of the hyphenation. In another instance, a statement has been punctuated with a question mark: Rose, you aint see shes a woman? (Channer 2007, p. 23) The sentence in its correct grammatical form should have been Rose, you dont see that shes a woman. This is a statement, and not a question. The deliberate use of wrong punctuation show that hybrid Jamaican English has different stresses and narrative styles. The mixed language of the Jamaicans, as demonstrated by the text, does not adhere to the standard form of writing and speaking English. Hence, Channe, stresses on these differences in order to establish the disparity between Standard and non-Standard English.

Conclusion

The linguistic analysis of the excerpt from The Girl with the Golden Shoes show that adopted English in post-colonial literature is heterogeneous in nature as they are infused by local cultural mores. The influence of Jamaican English in the text of Channers novella makes it more close to the syntax and morphology of Jamaican English than that of Standard English.

References

Channer, C 2007, The Girl with the Golden Shoes, Akashic Books, New York.

Irvine, A 2008, Contrast and convergence in Standard Jamaican English: the phonological architecture of the standard in an ideologically bidialectal community , World Englishes, vol 27, no. 1, pp. 9-25.

Murdoch, HA 2012, Creolizing the Metropole: Migrant Caribbean Identities in Literature and Film, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana.

Pennycook, A 2003, Beyong Hegemony and Heterogeny, in C Mair (ed), The Politics of English as a World Language: New Horizons in Postcolonial Cultural Studies, Rodopi, New York, pp. 3-18.

Sheilds, K 2006, Standard English in Jamaica, in K Bolton & BB Kachru (eds), World Englishes: Critical Concepts in Linguistics Volume 2, Taylor & Francis, New York, pp. 5-16.

Winford, D 2006, Re-Examining Caribbean English Creole Continua, in K Bolton & BB Kachru (eds), World Englishes: Critical Concepts in Linguistics, Volume 2, Taylor & Francis, New York, pp. 17-75.

Content analysis is a term used to refer to the act of altering the symbolic composition of a document from qualitative form to quantitative form. Content analysis may also be described as an example of coding. Coding means compiling similar elements or behaviors into a reduced number of categories. It is normally done on firsthand information collected by the investigator of a given study.

In content analysis, for instance, coding is done for different purposes apart from research but made available for the purposes of studies and researches. In both cases, however, coding schemes are developed to help in the quantification of data (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

It is important to note that coming up with a coding scheme plays an imperative role in the process of content analysis. Coding schemes vary depending on the variables and the hypotheses that form part of the study. During content analysis, investigators may come across already existing coding schemes. Similarly, some researches develop their own coding schemes depending on the situation of their research. Despite the fact that both cases are acceptable during any study, existing coding schemes come in handy. They are particularly helpful in saving the time of researchers, their money and energy (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

There are quite a number of characteristics that make coding schemes viable. For instance, they must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive. Exhaustive coding schemes are easily developed in situations where there are only limited probabilities in a study. Mutually exclusive coding schemes, on the other hand, apply in situations where only precise definitions are required for every category (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

After establishing the categories for a study, it is important that researchers make rational decisions of the exact aspects of a document to be recorded for the purposed of their study. This is usually done through the four units of analysis. They include a major character, a theme, a word or a paragraph. The most reliable unit is a word.

This is because it allows researchers to record the existence of some words in the documents conveniently. For instance, just one word may be able to qualify as a suitable indicator of the subject investigators need to measure depending on the number of times it appears. In the event that this happens, this word then becomes the preferable choice for the study (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

A theme, as opposed to word, refers to the subject matter of the study. It is important to note that well-constructed documents are channeled towards portraying a single theme and hence the theme can be pointed out by their readers. The main character is also a unit of analysis that can be used in content analysis especially by basing arguments on the most outstanding character in a document like a play. A sentence, just like every other unit of analysis, can be used to categorize a document. However, this unit of analysis may not be very reliable when formulating mutually exclusive categories since it is generalized (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

During content analysis, investigators normally come across latent coding and manifest coding. Manifest coding is a term used to refer to the coding done on the prevalent content of a document. For instance, manifest coding can be denoted by the number of times a word appears in an excerpt or document. Latent coding, on the other hand, is used in situations when the investigator has to decide whether a word, sentence or theme is represented in a document to portray a broader category or not (Monette, Sullivan, & De Jong, 2010).

