Category: Linguistics 473

Introduction

Bilingualism is a global phenomenon that has occurred basically due to migration and the choice of individuals, who are mostly parents, to move from one country to another for economic and, sometimes, political reasons. Bilingual students encounter difficulties aside from learning the usual formal lessons in school. The English teacher has to help with various tasks aside from learning the language. And because of this phenomenon, a lot of researches and empirical studies have been conducted over the years.

Theorists and social scientists collaborate to come up with studies and results to help bilinguals. This paper asks, what are the problems bilinguals face? Do they have difficulty in acquiring the second language considering that many did not have the choice of maintaining the dominant language which was their native language? Lastly, do bilinguals have the advantage over monolinguals when it comes to learning the language or having skills and abilities out of their being bilinguals?

The Research

In Lightbown and Spada (2006: 1), it says: One remarkable thing about first language acquisition is the high degree of similarity in the early language of children all over the world. This goes to all babies of human beings throughout the world. The question is Is this true for second language acquisition? Meaning, do bilinguals or children of bilinguals have the same similarity of learning the second language? The answer to this question can be as vague or as valid as anybody elses because when it comes to first and second language acquisition, there have been countless studies and researches on the subject. And out of a particular study, also come interconnecting studies and never-ending questions on the intricacies of bilingualism.

There have been questions and what looked like myths on the subject of language acquisition. Bilingualism was thought to have given untold difficulties to bilinguals especially to those who are children of immigrants. But results of recent and present studies, which may have dated from the 1960s, or even earlier, tell otherwise.

Lighbown and Spada (183) suggest that imitation may be an individual learning strategy but it is not a universal characteristic of language learners. This means that in the person is the innate capability to know language even without imitation, although imitation is still the number one tool for the baby or child to learn words and sentences. There are other startling facts on the topic of language, and we can go on and go on. Our topic however will focus on some scientific findings of experts. One of these is Ellen Bialystoks studies and researches, along with her contemporaries.

An editorial (Deuchar 2007) which can be an interesting subject for this paper, says:

&Bialystok presents a range of empirical evidence showing that bilingualism has cognitive advantages across the entire lifespan, from children to aging adults. She demonstrates, concerning a range of experiments involving non-linguistic cognitive tasks performed by both monolinguals and bilinguals, that bilinguals exhibit superior performance.

What this statement by Deuchar meant is that, according to Bialystoks study/experiment, bilinguals are more advantaged than monolinguals in terms of cognitive abilities. The experiment involved paying attention to relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information, and the result was that the bilinguals exhibited superior performance. It is very interesting to note here that bilinguals are more superior in their cognitive skill than monolinguals.

This could be attributed to their lifetime experience in alternating between their two active languages, selecting the relevant language and inhibiting attention to the irrelevant one. There is also an interesting result in Bialystoks experiment which says that bilingualism can protect against cognitive decline in aging. The latter statement still requires further study. The cognitive benefits of bilingualism cannot be ignored, and more and more studies are being conducted in this regard. Bialystok has focused on the effect of bilingualism on childrens language and cognitive development, showing accelerated mastery of specific cognitive processes for bilingual children. (Ellen Bialystok)

This paper will deal further and carry more data regarding the Bialystok experiment. Some authors and experimenters have given more studies and detailed data regarding the advantages and skills as a result of bilingualism.

However, Goetry et al. (2006) state: As a consequence of immigration or parental choices in bilingual educational systems, an increasing proportion of children learn to read and spell in a language other than the one they speak at home. Many learn a second language by just being in contact with others who speak a second language, or through migration. These children face a lot of challenges in their speech development.

We can choose a particular case study for this paper. Say, for example, a child or children of immigrants (for example Asians) who have come to settle in the United States. Goetry et al (2006) says that these children are confronted with the challenges of developing the set of complex cognitive abilities necessary for successful reading acquisition, and mapping written symbols to the phonological structures of their non-native language (350).

This was given light in the paper (Goetry et al, 2006) when it says that, Decades of research carried on within the monolingual context have shown that such mapping requires phonological awareness.

Phonological awareness affects a childs development, especially in the learning of language. A child has this innate knowledge to recognize words, especially his native tongue.

In Ng and Wigglesworth (2007), Leopold (1949a) cited his bilingual daughter Hildergardes metalinguistic awareness as evidence of the enhancing effects of bilingualism (59). Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to focus on different levels of linguistic structures such as words, phonemes, and syntax. (62)

The Pear and Lambert Study

Pear and Lambert (1962, quoted in Ng and Wigglesworth, 2007) conducted a study on 364 bilingual and monolingual participants. Their study found that bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in IQ tests once SES and language competence variables were controlled. Another relevant finding was that bilinguals were also found to have more positive attitudes towards French-speaking communities than their (English or French) monolingual counterparts had. (59)

In Pear and Lamberts study, bilinguals were better on all measures of non-verbal tasks. One test administered to the children was the Raven Progressive Matrices, a test developed by Raven (1998). In this test, the participants were made to form a concept or discover relations between elements. This consisted of 60 matrices of various forms, but a part was removed, and the participants were required to provide the missing part from a set of eight alternatives. This is often seen in IQ tests. The result was that bilinguals were found to be better in symbolic manipulation in non-verbal tasks, which Pear and Lambert called mental or cognitive flexibility. This pioneering study of Pear and Lambert is related to the study of Bialystok.

Added to this, Hakuta and Diaz (1985, quoted in Ng and Wigglesworth, 2007) conducted a longitudinal study on the relationship of cognition and bilingual proficiency and presented findings that bilingual proficiency exerts an influence on cognitive functioning and not the other way around. (60)

On the subject of metalinguistic awareness and bilingualism, both these two important topics are the subjects of present intense studies of which Bialystok and contemporaries are working at. These studies involve word awareness, phonological awareness, sentence awareness, semantic awareness. Word awareness is the ability to recognize that the speech stream is composed of discrete units called words, and the awareness that the relationship between words and their meaning is arbitrary. (Ng and Wigglesworth 62)

Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize that speech is composed of distinct units of sound. (65) All these studies focused on the development of bilinguals and their comparison with monolinguals. Their development in learning and reading a second language is focused on the studies and surveys.

Goetry et al (2006) defined phonological awareness as the ability to represent and manipulate the phonological structures of speech, as well as the building of well-defined, redundant, phonological representations of words (e.g. Booth, Perfetti & McWinney, 1999; Elbro, 1996, 1998, cited in Goetry et al, 2006). Sentence awareness is the ability to recognize utterances that are grammatically acceptable within the language. (Ng and Wigglesworth 65)

Discussion

One practical definition of a bilingual is that the person is exposed to a second language during childhood, or at a later age, and such is the exposure that a conversation can be obtained using these two languages. There can be a dominant language or a native language. The knowledge and expertise in speaking could be almost equal in comparison and perfection, but as to how equal remains to be seen. It can be that a dominant language arises and the native language of the bilingual becomes the second language or the other way around.

In the past, bilinguals referred to people who had equal mastery of two languages; however, as suggested by Diebold (1961:111), the concept is now extended to include people who have any contact with possible models in a second language (qtd. in Macky; cited in Pi-Yu Chiang, 2003).

How long is contact with the second language for a child or children to be called bilingual? Are we talking here of time or the childrens fluency to the second language for them to be called bilingual?

Chiang (2003) stated that exposure to the second language is such that the children are influenced much by it. In a study conducted in Taiwan, children in kindergarten were considered bilingual since they were in contact with English with many kinds of models at an early age& and a school setting (Pi-Yu Chiang, 2003). The children were exposed to the second language through language learning audiotapes or videos, picture books, and flashcards. English became their second language.

Bilinguals are the subject of intense studies of scientists and experts. This is because it has become a global trend. More and more countries are faced with the influx of immigrants. There were a lot of myths on bilingualism, and one of these is it offers difficulties for children and even adults. But this has been disproved by more findings from studies and surveys that bilingualism offers more advantages than disadvantages.

Studies also proved that bilinguals have displayed superior cognitive abilities than monolinguals. Wood observed that youngsters who came from bilingual homes were more successful than children from monolingual at recovering mispronunciations, suggesting a linguistic flexibility as a consequence of exposure to more than one language (Wade-Woolley & Wood, 2006, p. 255). This is a welcome development from years of negative beliefs on bilinguals. Although as Goetry et al (2006) say these children are confronted with challenges in their cognitive abilities, these cognitive abilities become fully developed in bilinguals which allows them to be more superior than monolinguals. They display and develop other abilities and are more successful.

The Pear and Lambert survey on 364 bilingual and monolingual participants is also a welcome development and is a basis for further studies. The study revealed that bilinguals outperformed monolinguals in IQ tests and were found to have more positive attitudes.

We can conclude here that recent studies have found that bilingualism has more positive results in children and adults in their cognitive development.

Works Cited

Book

Lightbown, Patsy M. and Nina Spada. How languages are learned? New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Ng, Bee Chin, and Gillian Wigglesworth. Bilingualism: An Advanced Resource Book. ISBN 0415343860, 9780415343862. Routledge, 2007.

