Category: Linguistics 473

For a long time, it was noticed, that the wisdom and the spirit of a nation can be shown through its proverbs and sayings, where the knowledge of proverbs of a particular nation promotes not only a better knowledge of the language but also a better perception of peoples nature and their views.

The comparison of the proverbs of different societies shows how much in common they have, which in turn, promotes their better mutual understanding and rapprochement. In proverbs, a rich historical experience of the people is reflected, as well as representations connected with labor activity, lifestyle, and culture. In that regard, correct and pertinent use of proverbs gives speeches unique originality and special expressiveness.

Translating proverbs can be considered among the most difficult theoretical problems of untranslatable translation, or traduttore, traditore. The problem of untranslatability arises from the fact that different cultures divide up the universe in different ways, and that their languages, therefore, contain ideas, words, and expressions to describe those different concepts and culture-specific features(Nolan). In that regard, proverbs are considered communicative phraseological units, which represent the purpose of predicative offers  reaction to the events of the reality, and a stimulus to peoples actions. The usage of proverbs assumes a high degree of figurativeness and emotionality, which is frequently caused by the special purposes of the one who uses these proverbs. Analyzing texts it is found out, that very much unusual for certain phenomena to be described in sentences in the form of proverbs. The unexpectedness of the occurrence of a proverb in the text complicates its translation. Accordingly, aside from untranslatability issues regarding proverbs, some proverbs are difficult to translate, or depends on several factors rather than literal translation to transfer the meaning of the proverb. In that regard, to understand properly a proverb translated from another language, literal translation cannot serve its purpose, which might lead to that the original proverb will lose its meaning, and result in an incorrect interpretation.

The definitions of proverbs can occupy the minds of philosophers and scholars from ancient times, where differing in their approaches they might be too vague to cover and extensive, leading to imprecise definitions. In that regard, more or less precise definition combined from several statements defines a proverb as: a concise statement of an apparent truth which has [had or will have] currency among the people (Mieder), and while the proverbs can be used for centuries, fall out of circulation, or newly coined, there are still short, generally known sentences that contain wisdom, truths, and morals.

The roots of proverbs occurrence of proverbs are very diverse. To become a proverb, a statement should be apprehended and adopted by ordinary simple people. In such a matter, the statements primary source might be often forgotten. Having turned to a proverb, it becomes a part of public consciousness; where for the person using the proverb, it is not important who thought it up it. It is possible to unmistakably assume, that any proverb has been created by a certain person in certain circumstances. However, for very many old proverbs the source of their origin is completely lost. Therefore, it will be more correct to state, that proverbs have a folk origin, and that their primary source can be found in peoples collective mentality. In a set of statements summarizing the daily experience, the meaning of a word, developed into a proverb form gradually, without any obvious declaration.

In terms of the awareness when translating proverbs, the case is similar to the translation of figurative language, where the most common mistake is not recognizing figurative or idiomatic language, and translating it literally. (Nolan, p. 67 ). A result of such a situation can be an embarrassing moment for the interpreter or the person using the proverb in another context., e.g. translating the proverb, Dont throw out the baby with the bathwater. (Nolan, p. 67). The aforementioned proverb means not to overdo something, while literal translation might imply a nonproper situation.

Accordingly, a concept of equivalence is commonly used when translating idioms and proverbs, which is a type of modulation and a linguistic sub-discipline of pragmatics which is concerned with the use of language in different cultures.(Ni. In that regard, using completely different stylistic or structural methods might get the message more clearly rather than translating literally, e.g. a Chinese idiom translated like spending money like earth, which implies overspending of a person, might be well received if equivalence was used spend money like water. The equivalence might be used due to geographical reasons and corresponding perceptions of a common matter, where the Chinese lived on the continent, and thus the water and earth was common to them, while in England people lived on an island (Ni). In that sense, for the proverb to be translated correctly, the interpreter should know the original meaning, and the equivalent in the target language for the proverbs message to be received.

Additionally, translators and bilingual speakers acknowledge two types of proverbs, where one proverb in a different language has the same meaning but different structure, vocabulary, and metaphors. This type of proverbs has different origins in their respective language, and accordingly, in this type, the equivalence of the words is specifically emphasized. Another type the proverbs which in different languages are identical, e.g. German, English, and Slavic languages of Europe. The aforementioned type usually poses a difficulty, neither for the interpreter nor for the listener to interpret the meaning of the proverb (Mieder).

This paper states that a correct understanding of the translated proverb is related to the way the proverb was translated, either literally or figuratively with an equivalent meaning.

The design of this study is quantitative, survey-based research. The participants of the study (N=20), were college students who agreed to fill the electronic forms sent to them by email. The students were asked to fill the survey that was sent to them and contained 8 items. The translation style, either literal or equivalent served as the independent variables that were manipulated, as well as an additional external variable was added for the usage of translation in context or not. The dependant variable was the ability to correctly perceive the true meaning of the proverb.

In the survey, two out of ten items were personal questions related to age and gender and were included for informational purposes. The survey was conducted, so that translated proverbs had four possible answers regarding their meaning, which should be chosen by the participants. The survey can be seen in Appendix 1.

Questions 1,2, and 4 were literary translations of Russian and German proverbs, while 3, 5, and 6 were equivalent proverbs. Regarding the questions with literal translation only 7 participants out of twenty could answer the question correctly, while regarding the English interpretations of the international proverbs, 19 participants have the answer correctly. It can be seen that there is a direct relationship between the translation and the equivalent interpretations, where the latter facilitated the perception of the proverbs. It can be assumed that putting the proverbs, even literary translated into a context might positively affect the ability of the participants to understand the proverbs.

