Category: Linguistics 473

The denotations and connotations of the word can coincide or be absolutely different for different people. The same person would name different connotations of the same word while being in a good or bad mood. English is a polysemantic language, which means that the same word can have more than one denotative meaning. In this respect, the word line can be referred to as a mark on a surface made with a pen or pencil.

However, any mark made on a surface with some object can be referred to as a line because different figures drawn on the sand can be regarded as those consisting of multiple lines. Another denotative meaning of the word line is the equator when referring to the process of traveling and identifying the geographical position of the object, person, or location. Besides, this can be the notion defining the border or boundary or some other identification of a country, state, or another location with certain boundaries or those limited in the surface.

Direction or limitation can be defined with the word line while referring to certain directions in space when we talk about denotative meaning, whereas limitations or routine can be created in a persons mind as those referring to the word line that enables us to draw lines. Moreover, people standing one by one in a queue are also referred to as a line. In addition, the word line can concern the communication process by means of a telephone when a line means the connection.

Any limitation in some vessel referring to the level to which it is full can be distinguished with the help of the word line. The connotative meaning may be somewhat similar to the denotative meaning of the words though it can be absolutely different. In this respect, the connotative meaning of the word line should include everything that comes to your head while hearing the word line, reading it in a print text, or using it in a phrase or a word combination.

So, the first image that comes to my mind is the imaginative line that appears due to the movement of a point through this connotation coincides with one of the denotative meaning of the word line. Then, I think about a line in the text when a few lines make a paragraph. In this case, the text can be written or typed. This connotation brings me to the next meaning concerning the word line, which is very similar to the latest one and concerns the line in a song.

Another example of the connotation of the word line is related to the class of math when we studied different geometrical figures, and the first one was the point, whereas the next was the line. Moving forward, I think about the dispute that took place after classes when two boys were arguing about the length of the line. The latest thing that happened to me and can come across while recollecting the connotations of the word line is the huge queue that appeared when a fashionable store organized a great sale of their items for the half-price.

Thus, positive and negative connotations are meanings of the word associated with a certain image, bias, or situation. The word can be the same though its connotations are different due to peoples worldviews, experience, education, background, age, and other factors that can influence the number of connotations and their positivity.

Introduction

Expressing negation through conversational exchanges can serve many functions (Gönen, 2011). An actual engagement of EFL Saudi interlocutors in a conversational exchange to negate can clearly reflect their inadequate knowledge of the pragmatic functions of CDMs in spoken discourse (Lewis, 2011). The way they frequently negate, by means of either directly stating NO or affixing the word NOT to auxiliaries and modals (Min, & Yan, 2012). They do this expecting that they have successfully carried out a pragmatic contrastive function, which can in effect show how Saudi EFL learners are unaware of the various pragmatic functions of CDMs (Shanru, 2011; Williams, 2010). In Arabic there are two patterns of making opposites e.g. prefix ghair (that means non or not) (Amador-Moreno, 2012). Besides, the recurrent and limited usage of the DM No could be as some studies revealed it have a relatively narrow range of uses (Jianfeng, 2012); Lam, 2010), or explicitly concentrated on one or two uses (Karaata, Çepik & Çetin, 2012). The flexibility of English discourse necessitates that EFL learners grasp a variety of devices in expressing negation in different ways to perform various functions (Modhish, 2012). Besides, the topic will elaborate on the pragmatic functions, which CDMs can carry out, but have not, received considerable attention in the literature. It will offer a recommended approach of the ways in which the teaching of English oral discourse can develop to meet the current ongoing changes in the scope of English discourse (Btoosh & Taweel, 2011).

Research problem

There are many signals, which indicate the insufficient knowledge of the use of various pragmatic functions of CDMs in oral discourse. This shows upon engaging in a conversational exchange, where an interlocutor negates a lot of Saudi EFL learners employing a very limited number of contrastive markers, namely, no or not and sometimes but. Therefore, this proposal suggests an in-depth analysis of discourse contrastive markers. The research paper is going to answer the question of What are the key contrastive markers of oral English discourse, their pragmatic functions in oral discourse, how are they taught and how are they used by Saudi EFL learners? Providing answers for the given question is the core aim of the proposal.

Research questions

• What are the key contrastive makers of oral English discourse?
• What are the pragmatic functions of CDMs in oral discourse?
• How are CDMs taught is Saudi classrooms?
• How are Saudi EFL learners using CDMs?

Hypotheses

The inefficient instructional approach of CDMs in spoken discourse accounts for the unawareness of EFL learners about the various pragmatic functions of CDMs. As a result, learners can figure out the connective function of using different CDMs in written discourse without actual employment of various CDMs upon undertaking a conversational exchange.

Objective of the study

This study aims at investigating the pragmatic functions, of English contrastive discourse markers (CDMs). This will be in line with its teaching by teachers and learning by learners in EFL Saudi classrooms. Besides, its object is the illustration of the communicative functions of contrastive discourse markers in an attempt to illuminate a developmental approach for the current teaching methodologies of English oral discourse as used in Saudi classrooms. As such, providing answers for the above-mentioned research questions is the core aim of the proposal. However, it is necessary to indicate that there will be scrutiny of a number of objectives for the exhaustion of the research topic.

Significance of the study

The study will address an in-depth analysis of important elements of discourse such as contrastive markers. It will highlight the properties of CDMs based on naturally occurring data. The findings of my proposed research will be of a great help to both EFL teachers as well as learners in Saudi classrooms. With respect to teachers, remarkable attention will be provoked to teaching discourse for communicative purposes. Respectively, EFL Saudi learners will consider learning how to correctly interpret and relate to negative utterances in conversational exchanges, as well as establish coherent and relevant discourse to fulfill their communicate needs.

Limitation of the study

Misinterpreting the contextual uses of CDMs in oral discourse is more likely to be faced. As such, the importance of mapping the pragmatic functions of English CDMs in oral discourse arises. Literature on the same topic is also inadequate and that may not give enough room for effective exploration of the topic.