Internet Sources

Chiang, Pi-Yu. Bilingual Childrens Phonological Awareness: The effect of articulation training. Edited by Anne Dahl, Peter Svenonius, and Marit Richardsen Westergaard. National Taiwan University. 2003. Web.

Deuchar, Margaret. Guest Editorial: Cutting Edge Research in Bilingualism. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2007. Web.

Ellen Bialystok, PhD., FSRC. York University. 2008. Web.

Poetry, Vincent, Lesley Wade-Woolley, Regine Kolinsky, and Philippe Mousty. The Role of Stress Processing Abilities in the Development of Bilingual Reading. Journal of Research in Reading, ISSN 0141-0423. Volume 29, Issue 3, 2006, pp 349362. Source: Journal of Research in Reading, v29 n3 p349-362.

Wade-Woolley, Lesley and Wood, Clare. Editorial: Prosodic sensitivity and reading development. Journal of Research in Reading, ISSN 0141-0423, 29 (3), pp 253-257. 2008. Web.

The issue, or topic, of the following case study consists of a number of elements. Firstly, the primary focus of the study is in understanding the process and challenges of second language acquisition that Arabic-speaking individuals face when in contact with any secondary language, though English is most frequently encountered. This poses a number of inquiries into both learning and teaching methods, Arabic-specific grammatical, pronunciation, and other technical difficulties, as well as other factors.

The research is also oriented towards students in their childhood, but not limited to any specific age group, as studies are available for both preschool, middle school, and high school students. As such, it is essential to recognize how previous learning, age-specific challenges, and school settings affect the language acquisition these students are confronted with. The last component of the study focuses on how technological advances and implementation of devices or software inside and outside the classroom has affected the language acquisition process.

Much of the current literature and research is focused on the acquisition of English within Arabic-speaking nations, and as such, the following study is likely to primarily focus on such settings when reviewing the findings. However, other secondary languages or different learning environments are not excluded from the study in order to assess the full picture of current research on the topic. Essentially, the study attempts to answer the question of how in-classroom as well as external use of technology has affected the second language acquisition process for Arabic-speaking children students.

There has been substantial research done in areas of second language acquisition in relation to children students, English as a secondary language, Arabic-speaking students, and acquisition with the use of technology. Combinations of all the topics above can be found much less frequently. As such, a significant portion of the study will focus on the analysis of current research available concerning the topics separately. Additional studies that include overlapping of the topics will also be essential. The resources that have been selected previously include the systematic issues and challenges posed in English acquisition for Arabic-speaking students.

The studies are often focused on students that are at the beginning of their learning process or those that have been studying English without adequate results. This is often the result of a number of factors such as lacking school resources, opportunities to use the language, motivation, and other factors which are also mentioned in many studies on the topic of English acquisition in Arabic-speaking nations.

Other studies also focus on the ways in which children acquire languages and the complexities of methodologies that target different age groups. Much of the literature available on the topic is concerned with the assessment of theories, practices, the effects of age, and other cognitive functions. Studies examining external factors that are related to language acquisition are also essential for this study, such as the environment, language variety, availability of language input and practice, as well as the personal lives of students. Such studies have been conducted with general secondary language acquisition as well as younger age groups of Arabic-speaking students learning English.

Studies with a focus on the effects of technology within the process of language acquisition should also be included in the study. Much research has been done on the various options which schools have employed within the classroom. These range from specialized software and apps to engagement with native speakers over calls. Other tools such as smart boards and online databases are also commonly used within the classroom. However, it is also essential to observe the tools that students use outside the classroom, especially those that they select themselves. The studies observe the benefits and drawbacks of such tools, but with the frequent shifts in available and evolving technology, continued research is necessary. The current landscape of research concerning technology-based language acquisition is extensive but is also subject to change, which requires further investigation.

For inquiries into much more detailed areas of the subject, articles concerning the differences between students of varied levels have also been selected. Studies pertaining to specific Arabic-speaking groups find that the relationship between students of higher and lower levels of secondary languages show distinct patterns. A language mediation appears between the advanced and novice speakers, while bilingualism or better abilities in a second language prove to be socially positive and advantageous. This forms an insight into the classroom which deals with students of different levels and abilities, which is a universal situation for classrooms. As such, it suggests that cooperation between expert or higher level speakers can be implemented as a tool for speakers with lower abilities.

It is also important to incorporate studies that assess the language acquisition of Arabic-speaking children in non-Arabic-speaking countries. In certain situations, the result of such a setting may be due to immigration as refugees, which requires the children to learn Arabic alongside a secondary language. A study found that refugee children are likely to continue acquiring Arabic well in a non-Arabic nation while a secondary language would continue to be hard to learn.

The study indicates that acquisition of substantial vocabulary and syntax is a process that takes more time than usually assumed. This also allows for insight into a common belief that exposure to language being the best approach to acquisition. However, exposure to a secondary language may not always be an essential aspect of learning. This study illustrates a need for practices and methodologies that do not expect students to orient their learning only on school resources or language exposure, but a number of alternative tools.

Though a significant portion of the research focuses on the classical approach to using technology in and outside the classroom, there are a number of alternatives that can also be used to engage students in second language acquisition. Certain studies investigate advanced programs, such as the Computer-Assisted Language Learning, or CALL, format for how it has both benefited and hindered the acquisition process in students. The study found that CALL was able to reduce tension for English learning, boost motivation, address the needs of students from diverse backgrounds, and promote self-directed learning.

Students also noticed an improvement in skills that did not directly relate to language acquisition, such as improved computer skills and self-management. However, the study also notes that implementing advanced programs such as CALL may prove to be challenging or impossible if facilities do not have sufficiently working or enough computers, if computer skills are limited in the student population, and the inflexibility of certain school courses. Such studies highlight the importance of self-motivated and self-managed language acquisition that can be improved with technology if they are understable, affordable, and time-efficient for the students.

It is also vital to explore research that has been conducted concerning out-of-classroom or independent learning of secondary languages. Tools such as social media have begun to appear as a language acquisition tool more commonly than ever before. Studies have noted both positive aspects of both reading and responding through social media in a secondary language. However, there has also been research done to better understand the relationship that newly emerging tools such as social media have with both in-classroom technology and traditional teaching materials and methods. Certain studies have focused on the acquisition of English in Arabic-speaking settings by conducting online questionnaires, media-based activity sheets, and interviews.

The studies have indicated social media works to enhance language skills by facilitating challenges in English or other secondary languages. Additionally, the responses from students and teachers are usually overwhelmingly positive, which reflects on the motivation of the students to engage in efficient second language acquisition.

The majority of current studies focus on second language acquisition issues in Arabic-speaking students and the ways in which technology has influenced the acquisition process. The study will aim to bridge some gaps in the current understanding of the specific populace of children Arabic-speaking students and the implementation of emerging technology in school and home settings. The study will outline common factors that affect the challenges posed to Arabic-speaking students in general, ranging from grammatical, vocabulary, or other language-based issues to personal, educational, or other external factors.

Following that, it is also vital to understand the challenges posed to children students, especially when there is a noticeable range in the levels of second language abilities of the students. Recent studies have often investigated more classical addition of technology to the classroom in forms of online textbooks, databases, or even software that is available via school computers. Though these sources are important in ensuring a better process of second language acsquiton, as shown in studies, they have their own drawbacks in both access, usability, and other factors. As such, this study aims to observe and analyze tools that are more widely available and affordable, such as language-based apps, social media, or interactive learning meda.

As such, the research question will address a number of components, including challenges posed to Arabic-speaking students in second language acquisition, age-specific challenges, the effects of classroom use of technology and independent, out-of-classroom tools.

The study will include a variety of sources that address each component in the review. As such, within the text, they are likely to be placed according to their relevance to each topic. The topics can be summarized as second language acquisition of English for Arabic-speaking students, challenges for Arabic-speaking students with emphasis on age-related issues, current teaching methods commonly implemented in classroom settings and factors that influence the learning process, and the use of classroom and independent technology. As such, the study will be able to recognize the past implementation of certain practices and materials and their benefits and drawbacks.

This will allow the study to establish how more modern methods are attempting to bridge certain gaps in older methods. The positive and negative outcomes of modern technology in the classroom will also be assessed. The citation in the reference list as well as with in-text references will be formatted in the accurate and standard APA 7 format.

References

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Atkinson, D., & Shvidko, E. (2019). Natural Pedagogy in Second Language Learning and Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 53(4), 1083-1114. Web.

Azaz, M. (2020). Structural surface overlap and derivational complexity in crosslinguistic transfer: Acquisition of English genitive alternation by Egyptian Arabic-speaking learners. Second Language Research, 36(4), 529556. Web.

Dirar Shehadeh Musmar, R. (2018). Using Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) materials in English as Second Language (ESL) classrooms: perspectives of teachers and students in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Education in Black Sea Region, 3(2). Web..

Gangaiamaran, R., & Pasupathi, M. (2017). Review on Use of Mobile Apps for Language Learning. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, 12(21), 11242-11251. Web.