Additionally, the findings of the research confirm the literature review, where the usage of equivalence, implied that the existence of cultural differences that might prevent the people from correctly understanding the literal translation. The studys implications can be seen through the way translation of culturally specific materials requires a separate approach that differs from the translation of regular materials. Additionally, the limitations of the study can be seen through the differences in the proverbs, which might interfere with the results, as some proverbs might be seen as difficult to perceive in the native language. Additionally, the usage of a control group might have added to the validity of the research, where similar proverbs might be dived between two groups, where each group will be answering either literal translation or interpretive, separate from each other. In that regard, additional research is required to establish similar proverbs for both groups. Nevertheless, it can be seen that a positive correlation can be apparent even though the present survey, which implies, that the results are indicative of the main research problem.

References

1. Mieder, Wolfgang. Proverbs : A Handbook. Greenwood Folklore Handbooks. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2004.
2. Ni, Lili. For Translation and Theories. 2009. ccsenet.org.
3. Nolan, James. Interpretation : Techniques and Exercises. Professional Interpreting in the Real World. Buffalo: Multilingual Matters, 2005.

Summary

The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is the worlds most extensively used test for study, work, and immigration. The exams aim is to determine the English competence of persons whose first language is different from English. The test scores are generally utilized in analyzing overseas learners capacity to apply English in an educational way. It assesses a peoples ability to communicate in English. In a college or university classroom, the TOEFL exam effectively tests the ability to read, listen, speak, and write in English (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019). The English-language learners (ELL) population in schools grows, and so does the number of standardized language proficiency exams given to students to meet their needs better.

The ELL program is a consistent approach to assisting these pupils as they begin to learn in a new environment and language. The systems enable professionals to track pupils progress and competency in the new language. TOEFL is one example of a standardized language competence test mentioned in this study and is acceptable in more than 11000 in 150 countries. It describes some of the assessment tests and general test material and state and explains its purpose. Furthermore, it examines the tests strengths and weaknesses and shares personal perspectives on the test, materials, structure, direction, and personal experience with the test.

General Test Information

TOEFL is one of the most widely used assessments and preferred tests for university admissions worldwide. It assesses the total spectrum of English dialect abilities experienced by individuals while studying English as a second language. TOEFL assessment performance is determined by how well a candidates English abilities match the dialects requirements of the course of study rather than by earning a passing grade (Kim, 2017). The required face-to-face meeting, in which the assessor examines the candidates ability to communicate in English, is an appealing component of the TOEFL. IDP Education Australia, the British Council, and the University of Cambridge, Cambridge ESOL are all involved in the testing system.

Exams for TOEFL are offered at educational institutions all around the world. Over 300 testing stations in over 120 countries have already been created (TOEFL test center). These facilities ensure that qualified and certified examiners are available and manage the tests regional administration. Today, more and more institutions in the United States accept good test results. TOEFL test was created to evaluate the language abilities of those who needed to attend classes in an environment where English is the primary language of communication.

State and Describe the Purpose of TOEFL

The TOEFL test assesses persons whose local language is not English, of their ability to comprehend, interpret, and speak English; it shows how well a person can listen to English as a second language. The exam is owned by three organizations, each of which has the authority to maintain the tests validity: the British Council and the University of Cambridge examinations. TOEFL is one of the well-recognized methods for demonstrating English proficiency. The diploma is accepted as proof of English competency by businesses, institutions, professional organizations, and government organizations.

The reading test TOEFL module teaches students about the many question types in the examination since they are prepared under the TOEFL standards. Reading motivation and cognitive reading skills are critical in enhancing reading passage comprehension (Matthiesen, 2017). To demonstrate the initial concept in an environment with no strong culture for reading comprehension performance, reading motivation, and reading tactics. This exam helps participants manage their reading time effectively by using proper grammar, diction, and reading style. Vocabulary training for adult English as a second language tertiary-bound learners, focusing on vocabulary. Learners learn how to predict the substance of what they read based on the introductory phrases or titles. They do not waste time attempting to understand new terms; instead, they have ways of comprehending what they are reading, particularly with context cues. Individuals are exposed to direct vocabulary education, which is essential for reading instruction.

Description of the Entire Test Kit

The Type of Test Indicated by TOEFL

There are several types of TOEFL examinations; the first is TOEFL on the Internet Internet-based Test (iBT) assesses a peoples abilities to read, write, hear, and speak English in a university setting. The second test is TOEFL Paper-based test is part of the TOEFL Institutional Testing Program (ITP) and Assessment series (PBT). Even though this platform contains parts from the common training TOEFL test, its primary goal is to assist students in preparing for the academic TOEFL test.

Administration Time for the TOEFL Test

Understanding the TOEFL assessment structure is essential because it allows learners to plan their approach on exam day. TOEFL iBT test: done at an approved test center on a computer through the internet. For a TOEFL iBT Home Edition, the exam is done at home on a computer while being supervised by a functioning supervisor. Reading, hearing, and drafting papers in a test center are all part of the TOEFL iBT Paper Edition, as is speaking on a computer through the internet at home. It takes a total time of 3 hours to perform the test and is broken into the sections below:

Reading Section 34 multiple-focus sections 700 words for each passage, there are ten questions and the t time required is 5472 minutes. The score scale is from 0to 30

Section of listening, there is 34 lectures, some of which include classroom discussion, each lasting 35 minutes and including 6 questions. 23 discussions, each lasting 3 minutes and including 5 questions. The time required is 4157 minutes and a scoring scale of 030.

Section for Public Speaking, there are 4 tasks comprising of one independent task, give a viewpoint on a well-known subject and three activities depending on what youve read and heard. Requirements are preparing a response in up to 30 seconds and then reacting in up to 1 minute on a 17-minute timer and a scale of 030. In the section on Writing, there are two tasks: 1 integrated 20-minute task based on what youve read and heard and 1 separate 30-minute work to support a point of view on a topic. 50-minute time limit and a score scale of 0-30.

Type of Administration and Testing Condition of TOEFL

TOEFL test is accepted in most countries, such as New Zealand, the UK, the US, Canada, and Australia. People taking TOEFL usually wish to attend universities or graduate schools in other countries. The TOEFL can be taken by anybody who wants to demonstrate proficiency in English for academic purposes. For various colleges, the minimum necessary total TOEFL scores range from 45 to 100, with many schools demanding scores in the 70s and 80s.