Operational definitions of terms which should define CDMs in examples

The interpretation of CDMS occurs in the statuses presented by dialect in arguments and conversations. Examples are in the form of encodes of complete messages, lexical expressions with intonations and stress. The second form occurs when S1 and S2 form a single discourse of contiguous segments. It also takes place when there is encoding of complete messages by S1 and S2. Other identification of examples occurs with placement of LE prior to the second segment. Lastly, DM signals occur in the presence or absence of semantic relationships holding discourse segments. These are significant for defines properties of DM. other than the lexical expressions, which take place between existing relationships, there are other properties identifiable within linguistic levels. These are Phonological Properties, Morphological Properties and Syntactic Properties

Methodology

There will be a thorough investigation to tap on the various pragmatic functions, which convey in spoken discourse by means of CDMs undertaken. There will be a sample of 33 freshmen students of Arab nationality. They will be randomly selected from different University departments for the Study of negation in speech. There will be 22 females and 11 males for the study. They will be placed in groups and that will create a cohesive relationship because the students will be able to select group members they can be comfortable being around during discussions. They will have group discussions from, which there will be a 200-minute audio recording. The recording of the ESL students will be transcribed for later analysis following the degree of recordings of negation. There will be presentation and analysis of samples of natural oral discourse for a number of EFL learners to ascertain the learners insufficient knowledge of the pragmatic functions of CDMs. There will also be a qualitative report of reviews of existing literature on pedagogical ways of teaching CDMs. There will be a report of findings and conclusions.

References

Amador-Moreno, C. P. (2012). A corpus-based approach to contemporary Irish writing: Ross OCarroll-Kellys use of like as a discourse marker. International Journal Of English Studies, 12(2), 19-38.

Btoosh, M. A., & Taweel, A. Q. (2011). Contrastive Rhetoric: Inflation, Verbal Voices and Polyphonic Visibility in Learners and Native Speakers Academic Writing. Asian EFL Journal, 13(3), 205-228.

Gönen, S. (2011). A Neo-Humean Analysis of Turkish Discourse Markers ama and fakat.Journal Of Graduate School Of Social Sciences, 15(1), 253-278.

Jianfeng, Z. (2012). Discourse Markers in College English Listening Instruction: An Empirical Study of Chinese Learners. English Language Teaching, 5(3), 46-61. Web.

Karaata, C., Çepik, ^., & Çetin, Y. (2012). Enhancing the Use Of Discourse Markers In Academic Writing: The Combination Of Incidental Acquisition And Explicit Instruction. Electronic Journal Of Social Sciences, 11(40), 11-29.

Lam, P. Y. (2010). Toward a functional framework for discourse particles: a comparison of well and so. Text & Talk, 30(6), 657-677. Web.

Lewis, D. M. (2011). A discourse-constructional approach to the emergence of discourse markers in English. Linguistics, 49(2), 415-443. Web.

Min, L., & Yan, X. (2012). A Comparative Study on the Use of the Discourse Marker Well by Chinese Learners of English and Native English Speakers. International Journal Of English Linguistics, 2(5), 65-71. Web.

Modhish, A. (2012). Use of Discourse Markers in the Composition Writings of Arab EFL Learners. English Language Teaching, 5(5), 56-61. Web.

Shanru, Y. (2011). Investigating Discourse Markers In Pedagogical Settings: A Literature Review. Annual Review Of Education, Communication & Language Sciences, 895-108.

Williams, I. A. (2010). Cultural differences in academic discourse: Evidence from first person verb use in the methods sections of medical research articles. International Journal Of Corpus Linguistics, 15(2), 214-239.

Introduction

Diversity and multiculturalism have become essential characteristics of modern American society. The United States has been referred to as the melting pot of cultures, religions, and ethnicities, but the current approach to language policy and multilingualism is not reflective of such a title. While the government has taken some steps to encourage foreign language proficiency among the population, they have been insufficient to meet the absolute need for a policy change. US language policies have persistently highlighted the benefits of the English-dominated curriculum, which significantly limits the potential of the educational system to address the concerns of the ever-evolving diverse environment.

Discussion

The proposed change to meet the demands of the multilingual American society is implementing a change of policy for making schools multilingual. While the choice of languages may vary from one jurisdiction to another, it is imperative to ensure that instruction is done in at least two languages. When students are embedded into a context in which speaking several languages is the norm, their opportunities for language acquisition will automatically expand, thus ensuring that more learners gain proficiency by their high school graduation. The purpose of this policy change is to make multilingualism a prerequisite to general education because of the benefits it has for cognitive development, learning success, and choice of career. The rationale for the change lies in the issue that in the US language learning context, English serves as a thread for facilitating diversity, which creates a further paradox in the practices targeted at reaching the requirements of multilingualism.

The problem of the need for more attention to multilingualism as a nationwide requirement for successful language learning stems from the reliance on English as a prerequisite for acquiring a second language. In contrast to the EU approach, the aim of which is to promote language diversity for preserving and further developing it, the American curriculum centers around the native language, which is considered international. However, for many students, English is not their first language, and their academic development is highly limited. Instead, the language curriculum in the European context implements both Communicative Language Teaching and Content- and Language-Integrated approach, thus allowing for making instruction flexible.

Among the reasons for the insufficient efforts to facilitate multilingualism in the US educational context is that the nationwide language policies still need to cater to the multicultural population of the country. Specifically, public signage is still in one language, while non-English speakers have limited access to translations and interpretation in government interactions. When there is a transformation in such public areas, it is likely that the embedding of multilingualism as a new curriculum policy change will be successful. Improving access to services in several languages will encourage cross-cultural communication, thus diversifying the social landscape in the country and laying the foundation for successful language acquisition in the school context.

There are several measurable benefits of the proposal to implement a policy change to make education multilingual in the US. On the development level, multilingualism allows individuals to adopt a flexible approach to learning and expand their mindsets with knowledge of diverse cultures, their values, as well as ideas and perspectives. The knowledge of several languages from early ages gives learners an insight into cultural differences, which promotes sympathy and mutual understanding. On the teaching level, when a class is made up of students of students belonging to various cultures, multilingualism can help teachers establish diverse environments where the exchange of varied opinions and perspectives is encouraged. When several languages are used in teaching and learning, comparisons can be drawn between the native and second languages, which increases linguistic performance, improves memory, and helps gain success on standardized tests (Heineke and Davin 621). It is beneficial to introduce multiculturalism into the educational curriculum at early stages is conducive to accelerating academic performance and closing the persistent learning gaps.

Surprisingly, the policy change can help facilitate the improved cognitive functioning of learners because of the benefits of studying different languages. As suggested by Fox et al., foreign language learning improves students cognitive flexibility and overall development (478). Such a consequence of making education a multicultural environment shows that the benefits of language learning are vast, especially since multiple-language learners perform better than their monolingual counterparts. Therefore, it is essential to abandon the outdated focus on the English-dominated curriculum that limits the opportunities for students to develop as well-rounded individuals with vast personal and professional opportunities.