Conclusion

Content analysis involves a number of considerations all of which are applied differently. The variables for this subject matter are all distinct. However, they correlate but are all used separately on separate occasions. Their incorporation in the analysis of a subjects aims at establishing the most comprehensive quantitative analysis of the subject.

Reference

Monette, D. R., Sullivan, T.J., & De Jong, C.R. (2010). Applied Social Research: A Tool for the Human Services (8^th Edition). Boston, Mass: Thompson Publishing.

Introduction

Research in Applied Linguistics and Discourse Studies (ALDS) is often focused on describing inter-language systems, cognitive mechanisms accounting for the inter-language systems, examination of social, affective as well as neurobiological systems which impact the development of the second language (Bryan, 1988). Research is also used to evaluate the impact of the instruction process on content delivery. This is in addition to the comparison of native and non-native linguistic systems and how speakers applied them to natural discourse among others. In the recent past, researchers have been keen on establishing the best research techniques that can help best evaluate the aforementioned areas as well as other areas of interest. Benson evaluates the use of qualitative research in the evaluation of foreign and second language teaching. His research puts lots of emphasis on the role that qualitative research plays in studying various aspects of language delivery to students (Benson et al., 2009). As mentioned in his research, he pre-supposes that over the decade through his research evaluates journals; qualitative research has risen to occupy an even important position in applied linguistics and discourse studies. A presumption of which, he goes further to prove through a series of well-elaborated research steps. Despite the stepwise and careful structure of his, research Benson fails to some key areas which would have further refined his findings.

Research gaps

It is not unusual for research papers to have some gaps in their findings. In reality, it is almost impossible to have perfect research papers that evaluate all aspects of the study subject. Likewise, Bensons paper has some gaps which will guide the direction of the current research. Firstly the research ignores the impact of quantitative research methods and instead focuses purely on qualitative methods. Even then it fails to provide a clear distinction between qualitative, quantitative, and mixed research approaches (Bryan, 1988). Instead, it includes mixed research approaches as qualitative (Benson et al., 2009). It is important to acknowledge that such inclusion could easily impair the findings of the research. Additionally, Bensons research purely focuses on major journals in engaging teaching and learning and hence fails to capture discourse analysis and JSWL. The research is also based on old data which may not reflect the current trends in applied linguistics research. These gaps formed the basis for the formulation of this papers research questions.

Research questions

This paper was guided by the following research questions:

• What are the research trends in Applied Linguistics and Discourse Studies (ALDS) regarding quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method research?
• Do the results of this study support or refute Benson et al.s (2009) findings?
• How does the use of primary research and secondary research relate to research in Applied Linguistics and Discourse Studies?
• What other research methods are employed in researches on Applied Linguistics and Discourse Studies?

Methodology

The full class of 2010 linguistic students participated in the development of this research. Their role involved the evaluation and classification of journals articles touching on applied linguistics and discourse studies. The participants were charged with the responsibility of distinguishing between the various research paradigms adopted by the journal articles. However, this could only be possible once the appropriate journals were promptly identified. Several steps, therefore, dictated the research process. These included:

Identification of appropriate research journals

Unlike Bensons article which focused on learning and teaching journals (Benson et al., 2009), this research broadened to include discourse analysis and JSWL. In general, this stage involved the identification of journals with content on applied linguistics and discourse analysis. Further, noting that such journals would be enormous in number, the selection of the journals was limited to those which some level of global endorsement. Unlike, Bensons study, the articles used for this research were purely based on 2009 -2010 journals. This made the research more representative of the current scenario as compared to Bensons. The following articles were chosen for this purpose:

1. Discourse Studies
2. CMLJ  The Canadian Modern Language Journal
3. Journal of Second Language Writing
4. TESOL Quarterly
5. Studies in Second Language Acquisition
6. Applied Linguistics
7. Modern Language Journal
8. Language Learning

Identification of the research methods employed

Other than the two common research paradigms often employed, the study further classified the articles based on the sources of data used (Borg, 2002). This involved classifying them as either based on primary research or secondary research. This was in addition to classifying the same articles as either based on quantitative or qualitative research.