Who is Qualified to Administer, Score and Interpret the Test

To take the TOEFL test, one must be at least 16 years old, have a valid passport, and attend all four portions of the examination (listening, reading, writing, or speaking). If students do not follow all four sections, they will not receive a TOEFL test result. Exceptions are possible; however, they must be requested at registration and authorized in writing by the test facility. The efficiency of the TOEFL module is determined by the requirements of the applicants and is based on the individuals degree of education. Considering the candidates abilities, mainly when English is a new language, they have specific learning difficulties. Students preparing for examinations may exhibit a lack of understanding of the abilities examined within the framework of the test (Matthiesen, 2017). The above is because such students are concerned with their exam scores.

Test preparation involves using timed test papers, internet tools, and textbooks. This has been addressed by focusing on adaptive self-directed academic modules that improve learners ability to identify their shortcomings and strengths. In addition, make logical decisions about their learning (Kim, 2017). Instructor instruction is usually accompanied by a diagnostic gadget for pupils to utilize for self-evaluation. This approach leads to formulating a defined goal and the execution and growth of a persons learning program through several conversations.

What TOEFL Covers Age/Grade Levels

Typically, instructor training is accompanied by a diagnostic device for students to use for self-evaluation. As a result, anybody above 16 and who has passed an accredited institutions 10+2 level of education can enroll for the TOEFL assessment. The ETS, the organization that administers the TOEFL exam, has not established any exact eligibility requirements for the exam. Several colleges accepted TOEFL Indicator results as a substitute for the preparatory test.

Scoring Information for TOEFL

The TOEFL examinations assign an overall band score to each candidate to indicate how well they fared. Each portion of the test is graded on a scale of 1 to 9, with whole and half bands available. Following that, learners will receive a total score calculated by averaging the four parts. The following is a breakdown of the TOEFL score for each section: The first is listening; the test is 40 questions long, with one mark given for each correct answer.

40-point scale, the score is converted into a TOEFL test range. Second, the exam is graded out of 40 and converted into a full or half test scale when it comes to reading. Academic and general education is required; assessments utilize the same scale, albeit the conversion of marks differs slightly. Thirdly, the writing this component has two tasks, and the TOEFL evaluation criteria are utilized to obtain a bands rating. The consistency and cohesion of each work and vocabulary, grammatical range, and accuracy are all evaluated. Lastly, examiners employ assessment criteria to assign a band once again. The following areas are graded: consistency and competency, vocabulary, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation.

The TOEFL iBT assessment can be taken many times in order to attain the desired score. This means that there is no restriction to the number of times a person may undertake the test. The examination, nevertheless, cannot be taken more than once in a three-day period. As a result of the above, the individual participating may be able to improve their chances of obtaining higher grades.

Strengths of TOEFL

The Publishers Strength

Test that is globally known TOEFL is the worlds most recognized English language exam, accepted by over 11,000 companies worldwide. Immigration authorities trust it in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Canada. There are several options; life is full of options, and choosing the best decision for your future is critical. TOEFL provides opportunities before and after the test to ensure the best preparation for the future with TOEFL; a student can take an exam on paper or on a computer. Students can take the test in either academic or general training mode, take the test for education, job, or migration purposes, and select a convenient test day and place.

Personal Strength Review

Improve job prospects, and excellent communication skills are crucial, as English is the primary language of fifty-five nations. Having a solid command of the language may allow learners to seek a profession in a distant nation! Like New Zealand and Canada, many governments demand that you go beyond conversational English. To acquire work in these countries, learners must instead establish that they are a competent user of the language by obtaining a specific score on the TOEFL exam. Improves command of the English language

The TOEFL test measures the four language abilities: listening, speaking, writing, and reading. Through the TOEFL preparation hub, one can acquire various study methods to help improve English language abilities.

Unlike other examinations that use an automated speaking test, TOEFL requires learners to engage with the examiner in real time. This helps better prepare one for living in a foreign place by simulating real-world dialogues such as exchanges with your neighbors and colleagues. This TOEFL advantage might be one of the most critical factors in selecting between TOEFL and other examinations. TOEFL can help students reach life objectives in the future, and the TOEFL test assists in setting clear goals and inspires study more diligently. When learners do not have clear objectives and purposes, it is easy not to look as hard or to put off studying until the last minute. The goals of the TOEFL test are clearly defined, which helps to inspire learning regularly, therefore improving your English abilities.

Limitations of the TOEFL

Personal View

There is no feedback, and learners will never know if their writing or speaking skills are good if they do not have an instructor to help them. TOEFL Writing remains the most challenging portion of the exam for most test-takers, with students scoring one band lower on average than other aspects. Developing these might be difficult, with little direct connection between the teacher and the pupils. Secondly, the teachers tips and insights can be useful throughout the exam. A private instructor will tackle students concerns individually and propose a solution that may or may not work. The coach will undoubtedly provide a solution whether learners have trouble with articles, prepositions, or any other aspects.

Some universities in the United States do not recognize TOEFL. As a result, students must contact the colleges they are applying to ensure that the application is approved. They may not state this on their website, so getting them is recommended. A smaller number of schools accept it; the listening phase is difficult because students must concentrate and understand what the speaker is saying and the question he is answering. More intensive training is required, students must write responses, and there are a few Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs), so one should be familiar with word spellings. Because TOEFL requires a British accent, students should practice it before exams. There are significant distinctions between the American and British accents.

Statement of Overall Opinion

For many English learners, the TOEFL is a helpful qualification. It can show that you are fluent in all parts of the English language, which is useful if one wishes to migrate, study, or work in another country. Professionals provide a variety of courses to help you prepare for the TOEFL examinations and improve your English abilities in various areas. If you are unsure whether the TOEFL is suited for you, consider various considerations. The first question is whether one needs to take the exam. The TOEFL is an internationally recognized qualification required by several universities and migration processes in some countries. TOEFL preparation may demonstrate that learners have acquired a specific level of English ability. Of course, there are other ways to learn and improve your English. Future Learn offers a comprehensive range of English classes, allowing students to learn via language and culture. Students can concentrate on a variety of English skills, including intermediate, upper-intermediate, and academic levels.