Conclusion

To conclude, the current approach to language learning in the United States is such that it does not align with the dynamic and diverse nature of the countrys population. A change in policy that makes schools multilingual is a complex but highly necessary step toward meeting the needs of modern American society. While such a change entails a complete reconsideration of the existing approach and abandoning of the English-dominated curriculum that is ineffective at facilitating the expected level of multilingualism in the country. Using the experience of European countries that have been more successful at facilitating multilingualism, it is possible to revise the current policies and remove the restricting barriers.

Works Cited

Fox, Rebecca, et al. Benefits of Foreign Language Learning and Bilingualism: An Analysis of Published Empirical Research 20052011. Foreign Language Annals, vol. 52, no. 3, 2019, pp. 470-490.

Heineke, Amy J., and Kristin J. Davin. Prioritizing Multilingualism in US Schools: States Policy Journeys to Enact the Seal of Biliteracy. Educational Policy, vol. 34, no. 4, 2020, pp. 619-643.

The United States of America has gone for more than two hundred years without a designated official language. The United States is a unique country with a very diverse population. The American Community survey conducted by the Census Bureau shows that the number of minorities is increasing and that of non-Hispanic whites shrinking. The study showed that Hispanics have grown to become the largest minority group in the United States, this fact is mainly attributed to the rising number of immigrants especially from Mexico and Latin American countries. 14.5% of Americans are Hispanics while blacks stand at 12.5%. The Hispanic figure is important to the debate on English since they have the largest population of non-English speakers in the United States. Today, there are more than three hundred different languages spoken in the United States.

What is the meaning of declaring English as the official language? If English is declared the Official Language of the United States of America, all government business at any level would be carried out only in English. Such government operations include all public records, legislation,

• Exception- Unless specifically provided by statute, no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to have the Government of the United States or any of its officials or representatives act, communicate, perform or provide services, or provide materials in any language other than English. (National Language Act of, 2008)

documents, hearings, regulations, and public meetings too would be conducted in English. This does not prohibit the use of other languages for such things as judicial proceedings, public service, and the promotion of tourism. If English is made the official language of the United States, It does not disallow anyone from speaking or carrying out any other business in a tongue of his/her choice.

If an exception is made with respect to the use of a language other the English, the exception does not create a legal entitlement to additional services in that language or any language other than English. (National Language Act of, 2008)

In my view, English should be made the official language of the United States should because all Americans stand to benefit. The following is an issue that was raised by Senator Hayakawa. For the first time in our history, The United States of America is faced with the probability of having the kind of linguistic division that has divided Canada in recent years&.(Crawford 85). S.I. Hayakawa was the senator for California who introduced the constitutional English Language Amendment in 1981. He also founded U.S. English, an organization seeking to lobby English to be made the official language. Even though I do not entirely agree with Senator Hayakawa, I think his point of concern is credible and one that should be given some consideration. He was worried about political divisions along linguistic lines as is the case in Canada. Political divisions become hardened and made more difficult to work out when they are accompanied by linguistic differencesand therefore conflicts of ethnic pride (Crawford, p. 85). Presently, I think we are already witnessing divisions within the race and linguistic lineage coming into play in politics. for instance, the Overwhelming majority of African Americans and Hispanics voted for Barrack Obama in the just concluded presidential elections. This is a cause for concern since voters should not affiliate with someone merely because of his race but out of the agenda a politician has put on the table. Even though making English the official language of the United States would not automatically end such divisions, it is a positive step in that direction.

Bilingualism shuts doors. It nourishes self-made ghettos, and self-made ghettos nourish racial antagonism.(Keyser, p. 52).

A large percentage of Spanish speakers do not know how to speak English, at all. Taking into consideration that English has nevertheless been the predominantly used language in American history, such a situation is not very encouraging. Failure to learn English or the lack of knowledge of it considerably diminishes the chances of a foreign language speaker finding a good job, education among other things. And why are they called foreign languages? Simply because so far English is still widely recognized as the standard United states language. As Keyser puts it, Bilingualism facilitates concentrations of Spanish speakers to stay together and not be assimilated (Keyser, p. 52).

The end result of this is isolation and alienation for those affected. Making English the official language will in a way make foreign-language speakers improve on their efforts to learn English. Foreign language speakers and immigrants will in the end stand to benefit from such a move.

We expect those below the age of 50 seeking naturalization to show competence in English as a condition of citizenship. However, the federal government still requires that ballots be printed in other languages. This is encouraging dependency on other languages. (Shumway, p. 18)

The above scenario creates a paradox within the United States law. If some form of language competence is required when applying for citizenship, then why dont the legislators go ahead and formalize the language in the system.

Bilingualism that is valued is the elite varietyfull competency in two languages among a small percentage of people for the purpose of scholarly work, diplomacy, foreign trade, or travel (Porter, p. 90).

Bilingualism is an enviable trait if adopted by foreign-language speakers; it will not only enable them to acquire employment but also diversify their field. Though it has its difficulties as Porter notes, The bilingual education establishment is fighting to maintain its primacy and prerogative unchallenged (Porter, p. 90)

Foreign languages are useful, and we should teach more of them. But they are foreign languages, not coequals. (Wolfson, p. 45).

I think that it is useful to teach foreign languages but this should not be done at the expense of English. I also dont see why making English the official language should in any way hinder the learning of foreign languages.

Hispanic leaders do not seem to be alarmed that large numbers of Cubans, Mexicans, and Puerto Ricans who do not speak English and have no intentions of learning. (Crawford, p. 85).

The above concern was voiced by Republican senator Hayakawa. The Hispanic leadership should step up their efforts in sensitizing their people to the importance of learning English instead of opposing making the language official.

Works Cited

1. Diversity growing in nearly every state: Associated Press.
2. Hayakawa, Senator S.I. (1985). The case for official English. In J. Crawford (ed.), Language loyalties pp. 81-84
3. Keyser, L. (1986). Sea to shining sea. pp. 51-53.
4. Porter, R. P. (1990). Forked tongue: The politics of bilingual education. New York: Basic Books, Inc. pp. 87-93
5. Shumway, Representative N. (1988). Preserve the primacy of English. Language loyalties pp. 17-19
6. Wolfson, N. (1989). Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. Cambridge: Newbury House Publishers. pp. 43-47
7. Skutnabb, Kangas, T. (1991). Language, literacy and minorities. London: pp. 23-27

Purpose, Test, and Use of the IELTS

The International English Language Testing System more popularly known as IELTS is designed primarily to assess the ability of candidates who aspire to pursue their academics or job prospects in countries where English is the principal language of communication (IELTS Handbook, 2007). IELTS is recommended for individuals above the age of sixteen years and is cooperatively managed by the University of Cambridge ESOL Examination (Cambridge ESOL), the British Council, and the IDP: IELTS Australia.