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Halwani, N. (2017). Visual Aids and Multimedia in Second Language Acquisition. English Language Teaching, 10(6), 53-59. Web.

Hamadeh, W., Bahous, R., Diab, R., & Nabhani, M. (2020). Using Social Media to Enhance Second Language Learning. Computer-Assisted Language Learning Electronic Journal, 21(2), 132-149. Web.

Hamann, C., Chilla, S., Ibrahim, L. A., & Fekete, I. (2020). Language assessment tools for Arabic-speaking heritage and refugee children in Germany. Applied Psycholinguistics, 41(6), 1375-1414. Web.

Hashemi, S. S., Lindstrom, N. B., Bartram, L., & Bradley, L. Investigating Mobile Technology Resources for Integration: The Technology-Pedagogy-Language-Culture (TPLC) Model. mLearn 2017: Proceedings of the 16th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning, 20, 18. Web.

José De la Fuente, M., & Goldenberg, C. (2020). Understanding the role of the first language (L1) in instructed second language acquisition (ISLA): Effects of using a principled approach to L1 in the beginner foreign language classroom. Language Teaching Research. Web.

Kazu, I. Y., & Issaku, Y. (2021) The opinion of ELT students on technology-based classroom approach. Focus on ELT Journal, 3(1), 3342. Web.

Keblawi, F. (2020). Motivational Strategies in the English Classroom: The Case of Arab Learners in Israel. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 6(3), 579-586. Web.

McEnery, T., Brezina, V., Gablasova, D., & Banerjee, J. (2019). Corpus Linguistics, Learner Corpora, and SLA: Employing Technology to Analyze Language Use. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 39, 74-92. Web.

Oliver, R., & Azkarai, A. (2017). Review of Child Second Language Acquisition (SLA): Examining Theories and Research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 62-76. Web.

Paradis, J., Rusk, B., Sorenson Duncan, T., & Govindarajan, K. (2017). Childrens Second Language Acquisition of English Complex Syntax: The Role of Age, Input, and Cognitive Factors. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 148-167. Web.

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Schwartz, M., & Gorbatt, N. (2018). The Role of Language Experts in Novices Language Acquisition and Socialization: Insights from an ArabicHebrew Speaking Preschool in Israel. Preschool Bilingual Education, 25, 343-365. Web.

Tafazoli, D., & Gomez-Parra, E. (2017). Robot-assisted language learning: artificial intelligence in second language acquisition. Current and Future Developments in Artificial Intelligence, 1, 370-396. Web.

Williams, S. A., & Korko, M. (2019). Pause behavior within reformulations and the proficiency level of second language learners of English. Applied Psycholinguistics, 40(3), 723-742. Web.

Wilson, R., Dewaele, J., Schmid, M. S., & Dusseldorp, E. (2010). The use of web questionnaires in second language acquisition and bilingualism research. Second Language Research, 26(1), 103123. Web.

Languages are typically viewed as the system of signs that allows people to articulate their ideas in a clear manner. However, no language is a monolith, which is proven by the presence of numerous dialects within every language. Although dialects are usually viewed as the characteristics that separate a certain population into groups, regional and social dialects should be viewed as an opportunity to explore the notion of diversity and understand the factors that shape peoples culture and perceptions.

The film American Tongues features a range of dialects, including regional and social ones. The New York dialect could be seen as a specimen of the regional kind since it is tied to its location and does not articulate any social characteristics of its speakers (Marshall). In turn, the Texas dialect is perceived as delineating the differences between the lower and the middle social classes. The presence of the described dialect suggests a certain social status and implies the lack of proper education: I dont want anyone who is not very smart representing my company (Marshall 00:36:23-00:36:26).

The factors that define the development of dialects are not necessarily linked to the geographic location of the people that speak them; moreover, dialects shape peoples perception of others and indicate their cultural and social characteristics. Though regional dialects are the ones to be typically associated with the titular concept, social dialects also exist, connecting people based not on their geographic location but on other characteristics, such as ethnicity, class, and culture.

Work Cited

Marshall, Nicholas. American Tongues (1988). YouTube, uploaded by Nicholas Marshall, 2020.

Chapters 2426

In the United States, deaf people use American sign language (ASL), which differs significantly in form and structure from English. Hearing people who use ASL may change it based on their first language. As a result, deaf people can feel as though their language, the only thing that truly belongs to them, is taken away (Moore and Levitan 147). The lack of appreciation for ASL and its thoughtless change are the main reasons behind these negative emotions.

ASL and English are very different, leading to deaf people having trouble reading and writing. Reading without guidance is difficult at an early age, and deaf children usually do not get the same amount of learning before they enter school (Moore and Levitan 157). According to Moore and Levitan, the deaf literacy problem can be solved by changing family and school environments (153). First, parents of deaf children should start teaching them to read and write as early as possible. Second, schools must pay attention to deaf kids writing and reading skills. Finally, computers can help people speak in chat rooms or write online reviews.

Chapters 2735

Mainstreaming is a practice that was introduced for placing disabled children in schools. It is now also used for deaf children and mostly means that they have to attend public school or local day programs (Moore and Levitan 175). Public Law 94-142 was passed to support this idea, and it is often used to shift deaf children into an environment where hearing and deaf people learn together (Moore and Levitan 175). However, this concept can hurt deaf childrens learning progress as it denies them the attention needed to develop their skills.

Speech therapy focuses on the proper pronunciation and tone of voice, which could be viewed as helpful for deaf people. However, it can be seen as a waste of time because not everyone can show its results in daily life (Moore and Levitan 197). Moreover, if a speech therapist does not consider clients needs and engagement, such therapy may not contribute to learning. For some deaf children, this time can be spent acquiring other skills that could help them.

Work Cited

Moore, Matthew S., and Linda Levitan. For Hearing People Only. 4^th ed., Deaf Life Press, 2016.

Introduction

Arabic language has three different forms, namely, classical, or Quranic Arabic, modern, or standard Arabic, and colloquial, or daily Arabic. With 420 million people speaking the language globally, Arabic is one of the most commonly spoken languages globally. In addition, about 28 countries use Arabic as an official language, which has led to the evolution and development of different dialects. Modern Arabic is the most spoken version due to the fact that it is universally used in the world, taught at universities, communication, trade and business. Moreover, it is the language of literature, technology, medicine and education. Like many other languages in the world, Arabic has many dialects, which differ in phonology, but only one of its versions is used learning institutions in the Arab world. Although learning Arabic may necessitate getting used to entirely new alphabet, after mastering the language, one will realize that its phonetic structure is intuitively understandable and easy to learn, namely, that every word is spelled exactly as it sounds and there are no rules as per intonation and annunciation Arabic (Watson, 2002).

Arabic Dialects

Egyptian non-standard speech is among the most commonly spoken Arabic dialects along with the Maghrebi non-standard speech. Furthermore, being the foremost understood non-standard speech in Arabic culture, as well as a plethora of resources for learning it, Egyptian non-standard speech has recently become quite popular among second language learners. Likewise, Egyptian non-standard speech is widespread in TV shows, movies, and is frequently studied by non-Arab speakers. On the other hand, Maghrebi non-standard speech has over seventy million speakers within the world, being the second most popular dialect compared to the Egyptian one. Gulf non-standard speech has over thirty-six million speakers in Arab world and is employed principally in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, some of the Asian nations, and the Sultanate of Oman. However, there are significant variations in pronunciations, synchronic linguistics and vocabulary in different dialects of the Gulf non-standard speech since it is a product of multiple dialects being merged into a single entity. Additionally, there is Levantine non-standard dialect spoken by around twenty-one million individuals over the world; however, its speakers still prefer using a more popular Arabic version. Levantine is generally widespread in Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan, Palestine and Asian nation. The Levantine dialect is the second most-spoken one compared to the Egyptian non-standard speech, including both personal communication and popular media. Furthermore, Levantine has a history that dates back to seventh century, when Arabic non-standard speech shifted from Aramaic language. In addition, one should mention the existence of numerous minor dialects, which are significantly less popular and used by an infinitely smaller number of people compared to the Levantine and Maghrebi non-standard speech (Watson, 2002).

Mesopotamian non-standard speech is also referred to as Iraqi non-standard speech. It is spoken by over fifteen million individuals and has been built on the Arabic cultures, the representatives of which inhabited the area currently known as the Mesopotamian basin. This includes Asian countries, several territories belonging to the Syrian Arab Republic, Iran, and Southeastern Turkey. Similarly to Levantine Arabic, Mesopotamian non-standard speech shifted from Aramaic to Arabic. Because of the gaps between several speakers of this non-standard speech, its synchronic linguistics is usually laborious to understand and analyze. However, it follows the twenty-eight consonants of the Arabic alphabet closely, even though there are some wide variations within the emphatic sounds.