Collection of statistical data

The number of articles in each classification was then counted and the results tabulated.

Data analysis and interpretation

With the help of excel, the data collected was used to generate a series of bar graphs which formed the basis for analysis and responding to the earlier stated research questions. The graphs are used to compare the number of quantitative approaches used against the number of qualitative approaches. Additionally, the data assists in the comparison of primary research against secondary research in terms of numbers.

Results were displayed in form of tables and pie-charts shown below:

Where the number labeling on the horizontal axis represents the following:

1. Discourse Studies
2. CMLJ
3. Journal of Second Language Writing
4. TESOL Quarterly
5. SSLA
6. Applied Linguistics
7. MLJ
8. Language Learning

The bar graph reflects the findings of the qualitative, quantitative and mixed research distribution in applied linguistics and statistics. While some record high number of qualitative research prints, others record relatively low numbers. In general, no research approach show predominance over the other as the trend show a shift in distribution from one journal to another.

The totals across the journals are as shown by the pie chart below:

The pie chart gives a generalized statistics outcome of research trends with regard to qualitative, quantitative and mixed research approaches. Qualitative research claims a commanding share of generalized appearance across the journals with 46%.Quantitative and mixed methods trail behind with 30 and 24% respectively.

Comparing primary research usage and secondary research usage yields the following bar graph.

Where

1. Discourse Studies
2. CMLJ
3. Journal of Second Language Writing
4. TESOL Quarterly
5. SSLA
6. Applied Linguistics
7. MLJ
8. Language Learning

The bar graph displays a total dominance of primary research usage over secondary research. Secondary research use is relatively limited across all the journals.

The descriptive statistics table gives a more detailed view of the researches findings. Other than the forms of articles used in applied linguistic and discourse studies mentioned earlier, the study reveals that there are other forms commonly used though are rarely mentioned. These include letters, editorials, reports, and review. Another form rarely mentioned was author defined approaches to research. Surprisingly, Reviews recorded very high number of appearances in journals with one instance recording a maximum of 29 appearances and the overall count exceeding all forms of articles. Reviews also record the highest mean, followed by primary research and qualitative research.

Discussion

The researches findings successfully answer earlier stated research questions. Firstly, it is important to mention that the trends indicate that qualitative researches use has over the years grown in number. From the results obtained, it is evident that large portion of researcher prefer to use qualitative. Figure 2 shows that in total 46% of the researches evaluated, qualitative research methods were used. This is however contributed to by the large percentages recorded in Discourse Studies, CMLJ, SSLA and the Journal of Second Language Writing where a large portion of the results are based on qualitative research. The same cannot be said of the other journals where a relatively low percentage of qualitative approach usage is employed. These findings reveals that researchers are currently adopting use of all quantitative, qualitative and mixed research methods as deemed appropriate unlike the earlier assumption that quantitative research was the dominant choice.

In terms of primary versus secondary research usage, primary research remains a largely dominant approach used in research. Figure 3 reflects a complete dominance of primary research usage across all the journals used. This is confirmed by the relatively high amount of researches adopting the use of primary research as compared to secondary research. All the journals used in the study record high use of primary research. It can be conclusively said that primary research is more favored as compared to secondary research in the field of applied linguistics and discourse analysis.

In general it is important to mention that while the research outcomes conforms Bensons findings that use of qualitative research has gained popularity over time, it goes further to establish the relation between primary research usage in comparison to secondary usage. Additionally, it reflects a number of other research techniques used by researchers in applied linguistic and discourse studies. These include letters, editorials, reports and reviews. Author defined methods are also gaining popularity among various researchers. Reviews however, seem to be gaining popularity at a rate higher than the other techniques.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important to mention that while the research confirms Bensons findings that the use of qualitative research is growing in popularity, it goes further to highlight and the other forms of research too are growing in popularity. Unlike, quantitative research whose usage seems to have decline if the common assumption of its popularity is to be employed, reviews seem to be gaining significant popularity. This is best illustrated by the large mean it receives.