The IELTS is a test for assessing language ability and has been used since 1989 to determine whether the candidates are capable in the four skills of listening, reading, writing, and speaking. The test also includes a face-to-face speaking test to ensure that candidates can communicate effectively in English and is highly popular among all those who desire to access opportunities in the study, careers, and migration throughout the English-speaking world and beyond. The IELTS is a test of communicative proficiency in English and not a test of grammar.

Due to the recognition in several countries through international partnerships, the IELTS covers all the major national varieties of the English language and is available in more than a hundred and twenty countries worldwide. The recognition of the IELTS test in more than 6000 international institutions and organizations makes it preferred and highly popular among the potential candidates.

The test is based on the four crucial language skills including listening, reading, writing and speaking and comprehensively covers all these skills, by effectively meets the high international standards of language testing (IELTS Handbook, 2007). The IELTS is recognized by several universities and organizations in English-speaking countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Europe, and the United States of America.

The IELTS assessment test is available in two different formats; the Academic format and the General Training format. The Academic Reading and Writing Tests include reading and writing assessment tests to gauge the ability of potential undergraduate and postgraduate students to train and study in organizations where the medium of instruction is English (IELTS Handbook, 2007). The tests are crucial since admissions to universities and institutions for undergraduate and postgraduate courses, is based on the results of these tests (IELTS Handbook, 2007).

The General Training Reading and writing tests are not detailed and are more broad-based with the primary intention of assessing the full range of formal language skills required for academic purposes with greater emphasis on the basic survival skills in broad social and educational context (IELTS Handbook, 2007). The General Training IELTS tests are more suitable for potential candidates aspiring to visit English speaking countries for pursuing secondary education, to gain work experience or training programs not at a degree level and for immigration purposes to Australia, Canada, and New Zealand (IELTS Handbook, 2007).

Content Validity

The validity, the level of accuracy in the measurement of a test, has been confirmed as the most crucial quality of test utility (Bachman, 1990) and examinations are said to be valid when the level of accuracy in the prediction of the grades is high (Shoemaker, 2006). Content validity is said to be the most crucial of all the validities in the assessment of the learning outcomes of the students (Shoemaker, 2006). Validity is considered to be of prime importance in standardized tests since it relates to the degree of drawing meaningful inferences from the test scores (Bachman, 1990). The validity of a test is determined by the validation process in which the candidate taking the test presents appropriate evidence in support of the conclusions made, based on the test scores (Cronbach, 1971, in Crocker & Algina, 1986).

Content validity is represented by designing the test to reflect and gauge the content that has been taught to the students (Shoemaker, 2006), and accordingly, the IELTS candidates are tested in all the crucial skills including listening, reading, writing, and speaking. The IELTS tests have been designed to apply to the full range of ability from non-user to expert user (IELTS Handbook, 2007). Accordingly, all the candidates are required to take the same Listening and speaking tests, the reading and writing tests ate different for Academic and General training purposes (IELTS Handbook, 2007).

The content validity of the IELTS assessments is enhanced by the inclusion of true-false questions, match the following and the multiple-choice questions in the form of matrix where the rows or columns are the important elements of the content and the cells represent the associated test items (Shoemaker, 2006). Additionally, the inclusion of maps, charts, and other illustrative materials for testing also serves to enhance the content validity of the IELTS. The academic reading test is completed within an hour where the students are required to read text and content from a variety of literary and non-literary works including books, journals, and newspapers which are sufficient in effectively reflecting the potential of the candidates to read diverse content.

The primary purpose of performance tests is to enable the examiners to effectively gauge how efficiently the candidates would be able to use the specified language under specific target conditions (Wesche, 1985). The IELTS accordingly includes a comprehensive writing-based test which requires the candidates to summarize in about 150 words the information gained from a chart, table or diagram so that the ability of the candidates to gauge information from important material and charts can be effectively reflected in the test. The writing test for general writing is broad-based and the candidates are expected to write a letter asking for information or explaining a situation in addition to presenting a response to a statement or question.

An important component of the validity of IELTS is the speaking test which is a face-to-face or direct conversation between the candidates and the examiner. This direct face-to-face speaking test plays a crucial role in improving the validity of the test because it promotes real tasks (Hughes, 2004).

However, Validity has been a serious cause of concern in the language testing domain, due to the diverse background of the examinees and their wide-ranging language utility. Shoemaker (2006) asserts that despite being developed by content experts, nationally standardized achievement tests may not be a good fit for what was taught in a specific course making it inappropriate to assess course learning outcomes with a standardized test refuting the traditional stand that by following established procedures, it is possible to design a format for administering and scoring a valid and reliable language performance test (Jones, 1979, p. 50).

In the listening test, candidates are expected to listen to recorded texts which are a mixture of monologues and conversations and feature a variety of English accents which may be difficult for other ESL users to understand, especially because the recording is heard only once (Shoemaker, 2006). While the IELTS test covers the reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills which are primarily based on regular and common topics which are relevant to all candidates irrespective of their nationalities, the inclusion of maps from the American cities and towns is not appropriate for the IELTS tests since these tests should be designed from a global perspective.

Reliability

Reliability is an important criterion in assessing the performance of the candidates taking a test since it is important for the test to provide consistent and replicable information regarding the ability of the candidates to use the desired language (Clark, 1975). Therefore, an assessment or test is said to be reliable when the scores attained through the test are internally consistent and similar even if the test is administered at a different time of the day (Shoemaker, 2006). The IELTS is a professionally developed standardized test of the English language which enables it to have reliability coefficients of.90 or higher as compared to teacher-made tests which have coefficients of.50 or lower (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991).

To provide consistent information about the performance of the candidate (Clark, 1975), the reliability of the IELTS test is ensured by way of multiple-choice tasks including short-answer questions, sentence completion, summary or flow-chart, labeling a diagram, matching the headings, identifying the candidates claims through simple yes/no questions, true/false questions, classification questions and matching the list and phrases questions ensure the reliability of the IELTS test. Through these tasks, the IELTS ensures the reliability of candidates performance through the two significant variables of simulation of the test tasks and the consistency of the ratings (Jones, 1979).