There is also the Sudanese Arabic dialect that is spoken throughout Sudan and has over seventeen million speakers. Sudanese Arabic is quite similar to Egyptian Arabic because of closeness of the 2 countries, yet it has distinct traits that make it easily distinguishable from the Egyptian dialect. Sudanese non-standard speech is additionally named as a pure and archaic interpretation of Arabic. The described phenomenon can be explained by the fact that Sudanese Arabic has maintained several archaic pronunciations and writing sequences that different dialects have abandoned. Moreover, there is Sudanese Arabic that is spoken across Sudan and has over seventeen million speakers. Sudanese Arabic is also often likened to Egyptian Arabic owing to the proximity of the 2 countries. However, it has distinct traits that make it a unique language. Sudanese idioms are additionally observed as a pure and archaic interpretation of the Arabic ones, which can be explained as a result of Sudanese Arabic maintaining several archaic pronunciations and writing sequences that alternative dialects have abandoned. Yemeni idioms are amongst the few Arabic dialects that have maintained a plethora of classical practices and tones. Over fifteen million individuals in Republic of Yemen speak Yemeni, as well as citizens of southwestern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Somalia, and Djibouti. Due to its giant variety of speakers, the Yemeni dialect is divided into several sub-dialect teams. The Yemeni dialect maintains several classical options that are not employed in alternative components of the Arabic-speaking world.

The Hijazi dialect (West Arabian Arabic) is the native dialect of concerning fourteen million individuals within the geographic region of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The language is spoken differently in the city and among the residents of the country, with a distinctive urban and rural version. The urban version is spoken largely within the cities of urban center, Mecca, and Medina.

The Hijazi dialect represents some of the most ancient legacy of the Arabic language. It incorporates classical forms that have been largely forgotten and abandoned, while also coexisting with some of the newer versions of Arabic, therefore, combining the ancient tradition and the new language trends. However, the Hijazi dialect still consists primarily of the older versions of the Arabic language, which is why it has been slowly ousted by newer and more popular versions of Arabic.

In turn, Maltese is a remarkable dialect since it his distinctively different from any other Arabic dialect. In some cases, it is related to entirely different Arabic dialects since it has a lot of variations, which allow it to overlap in some areas, including its grammar and vocabulary, with other Arabic dialects. It takes its origin from Siculo-Arabic, an extinct type of Arabic that was developed in Sicily before being introduced in Malta. The dialect started to become prevalent around the end of the ninth century and continued to develop throughout the twelfth century. Maltese contains a broad range of various vocabulary elements from many other linguistic backgrounds. A substantial part of the language is comprised if the original Semitic basis, whereas around 0.05 of its vocabulary comes from Italian or Sicilian. Maltese is written with the help of Latin characters, which represents a striking contrast to the traditional Arabic writing. The earliest living example of Maltese is from the late Middle Ages, which makes Maltese the sole living Semitic language written in Latin script.

The Hassaniya dialect is spoken by three million people in the Arab world. It is principally used in Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and the related geographic region. Originally, it had the status of a regional dialect that was spoken solely by the Beni Hassan Arabian tribes. As WHO extended their authority to areas between Mauritania, Morocco, and geographic region between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, the organization influenced language adoption in those regions.

Phonetically, the Hassaniya dialect is often referred to as both implausibly innovative and implausibly conservative. It incorporates all of the phonemes in Classical Arabic, also introducing several new phonemes. As a result, a significant number of new second-language learners find the specified dialect particularly difficult to master. Several educated Hassaniya Arabic speakers additionally follow code-switching, displaying their linguistic talent. Code-switching occurs particularly often between Hassaniya Arabic, trendy commonplace Arabic, Spanish, and French.

Phonemes

The standard/modern Arabic has twenty-eight consonant phonemes along with six vowel phonemes, although most of the commonly used dialects incorporate eight vowel phonemes. All phonemes have a distinction between non-emphatic consonants and uvularized, or emphatic, consonants. Though Arabic has evolved significantly from what it used to be several centuries ago, some of the more archaic phonemes are still in use; moreover, the mode in which they are used nowadays is virtually indistinguishable from the one practiced centuries ago. Arabic countries still view the classical language as their formal language (Watson, 2002).

Phonological Process and Syntax

The phonological system of a language is like a sieve since everything that passes through it, allowing the native language system to update continuously and enriching the vocabulary and the range of expression methods for the people speaking it. Hearing another language being spoken encourages one to use the familiar phonological sieve of the mother tongue intuitively to analyze what has been said (Watson, 2002). The Arabic language system is marked by a constrained vocalistic system and a wealth of consonantal system. Three vowels are used in both their short and long forms, namely, a, t, and u. However, Arabic is rich in guttural consonants, which include laryngeals (h) and a pharyngeal fricative (h), the pharyngeal (c), and (l), and the uvula fricative (x).

Arabic features a triad of voiceless, voiced, and emphatic elements in some subsets of the set. Additionally, Arabic features a root and pattern morphology, where the root may be a linguistics abstraction with two, three, or less consonants derived through templatic patterns.

Allophones

Allophones are phonemes whose sound changes depending on the letters that surround them. They are similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or complementary distributed. For example, voiceless labial consonant passive /p/ has no correlation within the Semitic languages, and, due to its soundlessness, it is often replaced by its voiced associate /b/ when native Arab speakers pronounce it. The described occurrence features a curious phenomenon within the Arabic language system. Besides, the labial dental affricates /v/ do not have any correlates within the Arabian consonantal system and do not seem to be ordinarily used by Arabic speaking individuals, typically being replaced by the sound /f/. The emphasis is uncommon in Arabic; moreover, it is traditional for Arabs to have difficulties with the random nature of English stress patterns. The elision (swallowing) of sounds that are common in spoken English is also problematic for Arabs.

The word order for Arabic syntax is VSO (verb, subject, and object); however, over the past several decades, a tendency for the VSO to be changing towards the SVO model has been noticed. Arabic is regarded as a non-configurational language because it has high word order freedom. Specifically, it has great freedom of word order, frequent use of discontinuous constituents, and sophisticated verb-word system. In Arabic, dynamic verbs occur before a noun subject as opposed to stative verbs. At intervals phrases, a word that is used because the qualifier follows the qualified terms. Likewise, the adjective follows the noun that it qualifies (Watson, 202).

Phonotactics and Sound Structure

Phonotactics is the study of sound distribution patterns and distribution restrictions at intervals words, and in some cases across word boundaries. Phonotactic syntax has a tangible influence on Arabic morphology, as well as the derivation of words, namely, on word-building, and on the lexical root structure. There are two aspects about Arabic phonotactics that should be kept in mind. These are the phonotactics of root morphology and phonotactics of word-building and morphology. Four phonologic processes area unit key for Arabic sound; these include assimilation (one sound fascinating the other), articulation (vowel insertion), deletion (semivowel), and vowel shift.

Assimilation is amendment of phonetic feature values that build similar or even identical segments. In Arabic, the described occurrence happens because of phonologic rules applied at the intersection of morphological processes. Assimilation is non-phonemic; to be more precise, it does not have an effect on the meaning of a word; however, it implies that the word will be either progressive or regressive.

Syllables are typically recovered from the speech signal; however, segments sorted into syllables are usually helpful in explaining several phonologic patterns languages. The language unit henceforward seen as an abstract is a part of the content of the syllable structure. The sound structure has been influenced by the study of Arabic for two reasons. First and foremost, several dialects of Arabic offer samples of regular and productive processes contributing to the creation of the sound structure. The latter incorporates vowels into clusters of consonants that otherwise cannot be accommodated within the list of available language units and stress systems supported syllable weight. Secondly, many forms of spoken Arabic represent different classes of language unit varieties, and these completely different clusters are related to a constellation of various properties across the existing dialects. Every language unit in each word represents a peak in prominence. The most distinguished portion of a language unit is its nucleus, which is usually a vowel (V). Each language unit should have a nucleus; however, syllables may have one or a lot of consonants (C) organized around that nucleus. Consonants preceding the nucleus structure the language create an onset and consonants following the nucleus structure the language create the finale. Onsets and codas are known as language unit margins, and margins with one consonant are known as straightforward onsets or codas, whereas those with over one consonant are complicated onsets or complicated codas. Syllables that end in vowels are known as open syllables. Although a language unit with only a nucleus could seem to be the foremost basic structure, it is typical that the universally most popular language unit consists of a single-consonant onset and a nucleus (Watson, 2002).

Almost all varieties of Arabic share two features, namely, the presence of syllables with simple codas and the absence of onset syllables. Therefore, syllables of the CV and CVC format are found in all varieties of Arabic, while V or VC syllables are rare. The requirement that syllables should have onsets means that in a VCV sequence, the syllable boundary will always fall before the consonant (V.CV). Evidence for the onset requirement originates from the fact that vowel-initial words borrowed into Arabic are typically produced by Arabic speakers with an added glottal stop in onset position, as in [”otobiis] autobus (Watson, 2002).