The TOEFL was created to solve this issue by improving learners capacity to assess their limitations and strengths, make reasonable decisions about their studies, and strengthen their test-taking skills. The diagnostic for students self-evaluation is always conducted with the assistance of a students advisor. Through multiple dialogues, the approach develops clear objectives as well as the execution and evolution of a persons learning plan. (Matthiesen, 2017). Learners can extend their knowledge beyond test preparation to other areas of study. Students understanding of requirement analysis, assessment, execution, and planning is promoted to expand their dialect learning capability outside and inside the TOEFL module. Instructors who have experienced TOEFL efficiency, on the other hand, examine their knowledge on continual improvement for candidates to accomplish their objective levels during the TOEFL (Matthiesen, 2017). Understanding the cognition of TOEFL instructors and their instructional activities in connection to the washback effects of the TOEFL exam is critical in assessing the success of test preparation courses.

Is TOEFL Appropriate for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students?

The capacity to write fluently and efficiently in English is getting gradually essential in the current society, as interaction via language is becoming increasingly important. This talent is seen as crucial for several causes in both education as well as business. It is essential in peoples working life. English learners who are writing in a second language should experience the same mobility of cognitive capacities, allowing them to increase the complexity of their writing competence. It is more than vital to recognize the linguistic growth of Learner writers to see how Learner writing competence grows. In addition, many attempts have been made to detect a range of linguistic aspects of second language writing quality in terms of quantitative methodologies. The TOEFL test positively affected learners language competence and test preparation tactics, particularly productive skills, which learners had overlooked in their prior language studies in the study setting. However, various mediating elements must be addressed to achieve good washback in EFL situations and the absence of teaching.

References

Brown, H., & Abeywickrama, P. (2019). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices (3^rd ed.). Pearson.

Kim, C. (2017). The examination of the test of English as a foreign language (TOEFL): Evident disparities between world Englishes and standard English. Westcliff International Journal of Applied Research, 1(2), 16-23.

Matthiesen, S. (2017). Barrons essential words for the TOEFL: Test of English as a foreign language (7^th ed.). Hauppauge, New York, Barrons Educational Series.

Semantic analysis

Semantic in linguistics is largely concerned with the relationship between the forms of sentences and what follows from them. Semantic analysis is an analysis of the sensible set of instructions that form part of programming in a language, for instance, the presence of subject-verb agreement, proper use of gender and marching of linguistic components in a way that makes sense (Hurford 25). For instance the sentence & is supposed to be& (Schmidt par. 2 ) in the article A Christmas gift makes less meaning unless the root word suppose is replaced with supposed.

Propositions

Propositions are truth-bearers referring to the meaning of a declarative sentence and therefore it is the quality of a declarative sentence with the quality of being true or false. For example in A Christmas gift the article states that I have long thought of this as one of her many gifts (Schmidt par. 2). This is a declarative sentence which can be true or false and therefore a proposition. Another example is where the daughter declares that We do have our personalities and souls& (Schmidt par. 3), where she is out to counter the attacks directed to youth by grown-ups.

In When Daughter Becomes a Mother the article has used various declarative sentences which can be termed propositions. By writing that &I was glad to have my mother& (Schmidt par. 1) the writer is declaring her feelings and her sense whenever she was accompanied by her mother in her labor ward. The last declarative proposition is evident when the writer states that, & is a great site with plenty of information (Schmidt par. 5) and by doing this the writer declares the inevitability of such a website for mothers.

Entity

Entity in linguistics refers to a term with a distinct and separate existence but with different meaning in different sentences whether or not such references refer to material existence. The meaning of the entities in the language is known only when we know how to use it and can be defined by a set of rules that determine its behavior. In When Daughter Becomes a Mother and A Christmas Gift the writer uses entities such as or, any, all and each which can be classified as entities. For example, the meaning of entity all in these phrases are not the same;

1. & they were all more at ease & (Schmidt par. 4).
2. &it was a combination of all this & (Schmidt par. 2).

Reference

A reference is a concrete object or concept that is object designated by a word or expression and it simply an object, action, state, relationship or attribute in the referential realm (Hurford 28). The function of referring terms or expressions is to pick out an individual, place, action and even group of persons among others. In the two articles, such references can be for instance Christmas, which refers to a commemoration of Jesus Christs birth, household which refers to family members and others like children, parents, teenagers, cash, thought, gifts, daughters, delivery room, hospital, childhood, babys mother among others. There are the real world and imaginary world references for example when the writer states & had my article for this month& (Schmidt par. 1), he is referring to the real-world reference for the month while And I became very aware of & (Schmidt par. 2), is an imaginary outcome of the references stereotyping.

Referent

A referent is an object that an expression refers to for example the name Christmas in the article A Christmas Gift refers to the commemoration of the birth of the one Jesus Christ, the man who is believed to be the son of God and savior of mankind by Christians. The expression babys father (Schmidt par. 3) in When Daughter Becomes a Mother refers to that particular man, whom the pregnant mother had as the father of their child.

Sense

The sense is the mode of presentation of the referent in a way that linguistic expressions with the same reference are said to have different senses. For example the expressions &obnoxious teenagers& (Schmidt par. 6) and Teenagers do &. (Schmidt par. 3) from A Christmas Gift have the words teenagers which means that as far as they are in both sentences there is something common to each thought and this common element, which can not be referent is the sense or meaning.

Referring expression

In linguistics referring expressions refer to any noun phrase, a noun phrase surrogate which plays the role of picking out a person, place, object et cetera. For example in  A Christmas gift the phrase The household consisted& (Schmidt par. 4) picks out family members who were affected by the fire as described in the article. This will be true for others like; This room of obnoxious teenagers& (Schmidt par. 6), By the time it made its way& (Schmidt par. 6) and such pronouns and proper names like Samantha, are all referring expressions in the articles.