Nevertheless, the IELTS includes face-to-face interviews of the examiners with the candidates, necessitating disagreements between the judgments of human examiners due to the subjective interpretation, which may lead to disagreement between them (McNamara, 1996). Additionally, reliability is a serious issue when there is an inconsistency between two raters who evaluate the same test (Jones, 1979), especially in face-to-face interviews and the subjective portions of the test including the summary and paraphrasing tasks. With different administrators evaluating the test at different times and in different contexts, the potential for varying test results for the same candidate is greater in tests such as the IELTS which are conducted globally in different settings.

Scoring Method and Score Reporting

The IELTS is a criterion-referenced test (CRTs) which compares learners performance, not to other learners, but to a set of criteria of expected performance or learning targets (Cameron, 2001) and determines &what test-takers can do and what they know, not how they compare to others (Anastasi, 1988, p. 102). By the CRTs, the IELTS reports the degree of performance of the students relative to a pre-determined performance level and candidates to receive Band scores on a scale of 1 to 9. 1 score is given for each of the skills of listening, reading, writing, and speaking and these are reported in whole bands or half bands for example 6.0 or 6.5. The scores in each skill are then averaged to produce an overall band score which is between the scores 1 to 9 (IELTS Handbook, 2007). The assessment and scores are given to the candidates based on fixed criteria of

1. fluency and coherence
2. Lexical resource
3. Grammatical Range and Accuracy
4. Pronunciation.

The handbook of IELTS (2007) clearly states the band scale and enables the candidates to interpret the results without any problems. Band 9 indicates an excellent user of English and band 8 means that the user is very good. Band 7 denotes a good user while band 6 is given to a user who is competent as compared with band 5 who is a modest user. Limited use of the language is denoted by band 4 while band 3 denotes that the candidate is an extremely limited user of English. Band 2 and 1 are for candidates who are very poor and are intermittent users and nonusers respectively.

The report is comprehensive and also includes a descriptive statement that summarizes the level of English according to the band scores given to the candidates. The test report bears a stamp of validation and can be authentically verified through a Test Report Form Verification Service of the British Council, IDP: IELTS available online. The results of the IELTS test are given to the candidates within two weeks of taking the examination and are not given over the phone, fax, or email. They are sent to the candidates or to their sponsors and institutions from where the test was taken.

Impact of the test

The IELTS is an effective tool for potential students and candidates who want to look at prospects in English-speaking countries due to their recognition and affiliation with several noted bodies and institutions, all over the western world. The use of the band scale to report the performance of the candidates which is backed by a summary of the band statements relative to the band scores provides the candidates to gauge their use of the language and how these results would enable them to choose the appropriate academic or career options effectively.

For example, the IELTS handbook (UCLES 1995, 1997) distinguish the language demanding courses including the fields of Medicine, Law, Journalism, Library Studies from the courses which less demand less proficiency in English including Agriculture, Pure Mathematics, Technology, Computer-based work, Telecommunication, etc. (UCLES 1995, p.27). Universities require different levels of English proficiency for the higher language proficiency courses and the lower language proficiency courses (Huong, 2001). Huong (2001) states an example of the Melbourne University which necessitates the band of IELTS 6.5 for the undergraduate courses in all the available faculties while the fields of Architecture, Building, and Planning, Arts and Education require a band of IELTS 7.0 at the Postgraduate level. Thus, the IELTS impacts and influences the lives and career potential of candidates since their band reports play a crucial role in the acceptance of these students into the desired universities and courses. A band score of a minimum of 5.5 is often desired by many colleges and depending on the country of origin, the band may be set at 6.5 for a visa of a student in Australia. Universities and colleges all over Europe necessitate a band of 7 or 7.5 for some programs and courses and the impact of IELTS can be gauged from the fact that it is an obligatory test for attaining visa status in Australia. It should be noted that the IELTS topics maintain a balance between the sciences, social sciences, and the humanities and the tasks are varied and designed to work successfully for independent learning. The inclination toward writing and reading makes sense as in the classroom there will always be implicit learning opportunities in speaking and listening in classroom interactions.

However, Templer (2004) asserts that the IELTS has become an EFL testing condominium or cartel due to the commoditization of the language, since Never before in the planets history have so many of the poor spent so much to learn the language of the rich. Researchers lament the fact that these standardized tests have been adopted almost unquestioned as the only efficient, scientific option for an international assessment marketplace, creating a hegemonic consensus on the inevitability of it all (Mulderrig 2003).

In conclusion, it can be affirmed that the IELTS is an important tool and gateway for entry into the Western world which necessitates the knowledge of necessary language skills including reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Although the test is designed by experts in the field, there is an emphasis on the students use and ability of the language rather than the actual skill and knowledge of the candidates. I agree that communication is important and the IELTS is an excellent assessment program to judge the efficiency of candidates with their use of the English language, but I would also like to reiterate the fact that skill and knowledge are crucial aspects that are necessary for development and progress in any field. Research confirms that there are equal chances of a correlation (Elder 1993; Bellingham 1993; Broadstock 1995) and no correlation (Fiocco 1992) between the IELTS scores and their academic outcomes. The standardized tests must therefore be made into more skill-based tests which would effectively bring out the knowledge of students in their required fields.

References

Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing. New York, New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bellingham, L. (1995) Navigating choppy seas: IELTS as support for s u c c e sesd uinc ahtiigohne. r The TESOLANZ Journal, 3: 21-28.

Broadstock, H.J. (1995) The predictive validity of the IELTS and TOEFL: a comparison. Unpublished Master thesis, University of Melbourne.

Cameron, L (2001) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge University Press.

Clark, J. (1979). Direct vs. semi-direct tests of speaking ability. In E. Briere & F. Hinofotis (Eds.), Concepts in language testing: Some recent studies (pp. 35-49). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning.

Hughes, A. (1981). Conversational cloze as a measure of oral ability. English Language Teaching Journal, 35, 161-168.

Ebel, R.L., & Frisbie, D.A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Elder, C. (1993) Language proficiency as a predictor of performance in teacher education Papers in Applied Linguistics: 68-89.

Fiocco, M. (1992) English proficiency levels of students from a non-English speaking background: A study of IELTS as an indicator of tertiary success. Unpublished, Centre for International English, Curtin University of Technology.

Hughes, A (2004) Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press. P26 UCLES 2003: Cambridge Young Learners English tests handbook: Starters, Movers and Flyers. Cambridge: UCLES.

Huong, (2001). The Predictive Validity of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) Test. Faculty of Education Post-Script, Volume 2,1.

Jones, R. (1979). Performance testing of second language proficiency. In E. Briere & F. Hinofotis (Eds.), Concepts in language testing (pp. 50-57). Washington, DC: TESOL.

McNamara, T. (1996). Measuring second language performance. London: Longman.