However, it is important to mention that the research too had some shortcomings which future researches need to overcome in order to produce more conclusive results. Firstly, the journals covered were mainly based on 2010. As such, these may only represent the case of 2010 and not the overall emerging trends. Additionally, the journals covered were few in number and as observed, they displayed different results when handled independently more so with respect to qualitative, quantitative and mixed research approaches. A large sample could have therefore potentially affected the outcomes of the results. Future researches should therefore attempt to bridge these shortcomings.

References

Benson, P. et al. (2009). Qualitative research in language and teaching Journals, 1997-2006.The Modern Language Journal, i, 79- 90.

Borg, R. W. (2002). Educational research: An Introduction: New York: Longman.

Bryan, A. (1988). Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Routledge.

In Why Redskins is a Bad Word, author and an associate professor of English and comparative literature, John McWhorter, writes about the phenomenon of the negative association of a word acquiring. In this essay, the author explains why ordinary words can possess another meaning different from their literal ones and confirms that Redskins became an insult. By comparing the situation with Californias ban of the use of the name Redskins with the term Oriental, the author shows the prevalence of the phenomenon called the euphemism treadmill. Discussing the meaning of the term Crippled, John claims that the realities of discrimination meant that crippled had a less neutral connotation after a while (McWhorter para. 9). Despite this word being previously the appropriately descriptive one, it obtained a negative association in accordance with the phenomenon. The author concludes the essay by showing that the term Redskin indeed predictably became a mean one in the contemporary world. John McWhorter explains the rationale behind banning the name Redskins by revealing the related phenomenon and bringing appropriate instances.

John McWhorter successfully supports with evidence his valid arguments that there is a phenomenon according to which words can obtain negative associations over time. His arguments are persuasive as they are based on showing numerous other concrete instances of transforming the words meaning into negative ones. He provides an explanation of how the phenomenon functions, grounding his claims on a description of the other expert Steven Pinkers terminology to the issue. It is apparent that John McWhorter has the authority to research this topic and make such alleges, as he is a specialist in languages, philosophy, and sociology of language. In addition, John is a teacher at Columbia University and has significant experience in essay writing.

Work Cited

McWhorter, John. Why Redskins Is a Bad Word. Time, 2015, Web.

Writing an essay can be challenging when an individual meets a writing block. However, there are several writing techniques such as freewriting, responding to the text, brainstorming, or journaling that help to deal with this problem. This paper aims to utilize freewriting and responding to the text techniques to create a piece of writing that will serve as a basis for an academic essay.

I chose the article by Stefan Dege, Why We Hate to Wait, published in dw.com. In this article, the expectation is considered in a negative way  such as waiting in lines, and in a positive way, for example, when a child is waiting for Christmas. The author reflects why, for many people, waiting is so intolerable. He comes to an unexpected answer: as a rule, individuals believe that they are controlling time, but in the process of waiting, circumstances take power over them and their time.

Reading this article, I wondered if there were any ways to avoid waiting by accepting it as a phenomenon. Therefore, when I got to the paragraph about an African country where instead of what time is it, it is customary to ask, what is the time ripe, I was excited. The idea that expectation usually takes place in places that are a bridge between time and space also impressed me (Dege). For some reason, I was fascinated by this metaphor of timelessness, and I felt the desire to create some creative project related to this concept.

Here are the topics for an academic essay that come from my response. Firstly, it will be interesting to discuss projects of bright, colorful, and human-friendly waiting sites. Secondly, the benefits of prescribing specific times for admission and other timing practices in medical and administrative institutions can be studied. Finally, it would be interesting to analyze the texts of African writers, utilizing the concept of waiting and the concept of time.

Thus, freewriting and responding to the text writing techniques were used to find possible academic essay topics. To summarize, this exercise was interesting and useful for developing writing skills and overcoming the writing block. Besides, through the use of the mentioned techniques, three exciting topics for academic essays were found. This exercise has proven effective compared to conventional brainstorming when searching for essay topics.

Work Cited

Dege, Stefan. Why We Hate to Wait. Deutsche Welle, 2020, Web.