The predicator

Linguists consider a predicator as a group of words in a sentence that is taken or considered to be a single unit and a verb in its functional relation. For example my 14-year-old friend (Schmidt par. 4) is a unit made up of a group of words that refer to the friend. Other examples from our articles include; & selfish, rude, loud and self-centered teenagers& (Schmidt par. 5) among others. Lexical ambiguity is always evident when a word or phrase alludes to more than one meaning in the language to which the language is used for example the word mother which can be a verb or noun. Another example is Both times that I gave birth& (Schmidt par. 1) where one may not be sure of the meaning of the word both it can mean; twice, two or double. The word both is also not agreeing with times.

Works Cited

Hurford, James, et al. Semantics: A Course book. London: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Print.

Schmidt, Lee. When Daughter Becomes a Mother. 2000. Web.

Schmidt, Lee. A Christmas Gift. 2000. Web.

Denotation can be referred to the dictionary-like definition of a word; to provide the denotation of a word is therefore to give its basic meaning. On the other hand, connotation stands for what a word implies or suggests. I consideration of connotation of a word, one goes beyond its basic meaning to examine what it is associated with in its everyday use. It is important to note that connotation relies on denotation. Hence both are interrelated. The word line has several denotations and connotations.

Denotation

The line is a broad concept with many denotations. The line is used as a verb and a noun. The most widely accepted denotation of a noun line is that one of a short or long, thin or thick mark on a surface, which could be real like a paper or imaginary as is the case of the equator, tropic of cancer and Capricorn. It also denotes a group of words in a song, text or poem and a series of objects arranged in a certain formation where one follows the other as is the case of cars on roads or voters on a queue.

The line could also be used about people from the same extended family who come after each other in generational succession. Royal families, for instance, produce a line of kings and queens. In fishing, a line denotes a thin string or cord from which fish hang. The same applies to the rope on which clothes hang after being washed. In its extended form, it used about telephone connections, especially the ones that are physical.

As a verb, the line means a mark or form a line on a piece of paper or any surface. It is also used about forming a queue or formation to aid inspection or parade. Incase of covering such fabrics, the line refers to the act of putting layers of different materials for insulation or decorative purposes.

Connotation

In the context of journalism, the concept line may suggest an article. In writing, dropping a line implies putting ones thoughts on paper as is the case with letters. English is replete with idiomatic expressions which demonstrate what the word line implies in its everyday use.

A line is used to imply a limit beyond which one should not go; drawing a line is setting such a limit. When one performs within set parameters, it is often said that such a person falls, gets, or moves into line with others and therefore conforms to their requirements. If one fails to do that he fails to toe the line which comes with consequences.

Often we ear of hard-line positions during negotiations where individuals fail to concede ground. The line here refers to the inability of such individuals to compromise. The line also implies a way or approach. When faced with many options, for instance, one may choose the line of least resistance hence decide to execute a task most easily.

The line also implies danger. If one is assigned some duties that are likely to result to a downfall, it is said that such a person has been put on the line or simply his job is on the line; meaning that should anything go awry, chances of losing the job are high. In a war zone, soldiers stand in the line of fire and when they get shot at, it is often reported that they died in the line of fire; a dangerous zone.

The word line, therefore, has numerous connotations and denotations. The term line shall continue to be used in both its implicit and explicit forms.

In his inauguration speech, Donald Trump vowed to fight radical Islamic terrorism (Hizbullah and Al Makmun).

• This type of labeling offends the Muslim population.
• President Trump assigned a certain religion to terrorists.
• Terrorism should be considered separate from religion.

President Trump often discussed his America First ideology with foreign representatives (Hizbullah and Al Makmun).

• This phrasing resembles the ideas of nationalism.
• Such a philosophy sends the wrong message to people outside the U.S.

Members of the British Parliament often call one another names, including sod (Seargeant).

• This type of language is inappropriate in all professional settings.
• MPs are public figures, who cannot resort to dysphemisms.

President Trump mentioned the fanatical violence of Islamic terrorists during the Arab-American summit (Nuzula).

• Violence is associated with religion.
• Such language may worsen relations with Arab countries.

References

Hizbullah, I., & al Makmun, M. T. (2019). THE CRITIQUES AND IDEOLOGIES SHARED IN THE INAUGURATION SPEECH OF DONALD TRUMP (A STUDY OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS). Jurnal Bahasa, Sastra, Dan Studi Amerika, 25(2). Web.

Open Journal Systems. (n.d.). Open Journal Systems. Web.

Seargeant, P. (2018). Unparliamentary language: the benefits of swearing in politics. OpenLearn. Web.

Korean is a language I know little (or rather nothing) about. However, I know that it is completely different from English and even such languages as Chinese, Japanese. Therefore, I am a bit anxious about my future lessons in Korean. I am aware of the fact that the communicative approach will be used as it is seen as the primary method in contemporary teaching. Hence, I suppose we will learn how to greet each other and introduce ourselves. I also expect to learn some numbers to be able to say my telephone number (or ask about the price) which is quite common information given and requested. I think I am quite experienced in studying languages as I have studied numerous resources on the matter. I think I will not have difficulties with memorizing new vocabulary or grammar rules.

However, I am quite afraid of pronouncing words and sounds as they are very different and I am always feel ashamed when I make mistakes. Hopefully, the teacher will be supportive and will find means to explain everything. I understand that this will be a monolingual lesson though I hope there will be visual aids and the teacher will use non-verbal means. I also have a hope that well always have transcriptions to assist us.

Lesson 1

The first lesson objectives were as follows: learners should learn simple vocabulary (hello, good-bye, thank you, yes, no, what), get an overview of the alphabet; learners should also learn letters (a, b/p, n, m, r/l and the silent letter) and numbers (1-5).