Mulderrig, J. (2003) Consuming education: a critical discourse analysis of social actors in New Labours education policy, Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies 1 (1).

Shoemaker Judy (2006). Reliability and Validity. University of California, Irvine.

Templer, B. (2004) The European Language Portfolio in Turkey: Appropriating a Tool for Learner Empowerment from the Council of Europe, INGED Newsletter (February). UCLES (1995) The IELTS handbook.

Wesche, M. (1985). Introduction. In P. C. Hauptman, R. LeBlanc, & M. B. Wesche (Eds.), Second language performance testing (pp. 1-12). Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.

Introduction

This paper is a review of a journal by Lynne Young entitled Systemic Functional Linguistics. The need to develop language structurally to a well-understood form in recent society is vital for better interaction between individuals. The review of the SFL is considered under the following approach:

• Articulation of ideas acquired through readings the journal- the useful key sentences and phrases from the journal are adopted instead of only paraphrasing such to anchor the original works rendition;
• Acquired ideas are related to the development of a standpoint of the original work- and emphases on novel or useful ideas and familiar are highlighted.

The theme of the Systemic Functional Linguistics

The journal discusses briefly the rudiments of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) which are carved from the Prague School of Linguistics and J. R. Firths notable kinds of literature. This is followed by an explanation of the difference between SFL and the 1980 Chomskian tradition which happened shortly after a 1978 central book of Halliday. These presentations are expressed for generally understandable roots of language and communication theories (Ola, 2010). The roots of SFL would now be considered.

Roots of SFL

The roots of the SFL have been considered under four points to include viewing language as interconnection or a communicative network, viewing language as being structural and systematic with strata, considering the functionality of language to which it is purposeful and revealing, and then viewing the derivatives of the functionality of language based on the intended message for conveying by users. These are standpoints to which ideas expressed by Young & Fitzgerald (2006) are useful to context.

An in-depth look at SFL

SFL is a biaxial language describing perspective that views the external social-cultural phenomenal of the formal internal system through which the expression of the meaning of language is derived. The SFL perspective is designed to work through the interaction of people through the use of language. However, it also provides a file for analyzing a number of discussions, methodologically. SFL looks at language, theoretically, as been organized function; these functions generate and underlie the languages structure. The beam-light of the performance of task of a language at a point is influenced by the settings accrued to its use; intrinsic in this language perspective is that it both creates and realizes its cultural part. This overview of the active nature of a language brings about the theory which says that language has its nature in the evolved service of its usage.

Language then results from a continuous act of options and choices that it transpires in. It is also fashioned by varying cultural and social situations. Halliday (1994) accepts that the functional concept of language has equal usage functions and that language property is fundamental and basic to its semantic evolution.

Conclusion

This paper has looked at the main features that have structured the SFL; which are compared to the language paradigm prominent with the earlier works of Halliday. The deep evaluation of SFL encompasses vital metafunctions that makes the basic organization of language. It also shows how different matafunctions are realizable.

The view point presented by Lynne Young about SFL is acceptable since its view of language as been structural and systematic suggests that language can be developed elementally to a more acceptable and understandable form.

Reference List

Ula, G. M. (2010). Language structure and usage. Ghana: Whitmore Publishers.

Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2^nd edn, London: Edward Arnold.

Young, L., & Fitzgerald, B. (2006). The Power of Language How Discourse Influences Society. London: Equinox Publishers.

Linguistic situation in Spain is rather difficult. For many years the only official language of Spain was Castellano. Still, nowadays, there are three other languages which function on the territory of the country. The first one, Catala, is an independent language which belongs to the group of Romanic languages. It is very similar to the dialects of Northern France. The second one, Galego, is similar to the Portuguese language. The third language which is spoken on the territory of Spain is Euskara, the Basque language. The last language does not belong to the Romanic group. All four languages are recognized as Spanish administrative languages: they are spoken on radio, TV, books and newspapers are written in the languages, etc. According to the Spanish Constitution, all Spanish are obliged to know Castellano. However, all languages of Spain are recognized officially and considered to be national patrimony.

It is mistaken to think that the Catalan language is the mixture of Spanish and French languages. The origin of Catalan is Vulgar Latin. The translation of the phrase I want to eat eight apples would sound absolutely different in Spanish, French, and Catalan. The Spanish translation of the phrase: quiero comer ocho manzanas. The French translation is je veux manger huit pommes. Finally, the Catalan version of the Phrase is vull menjar vuit pomes. It is obvious that Catalan is closer to Latin than other languages. The process of singling out and development of Catalan was closely connected with the history of the Catalan nationality as an independent ethnic group. It was conditioned by different historical processes which took place on the territory of Catalan people. In the eighth century the Northern Catalonia was won from the Arab conquest by Franks. After that Catalan people were given wide rights in the aspect of self-government. By the ninth century the Franks Empire of Charles the Great was disintegrated, Catalonia became an independent Barcelonese county. In other words, during certain period Catalonia was isolated from Spain, which could not but effect development of its culture and language which was influenced by France. Another aspect which played a great role in the process of the language and nation development was early formation of statehood and nationality. By the thirteenth century Catalan developed into an independent linguistic form (Hall 27). Soon, Catalonia became a part of Spanish Kingdom. From time to time Spanish government took measures to bounds its dissemination. Nevertheless, in the nineteenth century the Catalan literary language was formed. After the civil war of 1936-1938 Catalonia became a stronghold of republicans. When the Republic was defeated the Catalan language was forbidden to use in all spheres of communication. And only when Llei 7/1983 de 18 de abril, de la normalització lingüística de Catalunya was adopted the Catalan language was recognized as the second official language of Spain (Lecours and Nootens 101).

The area of the Catalan spread includes three autonomous communities in Spain  Catalonia, the Balearic Island and Valencia  as well as the easternmost part of Aragon and few boroughs in Murcia bordering on Valencia (Hall 39). Contemporary situation with the Catalan language is rather difficult. The thing is that due to long anti-Catalan policy the language is unfamiliar for a big part of Spanish people. Comparing familiarity of Spanish with the oral form of Catalan, knowledge of the written one is below-normal. Nevertheless, about ten million people of Spain speak in Catalan.