Introduction

Since ancient times, the Chinese people have had a special attitude to the written language as a normative and correct one. On the opposite, spoken language has always been much more prone to deviations and the appearance of non-normative elements. However, the development of the Internet has led to the emergence of new language features that formed an interactive communication model. The Chinese language has formed a certain set of tools for implementing electronic communication, which has led to the revision of the usual approaches to the analysis of language phenomena. The language of online communication is a linguistic anomaly against the background of a standard language. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the effects of texting on Chinese writing and the language itself.

Main body

The Chinese Internet language called wÎngluò yÔyán is an interesting linguistic phenomenon that has its own laws and development paths. Fundamentally new ways of using language resources, such as graphic elements, vocabulary, and grammar are observed precisely in the chat rooms, forums, and the most popular multifunctional application WeChat (Zhu, 2019). Against the background of the process of traditional standardization of language and writing in China, the language of online communication as a linguistic phenomenon stands apart. It is a combination of the spoken and written language, more reminiscent of the process of live communication, with its typical characteristics such as dynamism and increased expressiveness.

Online communication for Chinese users is complicated by the fact that the process of entering hieroglyphs is not as simple and efficient as for the alphabetic languages. They either type pinyin transcription on the keyboard or write the characters manually using touchscreen technology (Wang and Wang, 2017). The first method is faster and easier than to manually write complex hieroglyphic characters. The contradiction between the speed of entering hieroglyphs and the basic principle of online communication leads to the development of strategies to overcome these difficulties. Chinese words in online communication are written either completely in the Latin alphabet or the combination of hieroglyphs and letters, as well as various borrowed words representing abbreviations. For example, hieroglyphs are often replaced by Latin letters, such as ni instead of ` nÐ, which means you(Cheng, 2018). As a result, these strategies simplify the language and lead to a decline in its sophistication.

The Chinese Internet actively uses the English vocabulary, which is common in any other foreign-speaking online community due to the presence of the English layout on most devices. The use of English letters and abbreviations consisting of the initial letters of the transcriptions of hieroglyphs are popular due to the speed of input, as well as the desire to make speech emotionally expressive and stylistically marked (Wang and Wang, 2017). Typically, the Chinese use abbreviations for the words of kinship, for example, gg instead of gge (elder brother), mm instead of mèimei (younger sister), or tx instead of f tóngxué (classmate) (Cheng, 2018). The variety of electronic communication means is not limited to borrowed words and abbreviations. In order to speed up message input, Chinese under-30 Internet users actively replace lexical units and grammatical indicators with numbers that are often repeated, for example, 5 instead I, 0 for you, and 88 or b
b
 for bye-bye (Baihui and Fengjie, 2017). On the one hand, this phenomenon facilitates the decline in the sophistication of the Chinese language. On the other hand, these examples testify not only to the popularity of this tool in electronic communication among Chinese users, but also the fact that it has reached the level of international communication.

The widespread romanization and penetration of Latin letters into the Chinese language system caused the so-called interference processes. It is known that the traditional Chinese characters leave no room for abstract thinking since the characters are separated from the sound. However, due to foreign intervention, a synthesis of hieroglyphic and alphabet writing systems is being formed today, thus changing the traditional way of Chinese writing. Due to the penetration of English words in the Chinese language, new syllables appear, which differ in the composition and sequence of elements (Cheng, 2018). Lexical changes begin to influence the phonetic and even grammatical structure, which is due to the peculiarities of the structure of the Chinese language system as a whole. These phenomena can be observed in the writing mainly of the younger generation (Zhu, 2019). However, all of these changes are actively becoming commonplace, entering into the everyday speech of the vast majority of Chinese speakers.

The relationship between texting and the standard of the literary language is an important aspect of the functioning of Chinese on the Internet. Naturally, there are concerns about the negative effects of netspeak on the Chinese language, as well as other languages. Like English speakers, who lament a decline in the sophistication of English, Chinese should be even more worried about the impact of texting on language transformations. The abundance of symbols, Latin letters, hieroglyphs, transcription elements sometimes baffle even the most active Internet users (Siok and Liu, 2018). The Chinese are often forced to understand the meaning of new expressions and signs that regularly appear on the Internet. For this reason, the Internet language as a special kind of communication attracts the attention of the Chinese authorities. As a result, official lists of the most popular words, phrases, and neologisms dictionaries are published.