The teacher used several teaching methods. Demonstration was the most used method during this language as the teacher pronounced words and taught us how to write letters. The teacher also used visual aids (a cartoon where the vocabulary taught was demonstrated, pictures with letters and transcriptions). Another method used was collaboration as learners practiced the new vocabulary. Each learner was also given papers with written words and transcriptions but without translation. We wrote translation ourselves after the teacher made sure that each group understands the meaning of the word.

Clearly, there were drills as the language is very different from the learners first language. Learners also worked in groups. There was an interesting activity: the teacher gave written words and students had to read them, which was quite difficult as the letters were new and rather confusing but there were hints. For instance, there were words pronounced like (Habana, Iran, mile, Lima, Abba) and there were pictures which assisted in decoding the words. I found these activities enjoyable and effective as we practiced reading and had some fun. It was a necessary activity as we could be overwhelmed by information provided without such activities. The major aspect of teaching I focused on during this lesson was risk-taking. The teacher encouraged students to answer her questions and forget about the fear of mistakes. I believe this aspect of teaching is very effective and I will use it in my future teaching. However, I think this aspect should not be used during initial lessons.

It is necessary to note that the languages are very different and there are numerous contrastive features. I understood that phonology is different and I will have to learn to pronounce new sounds /b-p/ or /l-r/ which are not found in the English alphabet. It is also necessary to note that Korean words often end in vowels while English words tend to end in consonants.

Notably, the way of writing of some letters may be different depending on the letters position in Korean. In English, each letter is written in the same way irrespective of its position. At that, there are uppercase and lowercase letters in English and there is not such a concept in the Korean language. It is possible to write horizontally and vertically in Korean and Latin script implies horizontal writing only.

The number of letters is also different as in Korean there are 20 letters (including 6 vowels) while the English alphabet has 26 letters (including 6 vowels: a, e, i, o, u and y (in the frontal position)). Furthermore, stress in the sentence is also very different as in English main parts of speech are stressed and in Korean there is no such practice. More so, word stress also differs in the two languages. In the Korean language, all syllables are equally stressed and, in English, the first syllable is usually stressed. It is also possible to state that both languages have words with multiple meanings, but they are very different.

Thus, in English there are two words (what and no). In Korean, there is only one word for these two words which have no connection for an English speaker. I believe the same is common for Korean students of English who cannot understand why one word has such different meanings.

Lesson 2

The objectives of this lesson were as follows: learners should continue learning the alphabet, learn new vocabulary (See you! Excuse me! Im sorry! What is it? book, bag, pen, school, me), grammar (i-e-yo / ye-yo (equivalent of the verb to be) and its position), letters (o, d/t, s, eu, ng, n, eo, e, ae, ¥), and practice greeting each other, writing new words.

Again, the teacher employed demonstration and used visual aids (pictures, cartoons, and flashcards with words, their visual representation and transcription). Learners were given certain glossary with written words, their transcriptions and an empty place for translation. The same groups were formed and students were working in these groups when decoding words and reading different lexical units. We were also greeting each other in Korean.

Individually, students were trying to write some words (using flashcards, their cards and the board) including their names. This task (along with the task on decoding) was exciting and students had an opportunity to relax. We all liked these activities. We also appreciated the way the teacher used body language as it was sometimes quite difficult to pronounce and read words but the teachers hints assisted learners immensely.

The teacher also gave students shuffled letters and gave time to decode the words given. This was done in groups and competitive element also helped students to focus. During this lesson, I focused on such aspect of teaching as the use of real tasks. Learners practices simple conversations which they will definitely have in future. This was very helpful as we understood practical value of the lesson.

As for the contrasting features in the two languages, it is possible to note that some English sounds do not exist in Korean. For examples, /ð/ and /¸/ are not used in Korean.

Apart from phonology, the difference between the two languages was also apparent when we got acquainted with some grammar rules. For instance, there is the equivalent of the verb to be in Korean, but it does not have as many forms as it has in English (there are only two i-e-yo / ye-yo).

Hence, there is no subject-verb agreement when the equivalent of the verb to be is used in Korean. Notably, the two verbs are pronounced almost in the same way and for a speaker of English the difference is really subtle. It is also noteworthy that the teacher did not pay specific attention to the difference and, hence, it is clear that the two verbs may be used interchangeably and interlocutors will understand each other even if the verb will be pronounced incorrectly. More so, unlike the English language, this verb is always put at the end of the sentence.

Furthermore, the sentence structure is also different. For instance, in English questions, word order changes and predicate is put before the subject. The intonation is rising with stressed main parts of speech. At this point it is necessary to add that sentences with the verb to be are taken into account here. At the same time, in the Korean language, the structure of affirmative and interrogative sentences is identical (there is only a difference in the intonation). Subject is followed by predicate in Korean questions. Notably, there is a rising intonation at the end of the sentence though main parts of speech are not stressed as all words are stressed equally in Korean sentences.

Lesson 3

The objectives of the lesson were: learners should learn new vocabulary (this, that, student, work, flower), grammar rules (personal pronoun), practice simple conversations, practice reading and writing.

The teacher utilized demonstration and collaboration as major teaching methods during the third lesson. There was also some drilling as new words needed extra attention. Learners also worked in groups and pairs. The teacher also used flashcards and cartoons as well as audio files. Learners were given cards with words, transcriptions. This time, students from different groups also practiced certain simple dialogues.

During one of the reading tasks, some students were put in pairs and one learner was given transcriptions and the partner was given the text and vice versa. There was a game which helped students relax. A student had a scarf on his eyes and he was to guess objects other learners put. This was the practice of pronouns this/that/it. It is noteworthy that learners were more confident during the third lesson and the atmosphere was more favorable. Learners were not afraid of making mistakes and the teachers support helped us very much. Clearly, there were still errors and pronunciation was the most difficult aspect for the learners (including me).