As well as Catalan the Galician language, or Galego, was created on the basis of Vulgar Latin. Still, evolution of Galego was rather slow. Its medieval form was called by linguists Galician-Portuguese. It is difficult to admit in what period Galician-Portuguese gained features of the contemporary language. Nevertheless, by the eighth century there was an obvious difference between official Latin Church language and the language in which common people communicated. The difference between Latin and Galician-Portuguese was caused by different spheres of usage: Latin was used as a written language, and Galician-Portuguese was a spoken one, which caused the second one rapid spread. As a result by the Middle Ages it was the language of poetry and culture. Only after Portugal separated from Spain Galego developed as an independent language. It is obvious that due to the historic reasons Galego is very similar to Portuguese. For example, if we compare words with the same meanings in Portuguese, Spanish, and Galego, we would notice the phenomenon: the word for street in Galician is rua. This is the same as in Portuguese, but is very different form the Spanish word for street, calle (Faiella 43). Nowadays Galician language is spoken by more than three billion of people in Galicia and Galician communities in other parts of Spain (Madrid, Barcelona), in the USA (mainly, in Buenos Aires, Caracas, Montevideo, Habana and México) and in Europe. Besides Galicia, Galician language is also spoken on the west of El Bierzo (in the province of Leon) and in Sanabria (in the northeast of the province of Zamora) (Mar-Molinero 49-50).

Speaking about Basques history is impossible without referring to the Basque language. In fact, notions about people and language were interwoven so that Basque language does not have any special word to determine Basque nation: the word euskaldun or a Basque literally means the one, who knows Basque language. Thereby, even the name of Basques Country Euskal Herria one may translate as the Country of Basque Language. The language is a unique phenomenon for contemporary Europe. Its vocabulary is dissimilar to other languages. Though Basque contains a lot of loanwords from Latin, Spanish, French, etc., original Basque vocabulary is very rich. At the same time, many loanwords have changed so much, that one can hardly recognize their origin without help: for example, a Roman would hardly identify the contemporary Basque word poltsa (valet) as his/her native bursa (Trask 8-11, 383).

The fact, that Basque language does not have strong connections with languages of neighboring countries (except words loaning) leaded to the emergence of various hypothesis of its origin. Some linguists consider Basque to be connected with Caucasus languages due to several similarities with Georgian languages. Other researchers link the Basque with non-Arabic languages of northern Africa. Also, there is a theory that Basque language developed on its own in Country of ancient Basques.

Basque language was unwritten till the 16 century though the fact did not become an obstacle for creation of abundant folklore and verbal literature. Still, Basque competed with such powerful neighboring languages, as Castilian and French. It passed through the period of persecution, when speaking Basque was prohibited (after the Spanish Civil War 1936-1939). Basque language is considered to include seven dialects, as long as the eighths has already disappeared. Since 1964, the program of language standardization was implemented. In 1973 a new standard of the Basque language got the name united Basque  euskara batua.

In historical times, the Basque language is found occupying an area of variable extension on both sides of the Pyrenees and along the Bay of Biscay (Hualde and Urbina 7). Thereby, taking into account the threat of Indo-European invasion, it is more than possible that Basques were firstly spread over bigger area of Western Europe; at the same time, other languages might supplant Basque language in some regions (Hualde and Urbina 7). Nowadays Basques are native people of the historical area called Country of Basques, which was traditionally divided into seven provinces. Three of them are in Spain (Gipuzkoa, Biscay, and Álava) and form an Autonomous Community. The fourth, Navarre, is also autonomous nowadays. Three Northern provinces of the Basque Country (Labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule) are situated in France. In 1939 a huge part of native speakers emigrated to Argentina, Venezuela, Canada and the USA. The biggest diaspora nowadays is in the Nevada State. At present, only quarter of Basque people, who live in Basque Country, knows the language. Mostly, bilingualism is observed. At the same time, amount of native speakers is shrinking. Basque language is one of official languages of Spain part of Basque Country. Though, in French part of Basque Country it is not recognized as official (Trask 2-6).

To make a conclusion it should be pointed out that despite the fact that all three languages are recognized by Spanish government as official languages of Spain, less and less people use the in the common speech. The root of such phenomenon may be territorial separation of the languages and not active policy of the government dedicated to preserve Galego, Catalan, and Basque not only as cultural heritage, but also as languages necessary for national communities.

Works Cited

Hall, Jacqueline. Convivència in Catalonia: Languages Living Together. Barcelona: Institut dEstudis Catalans, 2001. Print.

Hualde, José Ignacio, and Urbina, Jon Ortiz. A Grammar of Basque. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003. Print.

Faiella, Graham. Spain: a Primary Source Cultural Guide. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004. Print.

Lecours, André, and Nootens, Geneviève. Dominant Nationalism, Dominant Ethnicity: Identity, Federalism, and Democracy. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009. Print.

Mar-Molinero, Clare. The Politics of Language in the Spanish-Speaking World: from Colonisation to Globalization. London: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Trask, Robert Lawrence. The History of Basque. London: Routledge, 1997. Print.

Human beings have a tendency to pursue specific hobbies that match their expectations and achievements in life. Writing is one of such pastimes and it allows individuals to think critically and improve their analytical skills. Hall identifies it as the basis upon which a persons intellect, academic success, and organizational performance could be judged (3). Those who succeed in this area will learn how to communicate with their friends and relatives effectively. Through this hobby, people can express themselves efficiently and improve their comprehension abilities. Those who take writing seriously will be able to use social media platforms more productively and consider new ways of making the society a better place (Hall 5). Consequently, they will become good thinkers and learn much faster, thereby remaining successful in their respective fields of study.

The selected hobby will guide me to identify and develop various skills that take me closer to my professional aims, such as effective decision-making and problem-solving. While writing itself might not be a persons primary career objective, it has the potential to guide individuals to lead better lives and relate with other people positively. Through such a practice, individuals can find meaning in setting deadlines and sticking to their original schedules (Hall 4). These attributes are capable of encouraging more people to collaborate and complete their tasks much faster (Darling-Hammond et al. 99). Individuals who pursue this hobby will be willing to put more effort into their current activities, identify new ways of completing additional tasks, and become more responsible. In conclusion, these attributes resonate with the key competencies that many people would want to develop, including time management, patience, and attention to details.

Works Cited

Darling-Hammond, Linda, et al. Implications for Educational Practice of the Science of Learning and Development. Applied Developmental Science, vol. 24, no. 2, 2019, pp. 97-140.

Hall, Anna H. Every Child is a Writer: Understanding the Importance of Writing in Early Childhood. Institute for Child Success, 2019.

Introduction

It is important to review the current literature in order to broaden the overall understanding of the lexical decision-making process. A study suggests that the given concept is mainly comprised of two regimes, which are high levels of competition for low frequency words and revisions for pseudowords (Barca & Pezzulo, 2015). Another research concludes that response time for non-words is strongly correlated with the number of letters and other similar factors (Yap et al., 2015). Both of these studies measured the amount of time required to complete or make the decision regarding the pseudowords, which is critical to understand the overall processing performance during the lexical decision making.