Conclusion

Arabic language has evolved over the years, having produced multiple dialects, but the modern or standard form of Arabic is the one used most commonly as formal means of communication by many Arab-speaking nations. Modern Arabic is the one adopted by most Arabic schools and learning institutions. The Arabic language has 28 consonant phonemes along with six vowel phonemes, although most of the modern dialects typically incorporate eight vowel phonemes. Due to its past history, the Arabic language has a broad range of dialects, which differ in phonology, yet the Egyptian dialect is the one used most broadly because it is easily understood by many Arabic speaking people in the entire Arab world. Likewise, the Egyptian dialect has been adopted by various media and communications channels because people learn it with ease.

References

Watson, C.E. (2002). The phonology and morphology of Arabic. Oxford University Press.

A persons identity seems to be found in several elements, such as sex, religion, and culture. Of all these language play a significant in delineate a unique nature of a person. In most cases, language occurs in various spoken, written, and unwritten forms. Regardless of their unique characters, language not only conveys a message but also plays an important role in promoting personal and social identity among these items. As a mode of communication, it is supposed to work by collectively binding people through various networks while simultaneously storing the same code. Through various forms of language, people learn to understand and master the various concepts that occur in society. In other words, it cannot be regarded as a simple form of verbal exchange but as an indisputable link of cooperation. Language has the power of creating space within the highly competitive and oppressed society.

Language is a powerful means that empowers people to forge ties directly linked in a given network. In his essay, If Black English is not a language, then tell me what it is, the renowned scholar James Baldwin points language to have exceptional energy (Baldwin, 1997). Moreover, he states language can show direction and path for the members of the society to follow (Baldwin 1979). The renowned scholar accepts that it is a vibrant key to human identification. He noted that the enslaved Africans in America could have failed to be identified if they did not have a common language. As a scholar, he believed that these members were identified due to their ability to communicate in a common language. Through the strong mastery of their language, these members established their social and cultural identity in the region. They managed to identify themselves as well as to create space in the highly oppressing society.

Baldwin continues to remind the global community that language has the power to unveil a persons identity. As a result, it has been used as one of the most powerful tools in the social and political sphere. For example, during American presidential campaigns, Donald Trump and Joe Biden used varied forms of language to reveal their identity (McLarney, 2019). For instance, Biden used many styles to articulate the issues he aimed to convey to the electorates. Through his constant seductive words, he captured the peoples attention, thus gaining more votes and becoming the president of America. The above scenario indicates that words used in the language can promote an individuals personal and social identity.

Subsequently, James Baldwin accepts that language has the power to create circumstances and reality. He believes that people have created various forms of language to help them control their immediate environment. Through language, persons of given social groups can connect and control their operational areas (Baldwin, 1979). Through talking, these members can carry out their daily activities in various contexts. He believes that the social spheres, such as schools, churches, and political arenas have been promoted due to the use and appreciation of the spoken word. Therefore, he accepts the need to promote the language not only for social cohesion but also promotion of the cultural spheres that occur in society.

The well-thought interview conducted in 1963 further supports that language is not just a way of communication but a powerful element of binding society. Baldwin narrates that it is through the use of black language that the black members of American society have been identified (Baldwin, 1963). He states, The whole language of writing for me is finding out what you dont want to know& (Baldwin 1979). He seemed to have accepted that the black community initially struggled with personal and social identity due to a lack of a common language. These members had no proper form of communication and hence experienced the highest suffering. Fortunately, these people later evolved their language to help control the circumstances in their environment (McLarney, 2019). He continues to state, What joins all languages, and all men, is the necessity to confront life (Baldwin 1979). Through the development of the new common language, enslaved black Americans managed to control the issues that continued to affect their society and promoted the social identity of America. In other words, it was through the distinctive lingual character that these Negros perfectly communicated to redeem their space in America

James Baldwins idea that language is a key to personal and social identity is proven to be a reality. Marking of Black English is a perfect example of the power of the language in promoting identity among the people of the society. Through the development of the word, the American people, especially the black community, have effectively adapted and identified themselves with the members of society. As noted, it is through the development of the spoken word that these members have managed to develop varied spheres such as churches, schools, and hospitals. Further, through language development, these people have managed to be identified in the United States of America. Therefore, community members need to understand these critical values of language and work towards improving its value. This approach will help promote its use and continue to propel James Baldwins ideas about the power of using the spoken word to promote the identity of the people in society.

References

Baldwin, A. J. (1997). If Black English isnt a language, then tell me, what is? The Black Scholar, 27(1), 56. Web.

Baldwin, A. J. (1959). The discovery of what it means to be an American. Collected Essays, 142. Web.

Baldwin, A. J. (1963). James Baldwin Interview. [Video]. YouTube. Web.

Baldwin, A. J. (1979). James Baldwin speech. [Video]. YouTube. Web.

McLarney, E. (2019). James Baldwin and the power of Black Muslim language. Social Text, 37(1), 5184. Web.

Vocabulary Instruction

Vocabulary is crucial for successful text comprehension. Although not many students understand that at first, it is mainly the teachers duty to show students how important vocabulary is and why it should be memorized and used. Sedita (2005) points out that there are several categories of students who might experience problems with vocabulary: students with limited knowledge of English, students who do not or rarely read, students with reading/learning disabilities, and students who have limited vocabulary knowledge. I agree with this observation since all these groups of students often experience difficulties with new texts, text comprehension, and decoding of the text. Nevertheless, I also believe that these students can become good readers once they are taught and trained how to work with vocabulary. It is also important for students to understand that vocabulary is not a separate area of a language but rather glue that helps them stick words and sentences together. Without the glue, the language does not work.

The connection between a developed vocabulary and a good comprehension is evident: those students who understand and use more words in their daily conversations often become much more advanced readers compared to their struggling classmates (Sedita, 2005). The struggles can be caused by many factors: the student might have a disability or the socio-economic environment at their house does not allow them to train in reading. At last, the student can simply ignore reading because they see it as an annoying activity. Nevertheless, it is possible to break the circle.

The author of the article suggests that students need to be exposed to reading more often since it is one of the main ways to improve students vocabulary (Sedita, 2005). She also points out that students who listen to a read-aloud can decode the meaning of a word as easily as those who read the word in a written text. I have also observed this phenomenon. Although some teachers might think at first that students experience more difficulties when listening to the teacher, it is not always the case. Students comprehension relies on the type of the text, if it is challenging or easy, if the topic is familiar or not. Students often prefer easier texts they do not have to struggle with. Nevertheless, I believe that students need to be challenged sometimes so that they see the differences in vocabulary in texts (e.g., text A uses more common words, while text B includes new and unclear words that are difficult to decode). Such understanding leads to metacognitive and metalinguistic reflections, where students learn how to tie the known words to the unknown. Sedita (2005) supports this approach and suggests that teachers can provide students with knowledge rating checklist. With this checklist, students can assess their knowledge of words and see which words from the text are unfamiliar. Meanwhile, the teacher can evaluate whether students know the definition of a word or they also understand how this word is used in a context (Sedita, 2005).

Understanding a word from the context is one of the activities that students particularly like, as it seems. For example, when nobody knows the meaning of a new word, I suggest that each of the students provides their own opinion about the word meaning. If some of the students are getting closer to its comprehension, I encourage them and others to reflect more on the word and the context. First, this activity helps students engage background knowledge to decode a word. Second, it also promotes communication between students. Third, students have the possibility to decode the meaning without any assistance. Students are not always capable of decoding the word, but it happens much more often than one expects. Therefore, I believe that context is critical in vocabulary instruction.

Sedita (2005) also suggests teaching students to comprehend words by learning the parts of these words. Although I think that such activity might be seen as a bit complex for students, it is still highly effective because learning with morphemes helps students develop their vocabulary by learning small particles instead of long and complicated words. Such an approach is used by teachers who teach foreign languages since particular morphemes in other languages often define the words meaning. When teaching English, teachers should not neglect morphemes-based vocabulary learning. Word analysis is linked to fluent and accurate reading, but not all students understand it. Students might object first and point out that learning whole words is more reasonable (this happened to me). The teacher can provide students with the words based on the same root: biohazard, biofuel, biosphere, etc. as suggested by Sedita (2005). The teacher will show the students the importance of such small parts of the word and how they influence the word meaning. Although such activity can lead to extreme exaggerations (i.e. when students will look for significant morphemes in a one root word), most students find this approach efficient and continue using it during other lessons.

Vocabulary Instruction for English as Second Language Students

Since we discuss vocabulary instruction and building in this course, I would like to present several ideas that other teachers might find valuable. The grade level is middle school, and the content area is English (ESL). I believe these types of exercises and ideas can be transformed to fit into other content areas as well.

The first idea is called concept cube. It is quite widespread and often used when teaching English either as the first or as the second language. The initial idea is sometimes too complicated for elementary students, as it requires students to understand the category of the word. The concept cube is a six-square cube that students use to understand how specific words are linked to each other. There are six concepts in the concept cube: vocabulary word, antonym, synonym, category, characteristics, and example. Students make a square out of the cube, roll it, and after one of the concepts lands on the top, students need to explain the relations between the vocabulary word and the antonym, synonym, etc. (Cox, n.d.). I have transformed this assignment so that it is not as time-consuming as the original one (students often have difficulties taping the cubes; this activity generally requires a lot of time). Instead of making a cube, I provide students with pages where several of the vocabulary words are written. The concepts are the same, except for the category (I do not always include it). Then, each of the students can name the original vocabulary word that he or she has on the list and ask any of the classmates to explain the relationship between the original word and any other concept he or she chooses. This way, the assignment becomes less predictive, and students are interested in taking part in it. Furthermore, it also encourages communication and is helpful to shy students who often prefer avoiding communication.