Writing tasks were quite time-consuming and I could not complete the task. Notably, writing was always included in the assignment and I could practice at home, though the tasks were not enough for me and I searched for some more on the Internet. Collaboration was the prevailing aspect during this lesson. Learners worked in groups and pairs and assisted each other. I enjoyed the atmosphere and I believe this was the most fruitful lesson of the first three lessons. Of course, the fact that I have certain skills and knowledge contributed to development of my confidence. However, I believe the aspect of teaching that prevailed should be used during the vast majority of lessons. I will use it in my teaching.

During this lesson another difference between English and Korean was identified. In Korean, one pronoun stands for he/she. This is a bit confusing and I understand confusion of Koreans who study English as they will inevitably make mistakes. At the same time, personal pronouns are differentiated in accordance with the degree of familiarity. In English there is only one pronoun for both close people and complete strangers. However, in Korean, there are different ways to show respect to the interlocutor.

An interesting fact is related to vocabulary. Korean has quite a lot of borrowings from English and many of them are used in everyday life. However, the words are pronounced quite differently from what English speaking people are accustomed to. Consonant clusters are not common for Korean and Koreans add vowel sounds at the end of the words ending in a consonant or when there is a consonant cluster. This is a bit confusing as I understand that I will have to learn the words as they are pronounced in Korean.

Lesson 4

The objectives of this lesson were: learners should learn new vocabulary (tomorrow, today, I like it), grammar rules (present and future tense, word order), practice simple conversations, practice reading and writing.

Two teaching methods used were demonstration, explanation and collaboration. At that, collaboration was prevailing and learners worked in groups and pairs. The teacher used demonstration when presenting new vocabulary and grammar rules. The teacher also explained the use of present and future tenses. Notably, the teacher stressed that there is no need in auxiliaries and the word order is also quite specific. As far as visual aids are concerned, the teacher used a short video from a Korean film. She also put a short episode from an American film translated into English. This was an interesting experience and learners (including me) liked it very much.

Learners were also reading texts in groups (the activity is mentioned above). There was only one drill exercise during this lesson. Learners were making sentences using cards with separate words. There was an interesting exercise when leaners were in a line and each of them had one word on a card and they had to pronounce the word. Each group presented several sentences changing their positions. The reading activity described above was also used.

The teacher made use of body language when explaining tenses and assisting leaners to make sentences and read texts. This was appreciated by students who understood the hints given. This lesson is characterized by the mix of aspects as I was unable to identify the prevailing one. The mix of following aspects was utilized: risk-taking, collaboration and real tasks.

The major difference between the two languages which became clear during the fourth lesson was the use of tenses as there are no specific suffixes in Korean to reveal the time reference. In English, time reference is revealed with the help of suffixes s, -es, -ed or an auxiliary which is put before the verb in future tense. In Korean, words (for example, yesterday, tomorrow, today, now and so on) are used to express time reference in the sentence. It is noteworthy that, in the English language, words expressing time reference can be put at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Whereas, in Korean, such words have a position at the end of the sentence only.

There are no auxiliaries to make questions or negations in the Korean language. Again, the word order does not change in negative sentences in Korean. In English, the use of auxiliaries and the change of word order are compulsory. The teacher paid special attention to this fact as she knew that learners were speakers of English. Apart from this, we have learnt that the word order in Korean is as follows: subject-object-verb. However, the English structure is subject-verb-object. This is quite difficult for an English speaking person as we tend to use the structure we are accustomed to. It is possible to state that Korean grammar rules are a bit simpler than rules in English but pronunciation and writing can be quite difficult for a speaker of English.

The Overall Experience

I would like to note that the learning was valuable experience for me as a student and (to a greater extent) as a teacher. I had certain issues as any other learner but I had quite significant progress as a learner. However, I suppose I had more progress as a teacher since I could observe the use of effective strategies as well as weaknesses of the methods used. As for useful tools to use, I would definitely use the reading exercise which can help develop reading skills as well as phonological awareness in learners. I will also use the exercise with decoding but I will modify it. I also think the use of body language is totally justified as it helps learners.

I think appealing to different learning styles is very effective and classes are constituted by people having visual, auditory or kinesthetic styles. Class management was very effective. Work in groups or pairs was very efficient and students helped each other. The teacher managed to keep students engaged and she found the right time to start a game as she saw that learners were losing concentration. Collaboration is most effective for practicing skills acquired during the lesson. I will definitely rely on this teaching method. I would also like to note that it is impossible to overestimate the use of visual aids. Only a few words in English were used but everything was quite clear for the learners.

At the same time, I detected certain weaknesses in the approach used by the teacher. As far as I am concerned, it is better to use more varied tasks. Of course, the teacher can give a task which is effective, though it should be given occasionally. Now, I understand that even though a task is really efficient and enjoyable for learners it may soon be boring and too easy for learners. I will add more types of exercises or will modify them in a number of ways instead of simply changing vocabulary units. I also think there was not enough drilling as many students had difficulties with pronouncing words. Clearly, when teaching a language that is very different from the learners first language, it is crucial to have a lot of drilling, especially at the initial stage.

Relations between different languages within one state are inseparable from interethnic relations, which are unanimously considered by politicians and sociologists to be the most vulnerable side of the coexistence of people within the framework of society. Therefore, a vision of a complex language situation is always a part of the national policy of the state, and the ways to resolve it are rightfully called language policy and planning. Tollefson and Pe
rez-Milans (2018) also add that the term language planning referred to deliberate efforts to affect the structure or function of languages (p. 3). Each state, in which there is a more or less complex language situation, resolves its problems in its own way, although sociolinguists still attempt to describe the most common types of language policy. One of the main issues of language policy is the problem of the so-called state language. In a multinational state, if it is seriously concerned with its integrity, there must be a single language in which laws are written, centralized broadcasting is conducted, and teaching in higher educational institutions is carried out. With this language, the state is officially represented in the international arena.