The simplification of many language and speech norms is particularly important to linguists. Some experts like David Crystal call these processes a natural change (Crystal, 2018). The linguist says that texting is unable to completely transform the language; it is just an adaptation to the new electronic environment. The use of numbers and abbreviations is characteristic of this need. However, some experts notice a certain change in the lexical composition of the Chinese language, manifested in the formation of numerous word hybrids. When learning the Chinese language, it is required to fix in memory, not two, as in languages with a phonetic type of writing, but three links, mainly reading, meaning, and graphic form. Computer input of a hieroglyph, which does not imply writing a hieroglyphic character by hand decreases the writing skills of young people (Siok and Liu, 2018). This reduces the knowledge of Chinese writing to passive recognition of printed characters. For this reason, the Chinese authorities are concerned about young people who ignore the grammatical rules of the normative Chinese language not only in online communications but also in exam papers in educational institutions.

The problem of the Chinese literary language norms, which is already quite acute, is becoming even more relevant in the current situation when the conditions of communication are changing so rapidly. Many language and speech norms are simplified due to the certain neglect of the rules of spelling and punctuation, including the so-called pseudographics, as well as blurring the boundaries of traditional genres and functional styles. At the same time, researchers also note the phenomena associated with the language complication and the presence of a tendency toward the intellectualization of modern culture (Crystal, 2018). This is manifested in the widespread use of terms outside the scientific style of speech, as well as lexico-grammatical models of foreign speech. These phenomena complicate the perception of information, require special intellectual efforts and additional knowledge, thus making communication more meaningful and rich. Such examples suggest that the simplification of the Chinese language in electronic communication proceeds in parallel with the processes of its complication.

Conclusion

The Internet language in China is a complex and controversial phenomenon, inevitably representing an organic part of the modern Chinese language and sometimes changing the language standards beyond recognition. The scale of the replenishment of the Chinese vocabulary in the 21st century, largely due to online communication, allows talking about the ongoing transformation. Bright, imaginative, emotionally colored lexical units accurately describe the phenomena of the new Chinese reality and quickly become fixed in the consciousness of the speakers. However, along with the positive effect of the Internet users creativity and adaptation to the new electronic environment, information technology also has a certain negative impact on the language system, especially writing. Given the features of the Internet as the main medium of communication, various distortions and substitutions among modern youth lead to the erasure of language standards. As a result, the violation of norms becomes widespread and goes beyond the boundaries of the online environment, gradually penetrating into the official language.

References

Baihui, S. and Fengjie, L. (2017) The analysis of anti-language from the perspective of current situation of netspeak, International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 5(2), pp.50-56.

Cheng, S. (2018) A contrastive analysis of word formation of English and Chinese neologisms, Theory and practice in language studies, 8(2), pp.251-256.

Crystal, D. (2018) The language revolution. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Siok, W.T. and Liu, C.Y. (2018) Differential impacts of different keyboard inputting methods on reading and writing skills, Scientific Reports, 8(1), pp.1-13.

Wang, D. and Wang, S. (2017) Research on features of chatroom netspeak from a stylistic view, Studies in Literature and Language, 15(1), pp.43-46.

Zhu, L., (2019) New approach to Chinese writing: An exploratory study of writing performance on social Q&A online community, Chinese Language Teaching Methodology and Technology, 2(1), pp.17-31.

The power of language is a unique ability peculiar to human beings. Although some animals can communicate in non-verbal ways, making different sounds can hardly be called a speech. The language became the primary tool for communication between people, with which thoughts were transmitted from one person to another, from individual to society as a whole. In the modern world, peoples life is impossible without a language, since the birth, words, and expressions sound around them. Human life consists of interactions; the solution of specific issues depends on the effectiveness of the communication.