Another useful strategy that I often engage is the word map. I pick several (up to ten or twelve) unknown words from the new text (either together with children or alone during preparation for the class). The vocabulary word is written on a page; the child or the teacher adds three branches: the class of the word, its qualities, and examples. This activity can be done independently or together in groups. If the teacher chooses independent student work, he or she needs to provide the vocabulary words to children and control the process to see what kinds of struggles students might face during the assignment. Collective work is usually more time-consuming but also more enjoyable for children.

There is also a good strategy that can be engaged to ensure that students can remember a word. First, the teacher presents a new word by engaging students background knowledge (a simple definition would not be enough here). The teacher then asks students to repeat the word together several times. After that, several students can try explaining the word verbally (those who want to or those who need encouragement). If the word is not a complicated concept or something that is hard to draw (for example, magnetic fields), the teacher can ask students to make a simple sketch of the new word (pay attention to time: some students can be too engaged in drawing). Students compare their pictures and discuss the word together in pairs or with the teacher. At last, students are asked to create two or three sentences with the new word so that the teacher can evaluate whether they understand the word correctly.

The activity described above can be easily transformed, depending on the students and teachers needs. At the same time, it is one of the most effective methods of vocabulary memorization that does not force students to learn every word by heart.

Creating glossaries is more common for ESL teachers but teachers in other content areas can also take this approach into consideration. When creating a glossary, students are asked to divide the page into two parts. The first part includes the new word and the second part includes an explanation either in English or students native language (English is more preferred, of course). Students can also write the translation of the word near the explanation (not necessary for other content areas that do not work with foreign languages or students whose first language is English). For ESL, it is also helpful to add other categories, such as the words formality (can it be used in a formal conversation or not?) and words that are often used with the vocabulary word (believe + that, think + about, wait + for, etc.). The teacher should not forget to use the new words as often as possible (if appropriate) since some students might have a hard time remembering all the new words from the textbook. At the end of each lesson, the teacher can ask students to repeat the new and the old words together or in pairs.

To conclude, these activities, although simple, are quite entertaining for children and can enhance their interest in vocabulary and the text. All of the activities can be modified and made easier or more challenging; students can participate in these modifications if appropriate.

Vocabulary Lesson

I decided to provide two plans for different lessons that will focus on vocabulary related to the book The Compound written by Stephanie Bodeen. The grade level is middle school, and the content area is English (ESL). The first lesson will focus on creating a vocabulary log for students whose first language is not English (the lesson can be modified if students are fluent in English / native speakers).

Vocabulary chosen for the lesson:

1. Dribble (p. 13)
2. Hell-bent (p. 13)
3. Emblazoned (p. 14)
4. Muumuu (p. 16)
5. Accountable (p. 19)
6. Guava (p. 19)
7. Winded (p. 20)
8. Lousy (p. 20)
9. Perish (p. 20)
10. Pua flower (p. 19).
11. Rant (p. 18)
12. Routines (p. 15)
13. YMCA (p. 14).

Day 1: students will be asked to write down the words into their new vocabulary log. The vocabulary log will have a specific table where each new word will be presented:

The example section will be filled not only with the examples from the book but also with the examples students will find (or make up) themselves.

Each of the words will be addressed by the teacher and students. Students will also be asked to discuss the words and explain if any of the words are more complicated to understand than the others.

Day 2: Students can be asked to add new words into their log and discuss the words with other classmates. No more than five words should be added during the lesson since it is a time-consuming activity. Students should be encouraged to add more words (even from other texts) at home. Students can ask their parents to help them with word meanings or look for the meanings in a dictionary.

Day 3 / each four or five days: The teacher should check students logs from time to time to ensure that it is still filled with new words. Vocabulary logs help the teacher evaluate students understanding of new words. Prior to the new chapter, the teacher should present a set of new words and ask students to write these words down in the vocabulary log.

Second lesson: Dictionary Activities

Day 1: The students will be presented with the list of new words from the second chapter of The Compound:

1. Glare (p. 22)
2. Inaugural (p. 23)
3. Nuclear war (p. 23)
4. Innocuous (p. 23)
5. Cyanide (p. 24)
6. Saunter (p. 27)
7. Fastidious (p. 27)
8. Alternate reality (p. 27)
9. Retaliate (p. 29)

Students will receive a table with the words and mark a particular field:

Students will be provided with dictionaries. The teacher will ask students to form groups or work in pairs. The teacher will name each of the words (but in random order), and students will hunt for the word in dictionaries. The group or the pair that is the fastest to find all the words wins. An important note: students should not be rushed when they read the definition of a word. The purpose of the activity is only to find the word as quickly as possible.

Day 2: Students will be asked to read the new vocabulary aloud. The teacher will have the opportunity to assess whether students have been practicing at home or not. Students will be asked to practice the pronunciation of the words once more, in pairs so that each partner can control the other.

Day 3: Students will be asked to pick two or three words from the new vocabulary and draw corresponding scenes or the objects (complicated concepts should be drawn in context)

Day 4: Students will be asked to write nine (or more) sentences with the new words. Students will need to place the word in the right (appropriate) contexts so that the teacher can evaluate whether they fully understand its meaning.

The assessment criteria are the following:

1. The student pronounces the word correctly
2. The student can explain the meaning of the word with his or her words
3. The student writes the word correctly
4. The student can use the word in an appropriate context
5. The student can translate the word (for ESL students)

Assignment Five: Reading/Learning Log

The second chapter discusses roots and their importance for teachers and students. The authors explain what roots are, why they are important for building vocabulary, why they should be taught, and how they help students develop word awareness (Rasinski, Padak, Newton, & Newton, 2008). The authors also describe the three kinds of roots: the base, the prefix, and the suffix (Rasinski et al., 2008).

The most important idea for me was the suggestion to divide a word into three parts and show students how these parts reflect the meaning of the word. Some of the words also helped me to develop my word awareness; I believe that students will find it interesting to discuss how Greek and Latin roots transformed into other words we use in our everyday life.

I plan to provide students with a list of words that contain either a prefix or a suffix and decode its meaning together, being attentive to all ideas expressed and suggested. After this training, students can be asked to work on a word independently and reflect on some of the roots and their meanings without teachers help. This activity will help students use logic when approaching words and seek for patterns. It is possible that students will later find the decoding of the words less difficult than prior to these activities.

Chapter five provides the reader with a variety of activities that can be used in the classroom to teach students the importance of roots and improve their root/word awareness. The discussed activities include word theater, card games, word puzzles, word sorts, and others (Rasinski et al., 2008). The purpose of these activities is to engage students in vocabulary practice that would not seem tedious or tiresome.

I would like to point out several activities that I find both creative and helpful. First, odd word out might look like a game not incredibly entertaining, but its advantage is in its ability to make students view the words from another perspective. Sometimes, the choice in this game might be obvious. The teachers role is, therefore, to show students how words can be regrouped depending on the categories we put them in. I think it is advisable for teachers to think creatively when preparing this game. Choosing the most obvious set of words and showing students that these words can belong to a variety of different groups is what I plan to implement during my classes. Working with complicated concepts is an option too, although the teacher should be careful with the words complexity because not all students will be able to understand how perspectives on the concepts change. Some modifications of the game suggest adding very similar words and pointing how these can relate to quite unexpected categories.

The next activity is card games. I plan to use different matches, such as prefix/suffix + base, words with the same roots, words with contrary roots, etc. I think I can start the game after the second lesson on roots where students know what roots are but still sometimes struggle to find those in a word.

Chapter seven provides an overview of different strategies that teachers can engage to teach their students to distinguish different roots (e.g. multiple prefixes, prefixes and roots, etc.). When working with multiple base forms, the authors advise showing students how to look for the core meaning of the word (Rasinski et al., 2008). Students are to be taught using patterns, examples, and detailed explanations of relations between roots and meanings (Rasinski et al., 2008).

The idea of looking for core meaning is especially valuable to me. I think that students can be confused when reading and learning about multiple bases, their origins, and similar meanings. I plan to pick several words with the same root and show students how these roots all bear a similar meaning although it might not be so evident. For example, I can use the root provided by Rasinski et al. (2008)  pung / punct or pierce. I aim to use the same explanation as the authors, but I also want students to remember the roots connection to different words. Students will be asked to compose a short text with the words that bear the same root. The texts will be compared, and the best ones (those that display a good understanding of words and are appropriately used) will be placed on the whiteboard for others to read (and, possibly, learn).

Teaching assimilation, as it seems, is more reasonable using card games or working in groups. Card games can be specifically convenient; students will be asked to find the suitable roots (first with teachers help) in the cards. After this activity is completed, students will be required to find the appropriate bases and roots independently, without teachers help. This activity will help students memorize the connections between roots.