The selected writings are relevant and related to the designated experiment because they explain and support the derived hypothesis, which focuses on that non-words induce reiteration. One needs to consider these articles because they experimentally show how pseudowords make a subject reassess the word. In addition, they provide insight into the details of the non-words, such as length, letter number, syllables, and others. In a similar fashion, the designated experiment also clearly shows how pseudowords are not perceived as such immediately. The reason of it is that the brains lexical processor does not read the entire words letter by letter but rather absorbs it as both image and symbol sequence. Therefore, it is evident that a non-word can be visually and mistakenly recognized as a real one due to similarity, but a slower letter sequence processor reevaluates it as a pseudoword.

Experimental Design

• IV: the number of non-words presented, their length, similarity to real words, and syllable count.
• IV: between-subject
• DV: the time it took to evaluate the pseudoword as a non-word, and its correlational dependence of length and syllable count as well as familiarity to a real word.
• Hypothesis: a non-word reiteration process involves visual assessment, which is based on the similarity of the pseudoword to the real one, and letter sequence analysis, which rereads the word in order to make the decision.

Real-World Relevance of the Experiment

The real-world implications of the experiment can be manifested in psychology and psycholinguistics, which directly study these concepts. However, they can also be applied in the mainstream media and social media platforms because one might use the fact that a person firstly assesses the word through visual cues before reassessing it with sequential analysis. It can be used in summative and direct priming, where words are shown for a short period of time before they are reassessed sequentially. News organizations, such as CNN, Fox, and others, usually possess some form of agenda in support of a certain political party, and thus, they can utilize the given pattern of word recognition in conjunction with priming.

Presenting the news with the use of specific words, which can induce the priming process, might be used to send a message without actually writing or saying the primed elements. For example, CNN might report on the current administration by using the words that prime the viewer for other words, which were not said or written, that are associated with racism and sexism. Similarly, Fox can use lexical decision making to prime people to be wary of democrats by priming this word with negative connotations. Therefore, it is evident that one can abuse the fact that visual assessment of a non-word comes before sequential letter analysis. The familiarity and length of a pseudoword can also have a great impact on the time required to evaluate it as a real word.

References

Barca, L., & Pezzulo, G. (2015). Tracking second thoughts: Continuous and discrete revision processes during visual lexical decision. PLOS ONE, 10(2), e0116193. Web.

Yap, M. J., Sibley, D. E., Balota, D. A., Ratcliff, R., & Rueckl, J. (2015). Responding to nonwords in the lexical decision task: Insights from the English Lexicon Project. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41(3), 597613. Web.

Introduction

Of all forms of culture, it seems that language is that one which develops its fundamental patterns with relatively the most complete detachment from other types of cultural patterning. (Sapir, 1929:211)

A curious characteristic of language is its hidden meaning of the message. Hidden meaning that makes it possible for one word, or phrase, to have different meanings and uses. That is the projection of our inner personal world to the outside social world. As Marcel Danesi says, we come to understand the world through our imaginative use of language, especially as it manifests itself in the use of metaphor. (2008:14). The various contexts of the language use can be political, religious, cultural, economic, social, etc.

Main Text

The nature of language can be approached by different perspectives and motivated by different worries. Many modern and post-modern authors (like Ferdinand de Sossyr, Michael Foucault, Noam Chomsky, etc.) do believe that language is the basis for the construction of power relations in our society. Chomsky argues that there are determinate semantic relations and analytic sentences if one thinks about certain sentences that have a relational structure and involve intentional and power-building activities. As an example we take the sentence: If John persuaded Bill to go to college, then Bill went to college (1988:4). The persuasive usage of language is based on the imaginative use of language. Noam Chomsky goes further in calling this form of language not imaginative but a manipulative usage of language (1988:5).

This relationship is expressed beautifully through the notion of the metaphor. This is the classic example of what happens when language is used to express something that has no direct connection with the outside reality of the world but makes an impact on the social reality of that world. In the case of direct relationship of the user of language with the outside reality we would have a description of that reality. So the next question to ask is what is a metaphor? As J. R. Searle puts it, the metaphor is a pervasive feature of language. We use metaphor to talk about the world in both familiar and innovative ways, and in contexts ranging from everyday conversation to literature and scientific theorizing (1979:6). In speaking metaphorically we exploit the conventional meaning of the words uttered in order to undertake a speech act with a distinct propositional content. Whether an utterance is metaphorical at all, and if so, what its metaphorical content is, depend more on the speakers intentions than on the conventional meaning of the words uttered.

An account of metaphor must therefore uncover the psychological principles on which metaphor operates: what patterns of thought enable hearers to recover the speakers intended content? It is the means by which speakers intend that their hearers recover their metaphorical, propositional content. It sounds like a game and in fact it is much like playing a game, the game of our social life. It is what is used by every one of us in our daily lives. It is the mode by which we try to impose our system of beliefs, values, and norms, to the others. Of course, they try to do the same with us too. And in this the metaphor is the weapon that we use. Since ancient times it has been used to persuade people about system of ideas. Ancient philosophers understood the power of language and tried to use it in their benefit.

Conclusion

The example I want to take is the crusade on terror metaphor expressed by President George W. Bush. This metaphor was used during President Bush speech before the Congress in his State of the Union address to the nation (www.whitehouse.gov). The interpretation of this speech is, more or less, like the previous made by the Iranian President. The word crusade is understood radically differently from different communities around the globe. In Western based societies it has a positive meaning. It shows that somebody is willing to work hard in resolving, or even fighting, some bad thing. You can crusade against cancer or Aids, for example. But in Arab-Islamic based societies it has a completely different meaning. For them this word represents aggression and injustice. And this is due to the historical tradition that the word has in these societies. It is related to the crusader aggression of the 10-11 centuries. This is why the metaphor used by President Bush was understood in two very different ways in the West and in the Islamic world, even though the word that was used is the same. This is another example of the power of language and especially of its imaginative use. Imaginative use that can shape the form of relationship we build with others.

References

Boas, Franz. 1940. Race, Language and Culture. New York: MacMillan Co.

Danesi, Marcel. 2008. Language, Society, and Culture: Introducing Anthropological Linguistics. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press.

Sapir, Edward. 1949. Culture, Language and Personality. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Chomsky, Noam. 1988. Language and the problem of knowledge. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Searle, J. R. 1979. Metaphor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Phaedo by Plato. 2008. Web.