The most prominent example of the influence of language on society is the usage of proper language skills in politics. With their speech, the politicians create a specific image that is more or less convincing for those with whom they communicate (Mayr, Simpson, & Statham, 2018). The ability to speak gives the confidence to deliver a speech. Words and intonations help to build international relationships, inform about new events, organize work, and express feelings. The power of language consists of two major components: the capability to receive information and speak correctly. It means not only grammatical competence but also fluency, which helps to organize ideas logically, to discuss freely any topic, and to make a speech bright and literate. The success of communication largely depends on the level of development of these skills. Right expressions help to voice ideas and convey thoughts convincingly.

Eloquence suggests that a person is educated, has a high culture, and thinks outside the box. Another benefit is the fact that by learning a language, a person becomes smarter, because, those parts of the brain that are responsible for memory are involved; consequently, the brain absorbs information better. The power of language is a means of building relationships, receiving and transmitting new information, and expressing of ones feelings. According to Baca (2019), the incapability to speak was most humiliating for him. Words gave off rings of white energy, radar signals from powers that infused him with the truth (Baca, 2019, p. 43). The more people are eager to succeed, the more they need to improve their language skills.

Going through this course, I learned much about literature and language. The latter has specific functions, such as cognitive, communicative, and social, which make it the basis of human communication (Rojo, 2016). I learned how to write research papers according to the academic writing process step-by-step. It has become clearer how to formulate the thesis and arguments in the different types of academic papers. Moreover, I acquired some research skills and learned how to find useful articles, data, especially how to evaluate the source credibility. From this point onward, I know how to use keywords, which might help me to write proper academic papers in the future. The meaning and value of my profession have become more evident to me. Speaking of communication, knowledge of several languages gives a person many new opportunities: education and information become more accessible due to a large number of different sources. Many of the most striking and high-quality publications are written exclusively in English. Doing the research helps to understand the subject better, exploring the main facts and opinions connected to the topic of study.

Finally, I want to congratulate all of the students for graduating. As we all manage the situation with the Coronavirus, this spring semester 2020 can also be called as COVID semester. A few years ago, the choice of this major, Health Science, must have been one of the most crucial life decisions. You have chosen a noble profession  to preserve the life and health of people. It is impossible to achieve this lofty goal without everyday work, and a great desire to overcome all difficulties, honestly fulfilling your medical duty, continually improve your professional skills. It will require great courage and enormous knowledge from you because the lives of people will be in your hands. Studying at the university remains one of the brightest pages in life. Students come to this university from different parts of the world. Despite some difficulties, together you learned to overcome them, helping and supporting each other. The experience gained at the university is of extraordinary value. Having mastered one of the most fascinating professions, you are now ready to contribute to societys prosperity and development.

I want to take this opportunity to mention the importance of the course Writing 300. I am grateful for all the knowledge I received. It might be useful for each students future career, as the decision to hire graduates very often depends on their ability to speak the language effectively. The other meaning of the power of language is also essential. It is the transfer of experience, knowledge, and skills from generation to generation. Without a word, it would be impossible to know the past. The strength lies in bringing humanity together for some common, noble cause. When people begin to exchange and share their experiences, they continuously develop, improving this world and society around them.

References

Baca, J. S. (2019). When I walk through that door, I am: An immigrant mothers quest. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

Mayr, A., Simpson P., & Statham S. (2018) Language and power: A resource book for students. London, England: Routledge.

Rojo, L. M. (2016). Language and power. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Amy Tan reflects on the varieties of English she uses as an Asian American. She notes the differences between the grammatically impeccable language she uses in her writing and the often incorrect phrasing she uses when conversing with her mother and husband. Amys mother does not possess the same grammatical mastery of English, but it does not reflect her keen intelligence and an acute understanding of many things. Because of that, Amy refuses to call her mothers imperfect English broken or limited, as it would suggest that it lacks coherence and clarity of perception. She reflects on why Asian Americans are less successful in writing than in more technical specialties. She remembers how her boss discouraged her from majoring in English and how she thought to disprove this perception by crafting sentences that were grammatically correct and lexically rich yet overly cumbersome. Eventually, she decided to draw on all familiar varieties of English to portray her mothers wholesome perception in a technically correct language and feels rewarded when her mother calls her writing easy to read (Tan 26).

Work Cited

Tan, Amy. Mother Tongue. Read, 2006, pp. 2-23.