Chapter six appears to be extremely valuable since it provides the reader with real examples from actual schools. The chapter introduces several strategies that can be used in primary, middle, and high school. For example, teachers and students can pick the root of the week or the root of the day together, and use those as often as possible. Roots can be added to students stories, written on cards, and seen as a reason to compete (Rasinski et al., 2008).

I am excited to use the root of the day and see how this strategy will work. Students are familiar with the word of the day activity, but seeking out a word with a root will be both more challenging and exciting. I think that the root of the day can be used twice or thrice a week as an additional vocabulary activity.

I find the idea of using new roots as often as possible quite reasonable. Although students are used to memorizing words instead of trying to comprehend them, roots of the day will help them become more aware of the roots that surround us in all of the words we use. At last, students will not see Latin classes as boring as they once did.

The last chapter of the book (the ninth chapter) provides a brief history of the English language, beginning from the Romano-Celtic period and ending with the New World. The authors discuss the different root of English, its significance in the modern world, and the changes it keeps going through (Rasinski et al., 2008).

I found this chapter meaningful and useful because it allowed me to see the language as a constantly evolving and growing organism and think about how I can show my students the beauty of it. I believe students need to be taught the history of the language so that they can see the relations between all the tongues used in the world.

Furthermore, students will also be more aware of the importance of language in our everyday life and how it shapes our views and is being shaped by the events of our world. I plan to show students that language is more than a mechanic tool of communication but rather a sense we use to build, perceive, and understand the world around us.

References

Bodeen, S. A. (2008). The compound. New York, NY: Feiwel & Friends.

Cox, J. (n.d.). Teaching strategies: 5 ideas for instructing vocabulary. Web.

Rasinski, T., Padak, N., Newton, R. M., & Newton, E. (2008). Greek and Latin roots: Keys to building vocabulary. Huntington Beach, CA: Teacher Created Materials.

Sedita, J. (2005). Effective vocabulary instruction. Insights on Learning Disabilities, 2(1), 33-45.

Introduction

In this text, the central idea is linguistic integration. It is about how the language spoken in the family plays a role in forming the childs language. In other words, it is about how language is included in migrant families. Immigrants English language differs from native speakers, but this does not mean that immigrants speak badly. It is just that this language contains the identity of nationality.

Discussion

What is considered broken English in society is not such. Moreover, this is a language that combines two cultures. The reason for this is the fact that language cannot be considered only a practical communication tool. Among other things, language is material for creating both individual and group cultural characteristics. However, families who have immigrated to a country with a non-native language may often experience a language barrier. This can make refugees feel isolated, hopeless, and antisocial, which often leads to depression. Problems with speech and understanding prevent refugees from making friends with American peers and, unfortunately, can make them a target for bullying. In this essay, Amy Tan shares the main linguistic problems most immigrants face from their experiences.

The above text demonstrates examples of what problems immigrants have to face when their English is perceived to be insufficiently pure. And I had plenty of empirical evidence to support me: the fact that people in department stores, at banks, and at restaurants did not take her seriously, did not give her good service, pretended not to understand her, or even acted as if they did not hear her (Tan, 1990, p. 2).

In this excerpt, we are talking about how society treated her mother, who spoke English, not as a native speaker. That is, society deliberately ignores people whose English is not clean enough. This approach only strengthens the language barrier and integration into the community. In my experience of integration, there were also such cases. During telephone conversations in English, I was often misunderstood, limiting me not only in everyday matters but also in getting a job. Most likely, every immigrant has such examples. Therefore, tolerance must be more developed in the culture, and immigrants are not hindered from the opportunity to improve their language. On the contrary, linguistic integration is part of the community.

Furthermore, the idea traced throughout the text is that language ability does not affect mental performance. She reads the Forbes report, listens to Wall Street Week, converses daily with her stockbroker, reads all of Shirley MacLaines books with easeall kinds of things I cant begin to understand. Nevertheless, some of my friends tell me they understand 50 percent of what my mother says (Tan, 1990, p. 1).

In this passage, we are discussing that language proficiency and mental abilities are not correlated. There is often an opinion that if an immigrant cannot perfectly learn a language in a certain amount of time, then this is clear evidence of his weak mental indicators. However, this is fundamentally not true. In my experience, I am well acquainted with how linguistic skills are equated with mental abilities. However, even though my English is not perfect, I have already become one of the best speakers and writers. As already mentioned, language is the material for creating cultural features. People who move to a country with a non-native language do not automatically lose their cultural and linguistic characteristics. One way or another, their culture will be integrated into the English language. Thus, the integration of linguistic culture is not evidence of mental abilities but only the result of linguistic integration.

The last important factor we can trace throughout the text about the difficulties of language integration is the need to speak the local language. And when the doctor finally called her daughter, me, who spoke in perfect English  lo and behold  we had assurances the CAT scan would be found, promises that a conference call on Monday would be held, and apologies for any suffering my mother had gone through for a most regrettable mistake  (Tan, 1990, p. 2).

Throughout the text, you can see the difficulties and problems the Tang family faced due to the language barrier and how English knowledge helped them cope. In my experience, there is also such an example. My aunt has lived here for more than 30 years, but she never learned English and did not get an education, and therefore she did not achieve the goals and dreams that she originally had. Language is a crucial tool for integration into society. In order to adapt to a new environment, it is necessary to master, study, and develop a language to become an equal part of society.

Conclusion

Thus, in this text, the main idea is the importance of linguistic integration. Linguistic integration of migrants speaking languages other than the host societys language is an asymmetric and uneven process. The integration depends on the point of view of the countrys population and the migrants themselves. Host society members may feel excitement or fear for their national identity. Moreover, as was demonstrated in the text, society treats the imperfect language of immigrants somewhat differently. This causes problems due to the inability to express your thoughts in another way. However, it is essential to learn and develop the host countrys language, as it is a sign of respect and a way to integrate into society and successfully adapt to a new country.

Reference

Tan, A. (1990). Mother tongue. The Threepenny Review, 43(7), 1-4. Web.

Second-language acquisition (SLA) is the process through which a person learns the elements of a new language, such as vocabulary, phonological components, grammatical structures, and writing systems, after having learned a first language. Rod Ellis comments on language pedagogy, teacher education, and second language acquisition (Ellis, 2010). He argues if second language acquisition researchers want to ensure that their work is relevant to language teachers, they must play a moderator role by investigating how, as teacher educators, they can facilitate the process by which technical knowledge about SLA interacts with teachers own practical teaching knowledge (Ellis, 2009). To that purpose, he has proposed a number of tactics, culminating in a set of eleven guiding principles for the connection. His goal is not to presume that SLA is relevant to language instruction but rather to investigate its applicability. Thus, Ellis scholarship examines SLA within the context of pedagogy and how it should continuously evolve alongside other areas of teaching and linguistics in this specific overlap.

Meanwhile, Michael Ullman examines the biological, rather than the social, side of the SLA process, focusing on the relevant brain processes. Despite its distinctiveness, the anatomy of the brain and the nature of evolution suggest that language is likely dependent on brain networks that serve other activities (Ullman, 2004). According to the declarative/procedural paradigm, the mental lexicon of remembered word-specific knowledge is mostly dependent on declarative memorys temporal-lobe substrates, which underpin the storage and use of knowledge about facts and occurrences (Ullman, 2016). A separate brain system is required for mental grammar, which serves the rule-governed integration of lexical components into complex representations.

Thus, the two researchers write in parallel, observing the same topic of SLA from a different and field-related perspective. A comparative analysis would prove challenging in this case since it the metrics of pedagogy and of neuroscience are entirely different. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that Ellis scholarship could potentially be linked to Ullman due to it attempt to enhance the teaching system and increase its practicality. This goal could benefit from a greater understanding of the scientific side of the process.

SLA and the practices and contradictions associated with it have now become more relevant then ever, with the ongoing globalization leading to the increased value of language skills. Grammar has been studied in a variety of approaches to SLA over the last decade, and some scholars now advocate for explicit grammar training. It may aid language acquisition in a variety of ways, including the construction of explicit grammar, quick learning, language accuracy improvement, interlanguage development, and the prevention of early fossilization. As an advance organizer, meaning-form focuser, and monitor, it can influence the acquisition process (Ellis, 2001). It could be useful for teaching marked and peripheral aspects, as well as learning faults. Both institutionalized pedagogical factors of influence and the anatomy of the brain processes of a learner are important for a better understanding of the SLA process and its value.

Teachers must provide opportunities for real dialogue in the classroom so that students can use the target grammar form in meaningful ways. Finally, teachers should not expect rapid and direct results from grammar instruction. Some grammar features are simple, whereas others are not. Some students find a rule acquisition simple, whereas others do not, as language proficiency varies among students. In conclusion, it is a fundamental and structurally complex tool that is integral to SLA and requires a multidisciplinary understanding if possible.

References

Ellis, R. (2001). Form-focused instruction and second language learning. Language learning, 51. Web.