It is significant that the United States, where English speakers constitute an unconditional majority, still remains a state without a state language. Attempts to give the English language the constitutional status of a state language are viewed by the majority of politicians as violating human rights. Liddicoat (2018) states that policies can be part of the process of mediation but to see this mediation only in terms of the policy is problematic (p. 151). The relationship between the majoritys and minoritys languages can be complicated, and to resolve the tension, not only language policies but agencies, too, should be applied. Spolsky (2018) presented a good example: Language Problems and Language Plannings first issue focused on language loyalty in Britain, considering the status of Scots Gaelic, Welsh, and Irish (p. 306). The journal suggested that language planning solved such problems. It is true that without proper management, processes of language assimilation may result in the extreme manifestation of that assimilation. This manifestation is called a linguistic shift, or linguistic bias  it means rejection of the native language in favor of the majority language, especially if it performs the function of the language of interethnic communication.

Analyzing these issues, a teacher might safely conclude that in order to ensure a proper language policy and planning on a micro-level, such as their classroom, they need to encourage multilingual education. García and Lin (2017) support that claim, stating that bilingual education became a way of developing the bilingualism of language minoritized people that had experienced language shift and language loss as a result of monolingual schooling (p. 120). Bilingualism at school presents a brilliant opportunity for language minorities not only to peruse their native language but also encourages them to preserve their cultural legacy. Jiang (2017) adds that the role of language policies and planning constitutes policies on language learning and instructional practices in classrooms at elementary, secondary or tertiary levels; or on language acquisition and use in the classroom (p. 104). Moreover, the necessity to learn a second language might provide the language majority with a useful insight into different cultures, as well as better perspectives for their academic and working future. Different researches prove the positive impact of an essential proficiency in two or more languages on social, cultural, and biological aspects of society.

References

García, O., & Lin, A. M. (2017). Translanguaging in bilingual education. Bilingual and Multilingual Education, 117-130.

Jiang, X. (Ed.). (2017). Sociolinguistics: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech.

Liddicoat, A. J. (2018). Constraints on agency in micro language policy and planning in schools. Agency in Language Policy and Planning, 149-170.

Spolsky, B. (2018). Language policy: From planning to management. Un(intended) Language Planning in a Globalising World: Multiple Levels of Players at Work, 301-309.

Tollefson, J. W., & Pe
rez-Milans, M. (2018). The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning. New York, NY, New York: Oxford University Press.

Language is a subject not exempt from misconceptions, some of which are pervasive even among students studying linguistics. In an attempt to alleviate the situation, in the chapter Nine Ideas About Language, Harvey A. Daniels (1985) closely investigates nine such misconceptions, relying on compelling arguments and their rather extensive analysis. The text provides a foundation for a more in-depth understanding of contemporary linguistics and its trends and theories.

The nine myths concern different aspects of language, such as acquisition versus learning, language standardization, the connection between language and society, language change, and language perception. Particularly, Daniels dispels the next myths: children are taught to talk, the foundation of any language lies in the natural meaning or appropriateness of its features, language is uniform, and standard dialects are superior. Other investigated misconceptions are as follows: language variation is exceptional, language change is preventable, language is a closed system, writing and oral language are functionally the same, and language value judgments are universal. For instance, a closer look at the myth that children are taught their native languages reveals that they instead acquire them naturally via generalizations with the help of surrounding adults. The arguments that Daniels provides to debunk these myths are grounded in linguistic theory and are relatively straightforward; thus, he dispels them efficiently.

Overall, the ideas that Daniels elaborates on are fundamental in the field. Although some of them seem self-evident (for example, the idea that all speakers commonly switch between styles or that writing is derivative of oral language), they still potentially persist among linguists. In this way, Daniels successfully dispels the listed misconceptions, laying the foundation for learning more complex and fresh concepts in the domain.

Reference

Daniels, A. H. (1985). Nine ideas about language. In A. Rosa, P. A. Eschholz & V. Clark (Eds.), Language: Introductory readings (pp. 1836). Bedford.

The article analyzes the Arabic languages multiglossia since different varieties of the Arabic language exist in the language community, which are used depending on circumstances. The author suggests applying Badawis five levels of Contemporary Egyptian Arabic when analyzing the linguistic situation in Egypt. These levels consider sociolinguistic aspects of using the language and include

1. Classical Arabic of the heritage,
2. contemporary Classical Arabic,
3. Colloquial of the educated,
4. Colloquial of the enlightened, and
5.  Colloquial of the illiterate.

Depending on the level, the speakers use different phonemes, which sometimes leads to the interchange of consonants, for example, interdental fricative ¸ to voiceless dental stop t to voiceless fricative alveolar s. Interestingly, level (a) allows only ¸ usage, with no interchanges, level (e) allows only for t, level (b) uses both ¸ and s, preferring ¸. Level (c) uses more s then ¸, while level (d) uses more t then s. This clear definition makes it possible to determine which level of language is used in a given circumstance.

Next, the author presents the model of a continuum in the Arabic language, saying there is a continuous transition between standard and Colloquial Arabic, and these two variations can be put on opposite sides of the continuum. Native speakers use variants more or less close to the final points, depending on the situation. Classical or Standard Arabic is called Arcolect, and Colloquial Arabic is named Basilect. At the same time, everything in between has the name Mesolect.

The author also notes that the presented continuum model is a dynamic linguistic system that changes depending on the community and individual choices. Factors of change include setting, topic, speakers skills in Modern Standard Arabic, speakers emotional state, participants of the discussion, the function of the discourse, and personal relationship with the audience. The author also mentions that there is a one- versus two-system approach to Arabic multiglossia. The latter supports two prototypical centers of standard and Colloquial language. On the opposite, the one-system approach supports the only ideal prototypical center of Colloquial Arabic.

References

Badawi, E. S. M. (Ed.). (1996). Understanding Arabic: essays in contemporary Arabic linguistics in honor of El-Said Badawi. American University in Cairo Press.

Hary, B. (1996). The importance of the language continuum in Arabic multiglossia. Understanding Arabic, 69-90.