Implicit and Explicit Learning, Knowledge and Instruction. In Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3-26). Multilingual Matters. Web.

Second language acquisition, teacher education and language pedagogy. Language teaching, 43(2), 182-201.

Ullman, M. T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92(1-2), 231-270.

The declarative/procedural model: A neurobiological model of language learning, knowledge, and use. In Neurobiology of language (pp. 953-968). Academic Press. Web.

Introduction

While teaching and learning language are sometimes perceived as merely providing and obtaining a particular set of prescriptive forms, language is a structural and multifaceted system that integrates knowledge about cultural and social phenomena. This paper aims to examine my personal development as a language learner based on the scholarly sources studied within the first year of university. The most important issues that should be taken into account include the definition of language, its association with culture, and multilingualism, as well as learning styles and theories. In general, I assess my first year of language learning as successful yet requiring further steps toward mastery.

Evaluating Personal Development as a Language Learner

The languages people speak and learn directly affect their personality. This statement was proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf, an American linguist, who was confident that each language is able to convey a particular world view, so that a language has a strong influence on speakers (Subbiondo, 2015). From my point of view, my speaking three languages and current language learning are reflected in my personality. I notice that my communicative and interpersonal skills have become more elaborate, and it is much easier for me to cooperate with other students in working on team projects (Weber & Horner, 2012). Most importantly, my worldview has also changed and expanded as I have become more open to various cultures and to society as a whole.

It is worth noting that contemporary globalisation, expressed in the movement of people and the mixing of cultures, leads to the appearance of changes in the natural triptych of people-state-nation. The links between languages and national / cultural identity are weakened and multiplied (Shohamy, 2006). It goes without saying that the mother tongue has a special meaning for each person, but this does not mean that he or she is unable to accept other languages. Knowledge of other languages does not jeopardise the special ties with ones native language, yet it serves as the foundation for further development of a person (Holliday, 2006). Bilingualism has a positive effect on the formation of flexibility of mind and analytical abilities, and people knowing several languages are more likely to interact with native speakers.

One of the areas that are worth turning ones attention to is comprised by the analytical skills that language learners master during language acquisition. The related learning activity draws on the leading role of the mechanism of reflexive self-esteem. The students build scientific knowledge, skills, and ways of learning while studying the field of individual activity in the dynamics of personal development. The affective, also known as empathic, qualities involve interest and self-motivation and a sustained need to study languages and use them in real communication (Cohen, 2003). In addition, I have a desire to know the language and culture from the inside, to understand not only grammar, vocabulary, and other issues, but also people and the traditions represented by a language.

The fact that I live in England allows me to better embrace the local culture and comprehend the interactions between citizens. Chomsky stated that a language is a mere derivative of grammar, which is quite a narrow understanding of the core of language (Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013). While I partially agree with Chomsky, it is also essential to add that a set of cultural issues are influenced by linguistic perspectives. I am German and Spanish, and studying in England has increased my interest in language learning as a way to connect with the new culture and find new friends.

I would like to stress that many cultural aspects of Spain and England are quite different, which makes it even more exciting to learn about how other people live. For example, both countries were colonial empires in the past, and their ties with former colonies are still strong, which determines migration flows and leads to cultural exchange, including in such areas as food, music, et cetera. Siesta is a famous afternoon sleep, a tradition that the Spaniards still adhere to, especially outside the big cities. In turn, despite the fact that the traditions of English tea-drinking are several centuries old, they have not lost their relevance. During cultural ceremonies and less significant events, language learners come to understand not only specific linguistic details, but also how the representatives of the local culture speak, behave, react, and view one another.

The constructive nature of educational and cognitive activity is realised in the process of creating a learners personal foreign language product. On the one hand, this is manifested in the creation of certain material and ideal language speech products (Wei, 2011). On the other hand, it represents the discovery of a new solution to an already known problem, the development of personal ways of learning, and the accumulation and transfer of experience. In my view, language learning is closely related to self-improvement as it promotes developing such skills as creative thinking, memorisation, and decision-making. For example, when I had to write an essay or compose a dialogue with my classmates, it was useful to come up with metaphors and similes to discuss one idea or another. At the same time, I should state that I started to use my creative thinking more often both in language learning and studying at the university as a whole. This shows that language learning affects a person by developing his or her imagination, which is beneficial for other disciplines and for forming connections with people as a socially important construct of life.

In turn, the creative nature of learning activity is expressed in the fact that it is associated with resolving a particular problem or finding the most effective way to solve cognitive tasks (Kramsch, 2006). Namely, I can note my creative findings as well as accumulating experience, which has impacted the formation of my style of learning and self-development. The creative qualities I have developed include active involvement in the process of studying in order to take advantage of opportunities for the practical use of the language. Consistent with Kramsch (2006), I have also strived to accumulate productive skills for communicative and educational activities in the field of the language being studied. Based on my strong desire to learn a new language, my overall journey to receiving a degree was also improved due to the positive impact of these skills on my decision-making and problem-solving abilities. In other words, I believe that language learning contributes to understanding other nations, their cultures, and education in general.

The active interaction and cooperation with other subjects of educational activity can be shown in mutual goal-setting, evaluation of the process of creating an educational product and the result, and the transfer of experience (Reynolds, 2014). At the same time, the leading role is played by reflexive self-assessment, the proper performance of which is likely to assist a learner in finding both strengths and weaknesses to build on. According to Moore (2006), multilinguals are more sensitive about the communicative intentions and needs of their interlocutors and have greater flexibility in using a wider range of communication strategies. Knowledge of two languages inevitably causes a person to reflect on language as such along with its functions (Kramsch, 1999; Sylvén & Thompson, 2015). For instance, I tend to pay attention to the characteristics of both languages and perceive them as an object of reflection, not just as a way of expressing thoughts. I think that the ability to express one thought in several languages gives a learner the opportunity to see the language as one particular system among many others, which leads to a special awareness.

Multilingualism increases metalinguistic ability, including metalinguistic competence and awareness, which involves comprehension of the form of the language. In other words, the ability to recognise the sounds of a language (phonological awareness), grammatical rules (syntactic awareness), and grammatical markers (morphological awareness) are essential signs of successful learning (Jessner, Allgäuer-Hackl, & Hofer, 2016). Such awareness is a significant component of cognitive development due to its connection with language ability and general literacy. Personally, I evaluate my metalinguistic awareness as moderate since I can listen to another persons speech and determine its meaning without significant effort, while some improvement is also needed to increase my language level (Jessner et al., 2016). In addition, my written language awareness is also appropriate compared to the yearly learning outcomes. Nevertheless, there has been significant progress in my learning compared to the beginning of the year at university. I believe that more theoretical work and practical assignments will be beneficial to achieve this goal.

The influence of multilingualism on mastering a third language is related to social motivation to a certain extent. Researchers have proposed a model with three latent variables: multilingualism, motivation, and achievements (Dörnyei, Henry, & MacIntyre, 2015). This model shows a causal trajectory linking multilingualism through social motivation with the results achieved in the possession of a third language. The socially-oriented contextual character of a learning activity, or the extent to which it is included in the context of the students real-life activity, is associated with the research or design of a specific educational product (Dörnyei et al., 2015). At the same time, the principle of orientation towards the future professional activity of the student is becoming a leading principle of learning. Personally, I feel a strong connection between my language learning, social attachment, and career opportunities, which supports the relevance of this model.

Language learning strategies and methods substantially affect students approach to learning. The views of Wilhelm Vietor seem to be especially relevant for the social and technological condition of the world today. Vietor assumed that teachers should focus primarily on language patterns rather than grammar to enable students to learn a language faster and more effectively (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). If we take into account that today, there are a variety of opportunities to learn provided by the Internet, concentration on language patterns seems to be essential. For instance, Facebook and other social networks, special websites, courses, and so on are among the options to study theoretical aspects and practice a language with other students and native speakers.

The direct method, which refers to the creation of an environment similar to first language learning, is also viable and reflected in my experience. Since I live in a country that is the native cultural setting for the language I am learning, I clearly understand that doing so is much more useful than merely studying abroad. As claimed by Lantolf and Beckett (2009), the sociocultural theory explains how exactly second language acquisition occurs through internalisation and mediation. According to Cohen (2010), the latter means that the social environment contributes to the synchronisation of speech and gestures, as also stressed by Vygotskys general theoretical claim. In turn, the process of internalisation is associated with the imitation of native speakers language and their non-verbal communication (Cohen, 2011). From my experience, I can also mention many examples when I consciously or unintentionally imitated the language of my local friends. More to the point, I think that the strategies of learning mentioned here have helped me in conceptualising and developing my linguistic knowledge and personality as a whole.

Conclusion

Language learning is important for developing ones personality as it positively impacts cultural awareness and educational success in general. This paper has discussed how critical thinking, problem solving, and decision-making skills are also improved in the course of language learning. Personally, I found that my first year at university was quite successful due to social inclusion, motivation, and the opportunity to immerse myself in the new culture. While some progress is evident, further language learning is critical to my career, personal development, and productive social ties.

References

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